1.
Micrography
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Colored micrography is especially distinctive because these rare artworks are customarily rendered in black and white. The artwork is created from text that forms an image viewed at a distance. The Photomosaic, whose tiny individual images form a mosaic when viewed from a distance, is a modern analogue, there is a relationship between this form of art, employing both digital and analogic symbols, and the restrictions on images found in the second commandment. Micrography provides a solution to the visual artist who wishes to remain devout in observation of Jewish law, by using only text. As similar restrictions exist in certain Muslim societies, this solution has been adapted in Islamic calligraphy to the Arabic alphabet as well, MS21160 A German Pentateuch, c.1300 British Library, BL Add
2.
Microphotograph
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Microphotographs are photographs shrunk to microscopic scale – not to be confused with photomicrographs, which are photographs of microscopic things. Microphotography is the art of making such images, other applications of microphotography include espionage such as in the Hollow Nickel Case. Using the daguerreotype process, John Benjamin Dancer was one of the first to produce microphotographs and he achieved a reduction ratio of 160,1. The idea that microphotography could be no more than a novelty was an opinion shared by the 1858 Dictionary of Photography, novelty viewing devices such as Stanhopes were once a popular way to carry and view microphotographs. An important application of microphotography is in microforms
3.
Limestone
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Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
4.
Ooid
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Ooids are small, spheroidal, coated sedimentary grains, usually composed of calcium carbonate, but sometimes made up of iron- or phosphate-based minerals. Ooids usually form on the sea floor, most commonly in tropical seas. After being buried under sediment, these ooid grains can be cemented together to form a sedimentary rock called an oolite. Oolites usually consist of carbonate, these belong to the limestone rock family. Pisoids are similar to ooids, but are larger than 2 mm in diameter, often considerably larger, an ooid forms as a series of concentric layers around a nucleus. The layers contain crystals arranged radially, tangentially or randomly, the nucleus can be a shell fragment, quartz grain or any other small fragment. Most modern ooids are aragonite, a polymorph of calcium carbonate, some are composed of high-magnesium calcite, ancient ooids can be calcitic, either originally precipitated as calcite, or formed by alteration of aragonitic ooids. Moldic ooids occur in young and ancient rocks, indicating the removal of a soluble polymorph. Whether ooids become calcitic or aragonitic can be linked to strontium/calcium substitution within the crystalline structure and this has been shown in some examples to be due to temperature fluctuations in marine environments, which affects salinity levels, which in turn facilitate the substitution. Marine calcitic ooids were typically formed during calcite sea intervals, especially during the Ordovician, the geochemistry of these seas was a function of seafloor spreading and fluctuating Mg/Ca ratios. Low Mg/Ca ratios favor the precipitation of low-magnesium calcite, ooids with radial crystals grow by ions extending the lattices of the radial crystals. The mode of growth of ooids with tangential crystals is less clear and they may be accumulated in a snowball fashion from tiny crystals in the sediment or water, or they may crystallize in place on the ooid surface. Both in tangential and in radial ooids, the cortex is composed of very fine increments of growth. Some modern ooids partially or totally lack clear layering and have a micritic texture, examination of such micritic ooids by scanning electron microscopy often shows evidence of microbial borings later filled by fine cement. Flügel, Erik, Microfacies of Carbonate Rocks, Analysis, Interpretation and Application, 2nd ed. Springer, pp. 242–244
5.
Doubled die
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Doubled die is a term in numismatics used to refer to doubling in the design elements of a coin. Doubled dies can appear as an outline of the design or in cases, having legends. Doubled die error coins can fetch significant prices when they are noticeable to the eye or occur in a popular coin series. One example of this is the 1955 doubled die Lincoln Wheat cent, note that the proper terminology for this occurrence includes the letter d at the end of the first word, hence doubled die. The term double die without the first word ending in d is not proper numismatic terminology, Doubled dies are created when the hub imprints an additional, misaligned image onto a die. Class 2, Distorted A class 2 doubled die results when the design moves toward the rim between hubbings. Class 3, Design A class 3 doubled die results when a hub bearing a different design stamps a die bearing another design, class 4, Offset A class 4 doubled die results when the die receives an additional hubbing that is misaligned in an offset direction. Class 5, Pivoted A class 5 doubled die results when the die receives an additional hubbing that was misaligned via rotation with a point near the rim. Class 6, Distended A class 6 doubled die results when the die receives an additional hubbing from a hub that was distended, class 7, Modified A class 7 doubled die results when the hub is modified between the dies hubbings. Class 8, Tilted A class 8 doubled die results when a die and/or hub is tilted during a hubbing, Doubled dies are a result of the way in which in the United States Mints dies are created. Before 1997, die pairs were made by hubs that contained the raised design elements that were intended to appear on the coin, the blank dies were heated and then were pressed against the hubs to transfer the design from the hub to the working dies. One impression was not enough in case to transfer the design elements from the hub to the die. For this reason, after the first impression was made, the die was reheated and prepared for a second impression, the mint workers would use guides to align the hub and the working die perfectly to prevent overlapping, or a doubled die. It is when mint workers failed to align dies properly during this process that doubled dies were produced, in many instances three to four impressions were required, which could but rarely led to tripled and quadrupled dies. With the new die making process, implemented after 1996, dies only required one impression of the hub to all of the design from the hub to the die. But it has discovered that the pressure created is so great. Modern doubled dies in American coinage are being discovered mainly in Lincoln cents, the 2004 Peace Reverse Nickel shows doubling in the date, motto, designer initials and eyelid of Thomas Jefferson. The 2005 Bison Reverse Nickel, shows slight doubling in the word Liberty, die-deterioration doubling Coining Milled coinage Numismatic terminology Coin collecting Doubled Die Coin Pictures
6.
Photograph
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A photograph or photo is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic medium such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scenes visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the eye would see. The process and practice of creating photographs is called photography, the word photograph was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς, meaning light, and γραφή, meaning drawing, writing, together meaning drawing with light. The first permanent photograph, a copy of an engraving, was made in 1822 using the bitumen-based heliography process developed by Nicéphore Niépce. In 1829 Niépce entered into a partnership with Louis Daguerre and the two collaborated to work out a similar but more sensitive and otherwise improved process, after Niépces death in 1833, Daguerre concentrated on silver halide-based alternatives. He named this first practical process for making photographs with a camera the daguerreotype and its existence was announced to the world on 7 January 1839 but working details were not made public until 19 August. Other inventors soon made improvements which reduced the exposure time from a few minutes to a few seconds, making portrait photography truly practical. The daguerreotype had shortcomings, notably the fragility of the image surface. Each was a unique opaque positive that could only be duplicated by copying it with a camera, inventors set about working out improved processes that would be more practical. By the end of the 1850s the daguerreotype had been replaced by the expensive and more easily viewed ambrotype and tintype. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of Kodachrome and Agfacolor Neu, the first easy-to-use color films of the modern multi-layer chromogenic type, the needs of the motion picture industry generated a number of special processes and systems, perhaps the best-known being the now-obsolete three-strip Technicolor process. Non-digital photographs are produced with a chemical process. In the two-step process the film captures a negative image. To produce an image, the negative is most commonly transferred onto photographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to motion picture films. Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film, originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in color
7.
Microscope
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A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy, microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope. There are many types of microscopes, the most common is the optical microscope, which uses light to image the sample. Other major types of microscopes are the microscope, the ultramicroscope. The earliest microscopes were single lens magnifying glasses with limited magnification which date at least as far back as the wide use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century. Compound microscopes, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image, the actual inventor of the compound microscope is unknown although many claims have been made over the years. These include what may be a claim by the son of Zacharias Janssen that his father invented the microscope and telescope as early as 1590. Historians note the compound microscope did not appear in the Netherlands until the 1620s, giovanni Faber coined the name microscope for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to the Accademia dei Lincei in 1625. The first detailed account of the construction of living tissue based on the use of a microscope did not appear until 1644, in Giambattista Odiernas Locchio della mosca. It was not until the 1660s and 1670s that the microscope was used extensively for research in Italy, marcello Malpighi in Italy began the analysis of biological structures, beginning with the lungs. Robert Hookes Micrographia had an impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations. A significant contribution came from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek who achieved up to 300 times magnification using a single lens microscope. He sandwiched a very small glass ball lens between the holes in two metal plates riveted together, and with a needle attached to mount the specimen. Then, Van Leeuwenhoek re-discovered red blood cells and spermatozoa, on 9 October 1676, he reported the discovery of micro-organisms. The performance of light microscopy depends as much on how the sample is illuminated as on how it is observed, early instruments were limited until this principle was fully appreciated and developed, and until electric lamps were available as light sources. In 1893 August Köhler developed a key principle of sample illumination, Köhler illumination and this method of sample illumination produces even lighting and overcomes the limited contrast and resolution imposed by early techniques of sample illumination. In the early 20th century a significant alternative to light microscopy was developed, ernst Ruska started development of the first electron microscope in 1931 which was the transmission electron microscope. The transmission electron microscope works on the principle as an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light
8.
Magnify
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Magnification is the process of enlarging something only in appearance, not in physical size. This enlargement is quantified by a number also called magnification. When this number is less one, it refers to a reduction in size. Typically, magnification is related to scaling up visuals or images to be able to see detail, increasing resolution, using microscope, printing techniques. In all cases, the magnification of the image does not change the perspective of the image, some optical instruments provide visual aid by magnifying small or distant subjects. A magnifying glass, which uses a lens to make things look bigger by allowing the user to hold them closer to their eye. A microscope, which makes an object appear as a much larger image at a comfortable distance for viewing. A microscope is similar in layout to a telescope except that the object being viewed is close to the objective, a slide projector, which projects a large image of a small slide on a screen. Optical magnification is the ratio between the apparent size of an object and its size, and thus it is a dimensionless number. Optical magnification is sometimes referred to as power, although this can lead to confusion with optical power, for real images, such as images projected on a screen, size means a linear dimension. For optical instruments with an eyepiece, the dimension of the image seen in the eyepiece cannot be given. Strictly speaking, one should take the tangent of that angle, example, The angular size of the full moon is 0. 5°. In binoculars with 10x magnification it appears to subtend an angle of 5°, the linear magnification of a thin lens is where f is the focal length and d o is the distance from the lens to the object. Note that for real images, M is negative and the image is inverted, for virtual images, M is positive and the image is upright. The image recorded by a film or image sensor is always a real image and is usually inverted. When measuring the height of an image using the cartesian sign convention the value for hi will be negative. However, the sign convention used in photography is real is positive. Therefore in photography, Object height and distance are always real, when the focal length is positive the images height, distance and magnification are real and positive
9.
Solomon Carter Fuller
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Solomon Carter Fuller was a pioneering African-American physician and psychiatrist. Born in Monrovia, Liberia, he completed his college education and he studied psychiatry in Munich, Germany. He returned to the United States, where he worked for much of his career at Westborough State Mental Hospital in Westborough, in 1919 Fuller became part of the faculty at Boston University School of Medicine. He made significant contributions to the study of Alzheimers disease during his career and he also had a private practice as a physician, neurologist and psychiatrist. Solomon Fuller was born in Monrovia, Liberia and his father Solomon had become a coffee planter in Liberia and an official in its government. His mother, Anna Ursala James, was the daughter of physicians and his paternal grandparents, John Lewis Fuller and his wife, had been slaves in Virginia. John Fuller bought his and his enslaved wife’s freedom and they moved to the city of Norfolk, the couple emigrated from there to Liberia in 1852, a colony set up in West Africa by the American Colonization Society beginning earlier in the century. They helped establish the nation developed by African Americans and liberated African slaves and his mother set up a school to teach her son Solomon and area children. Fuller also studied at the College Preparatory School of Monrovia and he had a keen interest in medicine since his maternal grandparents were medical missionaries in Liberia. Fuller moved to the United States to study at Livingstone College in Salisbury, North Carolina, later he attended Long Island College Medical School. He completed his MD degree in 1897 from Boston University School of Medicine and it was a homeopathic institution open to students of all races and genders. He pursued further research at the clinic of the University of Munich, Germany, studying under Emil Kraepelin. Fuller spent the majority of his career practicing at Westborough State Mental Hospital in Westborough, while there, he performed ground-breaking research on the physical changes that take place in the brains of Alzheimers patients. In 1909 Fuller was a speaker at the Clark University Conference organized by G. Michelson, in 1919 he Fuller left Westborough Hospital to join the faculty at Boston University School of Medicine. He served as a professor until 1933 and he continued in private practice as a physician, neurologist and psychiatrist for many years before his death in 1953. For most of his life, Fuller lived in nearby Framingham, Massachusetts, with his wife, the Dr Solomon Carter Fuller Mental Health Center, located at 85 E Newton Street in Boston, is named after him. It forms part of the Boston Medical Center, the primary teaching affiliate for Boston University School of Medicine, in the early 1970s, the American Psychiatric Association established a Solomon Carter Fuller Award lecture at its annual meetings. Fuller Middle School, named him and his wife, a noted sculptor, is located in Framingham
10.
Optical microscope
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The optical microscope, often referred to as light microscope, is a type of microscope which uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify images of small samples. Optical microscopes are the oldest design of microscope and were invented in their present compound form in the 17th century. Basic optical microscopes can be simple, although there are many complex designs which aim to improve resolution. The image from a microscope can be captured by normal light-sensitive cameras to generate a micrograph. Originally images were captured by photographic film but modern developments in CMOS, purely digital microscopes are now available which use a CCD camera to examine a sample, showing the resulting image directly on a computer screen without the need for eyepieces. Alternatives to optical microscopy which do not use visible light include scanning electron microscopy, there are two basic types of optical microscopes, simple microscopes and compound microscopes. A simple microscope is one which uses a lens for magnification. A compound microscope uses several lenses to enhance the magnification of an object, the vast majority of modern research microscopes are compound microscopes while some cheaper commercial digital microscopes are simple single lens microscopes. Compound microscopes can be divided into a variety of other types of microscopes which differ in their optical configurations, cost. A simple microscope uses a lens or set of lenses to enlarge an object through angular magnification alone, the use of a single convex lens or groups of lenses are still found in simple magnification devices such as the magnifying glass, loupes, and eyepieces for telescopes and microscopes. A compound microscope uses a close to the object being viewed to collect light which focuses a real image of the object inside the microscope. That image is magnified by a second lens or group of lenses that gives the viewer an enlarged inverted virtual image of the object. The use of a compound objective/eyepiece combination allows for higher magnification. Common compound microscopes often feature exchangeable objective lenses, allowing the user to quickly adjust the magnification, a compound microscope also enables more advanced illumination setups, such as phase contrast. There are many variants of the optical microscope design for specialized purposes. Comparison microscope, which has two light paths allowing direct comparison of two samples via one image in each eye. Inverted microscope, for studying samples from below, useful for cell cultures in liquid, student microscope, designed for low cost, durability, and ease of use. Polarizing microscope, similar to the petrographic microscope, phase contrast microscope, which applies the phase contrast illumination method
11.
Camera
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Thumb|A2016 Nikon D810 A camera is an optical instrument for recording or capturing images, which may be stored locally, transmitted to another location, or both. The images may be individual still photographs or sequences of images constituting videos or movies, the camera is a remote sensing device as it senses subjects without physical contact. The word camera comes from camera obscura, which means dark chamber and is the Latin name of the device for projecting an image of external reality onto a flat surface. The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura, the functioning of the camera is very similar to the functioning of the human eye. A camera may work with the light of the spectrum or with other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A still camera is a device which creates a single image of an object or scene. All cameras use the basic design, light enters an enclosed box through a converging lens/convex lens. A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light can enter the camera, a display, often a liquid crystal display, permits the user to view scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed. A movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved, the forerunner to the photographic camera was the camera obscura. The oldest known record of this principle is a description by Han Chinese philosopher Mozi, Mozi correctly asserted that the camera obscura image is inverted because light travels in straight lines from its source. In the 11th century Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham s wrote very influential essays about experiments with light through an opening in a darkened room. The use of a lens in the opening of a wall or closed window shutter of a room to project images used as a drawing aid has been traced back to circa 1550. Since the late 17th century portable camera obscura devices in tents, before the development of the photographic camera, it had been known for hundreds of years that some substances, such as silver salts, darkened when exposed to sunlight. The first person to use this chemistry to create images was Thomas Wedgwood, to create images, Wedgwood placed items, such as leaves and insect wings, on ceramic pots coated with silver nitrate, and exposed the set-up to light. These images werent permanent, however, as Wedgwood didnt employ a fixing mechanism and he ultimately failed at his goal of using the process to create fixed images created by a camera obscura. The first permanent photograph of an image was made in 1826 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles. Niépce had been experimenting with ways to fix the images of a camera obscura since 1816, the photograph Niépce succeeded in creating shows the view from his window
12.
Magnification
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Magnification is the process of enlarging something only in appearance, not in physical size. This enlargement is quantified by a number also called magnification. When this number is less one, it refers to a reduction in size. Typically, magnification is related to scaling up visuals or images to be able to see detail, increasing resolution, using microscope, printing techniques. In all cases, the magnification of the image does not change the perspective of the image, some optical instruments provide visual aid by magnifying small or distant subjects. A magnifying glass, which uses a lens to make things look bigger by allowing the user to hold them closer to their eye. A microscope, which makes an object appear as a much larger image at a comfortable distance for viewing. A microscope is similar in layout to a telescope except that the object being viewed is close to the objective, a slide projector, which projects a large image of a small slide on a screen. Optical magnification is the ratio between the apparent size of an object and its size, and thus it is a dimensionless number. Optical magnification is sometimes referred to as power, although this can lead to confusion with optical power, for real images, such as images projected on a screen, size means a linear dimension. For optical instruments with an eyepiece, the dimension of the image seen in the eyepiece cannot be given. Strictly speaking, one should take the tangent of that angle, example, The angular size of the full moon is 0. 5°. In binoculars with 10x magnification it appears to subtend an angle of 5°, the linear magnification of a thin lens is where f is the focal length and d o is the distance from the lens to the object. Note that for real images, M is negative and the image is inverted, for virtual images, M is positive and the image is upright. The image recorded by a film or image sensor is always a real image and is usually inverted. When measuring the height of an image using the cartesian sign convention the value for hi will be negative. However, the sign convention used in photography is real is positive. Therefore in photography, Object height and distance are always real, when the focal length is positive the images height, distance and magnification are real and positive
13.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
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Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh is an award granted to individuals that the Royal Society of Edinburgh judges to be eminently distinguished in their subject. Around 50 new fellows are elected each year in March, as of 2016 there are around 1650 Fellows, including 71 Honorary Fellows and 76 Corresponding Fellows. Fellows are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRSE, examples of fellows include Peter Higgs and Jocelyn Bell Burnell. Previous fellows have included Melvin Calvin and Benjamin Franklin, see the Category, Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for more examples
14.
Roman Vishniac
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Roman Vishniac was a Russian-American photographer, best known for capturing on film the culture of Jews in Central and Eastern Europe before the Holocaust. A major archive of his work now rests at the International Center of Photography, Vishniac was a versatile photographer, an accomplished biologist, an art collector and teacher of art history. He also made significant scientific contributions to photomicroscopy and time-lapse photography, Vishniac was very interested in history, especially that of his ancestors, and strongly attached to his Jewish roots, he was a Zionist later in life. Roman Vishniac won international acclaim for his photos of shtetlach and Jewish ghettos, celebrity portraits and his book A Vanished World, published in 1983, made him famous and is one of the most detailed pictorial documentations of Jewish culture in Eastern Europe in the 1930s. Vishniac was also remembered for his humanism and respect for life, in August 2014, the International Center for Photography in New York City announced that 9,000 of Vishniacs photos, many never printed or published before, would be posted in an online database. Vishniac was born in his grandparents dacha outside Saint Petersburg, in the town of Pavlovsk, Vishniac also had a sister, Katja. During the summer months, the Vishniac family left Moscow, as it became uncomfortably hot, as a child, Vishniac was fascinated by biology and photography, and his room was filled with plants, insects, fish and small animals. On his seventh birthday, he got a microscope from his grandmother, to which he hooked up a camera. Young Vishniac used this extensively, viewing and photographing everything he could find, from dead insects to animal scales, to pollen. Until the age of ten, Vishniac was homeschooled, from ten to seventeen, beginning in 1914, he spent six years at Shanyavsky Institute in Moscow. At the Institute he studied zoology, as a graduate student, he worked with prestigious biologist Nikolai Koltzoff, experimenting with inducing metamorphosis in axolotl, a species of aquatic salamander. While his experiments were a success, Vishniac was not able to publish a paper detailing his findings due to the chaos in Russia, in spite of this, he went on to take a three-year course in medicine. In 1918, Vishniacs immediate family moved to Berlin because of anti-Semitism spurred by uprisings against the Bolsheviks, Roman followed them and, shortly after arriving, married Luta Bagg, who gave birth to two children, Mara and Wolf. In his free time, he studied Far Eastern Art at the University of Berlin, Vishniac researched endocrinology and optics, and did some photography. In Berlin, he initiated his public speaking career by joining the Salamander Club. Vishniac developed and printed these pictures in his room in his Berlin apartment. Further trips to Eastern Europe were undertaken between 1935 and 1938, again at the behest of the JDC, Vishniac used both a Leica and a Rolleiflex camera in his photography. In 1939, his wife and children moved to Sweden to stay with Lutas parents and he met his parents in Nice that summer
15.
USB microscope
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A USB microscope is a low-powered digital microscope which connects to a computer, normally via a USB port. They are widely available at low cost for use at home or in commerce and their cost varies in the range of tens to thousands of dollars. In essence, USB microscopes are a webcam with a macro lens and generally do not use transmitted light. The light reflected from the sample then enters the camera lens, however, the camera is usually sensitive enough not to need additional lighting. As the camera directly to the USB port of a computer, eyepieces are not required. They usually offer modest magnifications without the need to use eyepieces at very low cost, at least compared to conventional stereomicroscopes for example. The quality of the image depends on the camera capacity or megapixels available with the system, varying from 1.3 MP,2 MP,5 MP and upwards, as well as operator skill. Both still images and videos can be recorded on most systems, the capacity of most USB microscopes is similar to that of most camera phones of about 2 megapixels. Images can be recorded and stored similar to a webcam on the computer, the camera is usually fitted with a light source, although extra sources can be used to highlight features of interest in the object. They generally offer a large depth of field and a range of magnification when examining the file on the computer. The camera is so sensitive that it will work without the need for any extra light source. Their use is similar to that of a reflection optical microscope or a stereo microscope. USB microscopes offer the advantage of being less bulky than a conventional stereo microscope. They are also useful in examining large items in situ where use of a conventional microscope would be difficult, simple ways in which the microscope can be used is a comparison of salt crystals, such as sea salt and table salt. A common millimeter scale at the tops of the show the smaller size of the cubic table salt crystals. The good depth of field available is shown by USB micrographs of a Salvia officinalis or Sage leaf, such devices are useful in Forensic engineering where large fracture surfaces need direct examination, an application where conventional light microscopes are restricted in use. They are normally handheld for this application, but can also be mounted in a small stand), USB microscopes are also being used in crime scene investigation units. Many USB microscopes can view objects from a distance, allowing sensitive crime scene evidence to be investigated without actually contaminating the evidence in any way
16.
Electron microscope
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An electron microscope is a microscope that uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination. Transmission electron microscopes use electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses to control the electron beam and these electron optical lenses are analogous to the glass lenses of an optical light microscope. Industrially, electron microscopes are used for quality control and failure analysis. Modern electron microscopes produce electron micrographs using specialized digital cameras and frame grabbers to capture the image, the first electromagnetic lens was developed in 1926 by Hans Busch. According to Dennis Gabor, the physicist Leó Szilárd tried in 1928 to convince Busch to build an electron microscope, two years later, in 1933, Ruska built an electron microscope that exceeded the resolution attainable with an optical microscope. Moreover, Reinhold Rudenberg, the director of Siemens-Schuckertwerke, obtained the patent for the electron microscope in May 1931. In 1932, Ernst Lubcke of Siemens & Halske built and obtained images from an electron microscope. Five years later, the firm financed the work of Ernst Ruska and Bodo von Borries, also in 1937, Manfred von Ardenne pioneered the scanning electron microscope. The first commercial electron microscope was produced in 1938 by Siemens, although contemporary transmission electron microscopes are capable of two million-power magnification, as scientific instruments, they remain based upon Ruska’s prototype. The original form of electron microscope, the electron microscope uses a high voltage electron beam to illuminate the specimen. The electron beam is produced by a gun, commonly fitted with a tungsten filament cathode as the electron source. When it emerges from the specimen, the electron beam carries information about the structure of the specimen that is magnified by the lens system of the microscope. The image detected by the camera may be displayed on a monitor or computer. The resolution of TEMs is limited primarily by spherical aberration, but a new generation of aberration correctors have been able to partially overcome spherical aberration to increase resolution. The ability to determine the positions of atoms within materials has made the HRTEM an important tool for nano-technologies research, transmission electron microscopes are often used in electron diffraction mode. The major disadvantage of the electron microscope is the need for extremely thin sections of the specimens. Biological specimens are required to be chemically fixed, dehydrated and embedded in a polymer resin to stabilize them sufficiently to allow ultrathin sectioning. Sections of biological specimens, organic polymers and similar materials may require treatment with heavy atom labels in order to achieve the required image contrast
17.
Robert Hooke
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Robert Hooke FRS was an English natural philosopher, architect and polymath. Allan Chapman has characterised him as Englands Leonardo, Robert Gunthers Early Science in Oxford, a history of science in Oxford during the Protectorate, Restoration and Age of Enlightenment, devotes five of its fourteen volumes to Hooke. Hooke studied at Wadham College, Oxford during the Protectorate where he became one of a tightly knit group of ardent Royalists led by John Wilkins. Here he was employed as an assistant to Thomas Willis and to Robert Boyle and he built some of the earliest Gregorian telescopes and observed the rotations of Mars and Jupiter. In 1665 he inspired the use of microscopes for scientific exploration with his book, based on his microscopic observations of fossils, Hooke was an early proponent of biological evolution. Much of Hookes scientific work was conducted in his capacity as curator of experiments of the Royal Society, much of what is known of Hookes early life comes from an autobiography that he commenced in 1696 but never completed. Richard Waller mentions it in his introduction to The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke, the work of Waller, along with John Wards Lives of the Gresham Professors and John Aubreys Brief Lives, form the major near-contemporaneous biographical accounts of Hooke. Robert Hooke was born in 1635 in Freshwater on the Isle of Wight to John Hooke, Robert was the last of four children, two boys and two girls, and there was an age difference of seven years between him and the next youngest. Their father John was a Church of England priest, the curate of Freshwaters Church of All Saints, Robert Hooke was expected to succeed in his education and join the Church. John Hooke also was in charge of a school, and so was able to teach Robert. He was a Royalist and almost certainly a member of a group who went to pay their respects to Charles I when he escaped to the Isle of Wight, Robert, too, grew up to be a staunch monarchist. As a youth, Robert Hooke was fascinated by observation, mechanical works and he dismantled a brass clock and built a wooden replica that, by all accounts, worked well enough, and he learned to draw, making his own materials from coal, chalk and ruddle. Hooke quickly mastered Latin and Greek, made study of Hebrew. Here, too, he embarked on his study of mechanics. It appears that Hooke was one of a group of students whom Busby educated in parallel to the work of the school. Contemporary accounts say he was not much seen in the school, in 1653, Hooke secured a choristers place at Christ Church, Oxford. He was employed as an assistant to Dr Thomas Willis. There he met the natural philosopher Robert Boyle, and gained employment as his assistant from about 1655 to 1662, constructing, operating and he did not take his Master of Arts until 1662 or 1663
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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
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Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek was a Dutch businessman, scientist, and one of the notable representatives in the golden age of Dutch science and technology. A largely self-taught man in science, he is known as the Father of Microbiology. Van Leeuwenhoek is best known for his work in the field of microscopy. Raised in Delft, in the Dutch Republic, Van Leeuwenhoek worked as a draper in his youth and he made a name for himself in municipal politics, and eventually developed an interest in lensmaking. Using his handcrafted microscopes, he was the first to observe and describe microorganisms, most of the animalcules are now referred to as unicellular organisms, though he observed multicellular organisms in pond water. He was also the first to document microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa, Van Leeuwenhoek did not write any books, his discoveries came to light through correspondence with the Royal Society, which published his letters. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was born in Delft, Dutch Republic, on 24 October 1632, on 4 November, he was baptized as Thonis. His father, Philips Antonisz van Leeuwenhoek, was a maker who died when Antonie was only five years old. His mother, Margaretha, came from a well-to-do brewers family, and remarried Jacob Jansz Molijn, Antonie had four older sisters, Margriet, Geertruyt, Neeltje, and Catharina. When he was ten years old his step-father died. He attended school in Warmond for a time before being sent to live in Benthuizen with his uncle. At the age of 16 he became an apprentice at a linen-drapers shop in Amsterdam owned by the Scot William Davidson. Van Leeuwenhoek left after six years, Van Leeuwenhoek married Barbara de Mey in July 1654, with whom he would have one surviving daughter, Maria. That same year he returned to Delft, where he would live and he opened a drapers shop, which he ran throughout the 1650s. His wife died in 1666, and in 1671, Van Leeuwenhoek remarried to Cornelia Swalmius with whom he had no children and his status in Delft had grown throughout the years. In 1660 he received a job as chamberlain for the Delft sheriffs assembly chamber in the City Hall. Van Leeuwenhoek was a contemporary of another famous Delft citizen, the painter Johannes Vermeer and it has been suggested that he is the man portrayed in two of Vermeers paintings of the late 1660s, The Astronomer and The Geographer. However, others argue that there appears to be little physical similarity, while running his drapers shop, Van Leeuwenhoek wanted to see the quality of the thread better than the then-current magnifying lenses available allowed
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History of photography
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In the mid-1820s, Nicéphore Niépce succeeded, but several days of exposure in the camera were required and the earliest results were very crude. Niépces associate Louis Daguerre went on to develop the daguerreotype process, the daguerreotype required only minutes of exposure in the camera, and produced clear, finely detailed results. It was commercially introduced in 1839, a generally accepted as the birth year of practical photography. The metal-based daguerreotype process soon had some competition from the paper-based calotype negative, subsequent innovations made photography easier and more versatile. In the mid-20th century, developments made it possible for amateurs to take pictures in color as well as in black-and-white. The commercial introduction of computer-based electronic digital cameras in the 1990s soon revolutionized photography, the coining of the word photography is usually attributed to Sir John Herschel in 1839. It is based on the Greek φῶς, meaning light, and γραφή, meaning drawing, writing, Photography is the result of combining several different technical discoveries. Long before the first photographs were made, Greek mathematicians Aristotle, daniel Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1568. Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694, the novel Giphantie described what could be interpreted as photography. In 1614, Angelo Sala demonstrated that silver nitrate is blackened by the sun. This discovery of the effect on powdered silver nitrate was not supported and was subsequently disregarded by then-respected scientists who said that his discovery had no practical application. But what he noticed and found to be strange was that part of it remained white and he then observed a cord hanging down and going across in front of the window, which he found out to be the cause. On further examination, he found that the entire mixture inevitably reverted to its white color. Experimenting further, Schulze succeeded in transferring words he pasted on the bottle printed into the substance. ”He put the silver nitrate in an oven and this proved to him, definitively, that heat had not facilitated the transformation, as popularly suspected. Of greater potential usefulness, Scheele found that ammonia dissolved the silver chloride and this discovery, which could have been used to stabilize or fix a camera image captured with silver chloride, was little-noticed at the time and unknown to the earliest photography experimenters. It was not until around the year 1800 that Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over because o attempts that have made to prevent the uncoloured part of the copy or profile from being acted upon by light have as yet been successful. Wedgwood may have abandoned his experiments due to frail and failing health
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Amoeba
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An amoeba, often called amoeboid, is a type of cell or organism which has the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods. Amoebas do not form a taxonomic group, instead, they are found in every major lineage of eukaryotic organisms. Amoeboid cells occur not only among the protozoa, but also in fungi, algae, microbiologists often use the terms amoeboid and amoeba interchangeably for any organism that exhibits amoeboid movement. In older classification systems, most amoebas were placed in the class or subphylum Sarcodina, however, molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that Sarcodina is not a monophyletic group whose members share common descent. Consequently, amoeboid organisms are no longer classified together in one group, the best known amoeboid protists are the Giant Amoebae Chaos carolinense and Amoeba proteus, both of which are widely cultivated and studied in classrooms and laboratories. Amoebae move and feed by using pseudopods, which are bulges of cytoplasm formed by the action of actin microfilaments pushing out the plasma membrane that surrounds the cell. The appearance and internal structure of pseudopods are used to distinguish groups of amoebae from one another, amoebozoan species, such as those in the genus Amoeba, typically have bulbous pseudopods, rounded at the ends and roughly tubular in cross-section. Cercozoan amoeboids, such as Euglypha and Gromia, have slender, foraminifera emit fine, branching pseudopods that merge with one another to form net-like structures. Some groups, such as the Radiolaria and Heliozoa, have stiff, needle-like, free-living amoebae may be testate, or naked. The shells of testate amoebae may be composed of substances, including calcium, silica, chitin, or agglutinations of found materials like small grains of sand. To regulate osmotic pressure, most freshwater amoebae have a contractile vacuole which expels excess water from the cell and this organelle is necessary because freshwater has a lower concentration of solutes than the amoebas own internal fluids. Because the surrounding water is hypotonic with respect to the contents of the cell, without a contractile vacuole, the cell would fill with excess water and, eventually, burst. Marine amoebae do not usually possess a contractile vacuole, because the concentration of solutes within the cell are in balance with the tonicity of the surrounding water, the food sources of amoebae vary. Some amoebae are predatory and live by consuming bacteria and other protists, Some are detritivores and eat dead organic material. Amoebae typically ingest their food by phagocytosis, extending pseudopods to encircle, Amoeboid cells do not have a mouth or cytostome, and there is no fixed place on the cell at which phagocytosis normally occurs. Some amoebae also feed by pinocytosis, imbibing dissolved nutrients through vesicles formed within the cell membrane, the size of amoeboid cells and species is extremely variable. The marine amoeboid Massisteria voersi is just 2.3 to 3 micrometres in diameter, at the other extreme, the shells of deep-sea xenophyophores can attain 20 cm in diameter. Some multicellular organisms have amoeboid cells only in certain phases of life, in the immune system of humans and other animals, amoeboid white blood cells pursue invading organisms, such as bacteria and pathogenic protists, and engulf them by phagocytosis
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Wilson Bentley
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Wilson Alwyn Snowflake Bentley is one of the first known photographers of snowflakes. He perfected a process of catching flakes on black velvet in such a way that their images could be captured before they either melted or sublimated, the broadest collection of Bentleys photographs is held by the Jericho Historical Society in his home town, Jericho, Vermont. Bentley donated his collection of original glass-plate photomicrographs of snow crystals to the Buffalo Museum of Science, a portion of this collection has been digitized and organized into a digital library. Bentley was born on February 9,1865, in Jericho and he first became interested in snow crystals as a teenager on his family farm. He tried to draw what he saw through an old microscope given to him by his mother when he was fifteen and he would capture more than 5,000 images of crystals in his lifetime. Each crystal was caught on a blackboard and transferred rapidly to a microscope slide, even at subzero temperatures, snowflakes are ephemeral because they sublime. Bentley poetically described snowflakes as tiny miracles of beauty and snow crystals as ice flowers, despite these poetic descriptions, Bentley brought a highly objective eye to his work, similar to the German photographer Karl Blossfeldt, who photographed seeds, seed pods, and foliage. In collaboration with George Henry Perkins, professor of history at the University of Vermont. This concept caught the imagination and he published other articles in magazines, including National Geographic, Nature, Popular Science. His photographs have been requested by academic institutions worldwide, in 1931 Bentley worked with William J. Humphreys of the U. S. Weather Bureau to publish Snow Crystals, a monograph illustrated with 2,500 photographs. His other publications include the entry on snow in the edition of Encyclopædia Britannica. Bentley also photographed all forms of ice and natural water formations including clouds and he was the first American to record raindrop sizes and was one of the first cloud physicists. He died of pneumonia at his farm on December 23,1931, Bentley was memorialized in the naming of a science center in his memory at Johnson State College in Johnson, Vermont. Shortly before his death, his book Snow Crystals was published by McGraw-Hill and is still in print today, Bentleys lifelong home is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The Caldecott Medal winner in 1999 for the childrens book was Snowflake Bentley. Patterns in nature Ukichiro Nakaya Thompson, Jean M. Illustrated by Bentley, water Wonders Every Child Should Know Bentley, Wilson A. The Guide to Nature Bentley, Wilson A, the Magic Beauty of Snow and Dew, National Geographic Bentley, Wilson A. Humphreys, William J. Snow Crystals Bentley, Wilson A. Snow, Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol.20 Knight, N. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 69,496 Blanchard, Duncan, the Snowflake Man, A Biography of Wilson A. Bentley, ISBN 0-939923-71-8
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Scanning electron microscope
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A scanning electron microscope is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that contain information about the surface topography. The electron beam is scanned in a raster scan pattern. SEM can achieve better than 1 nanometer. Specimens can be observed in vacuum, in low vacuum, in wet conditions. The most common SEM mode is detection of electrons emitted by atoms excited by the electron beam. The number of electrons that can be detected depends, among other things. By scanning the sample and collecting the electrons that are emitted using a special detector. An account of the history of SEM has been presented by McMullan. Ardenne applied the principle not only to achieve magnification but also to purposefully eliminate the chromatic aberration otherwise inherent in the electron microscope. He further discussed the various modes, possibilities and theory of SEM. The types of produced by an SEM include secondary electrons, reflected or back-scattered electrons, photons of characteristic X-rays and light, absorbed current. Secondary electron detectors are standard equipment in all SEMs, but it is rare that a machine would have detectors for all other possible signals. The signals result from interactions of the beam with atoms at various depths within the sample. In the most common or standard detection mode, ie secondary electron imaging or SEI, consequently, SEM can produce very high-resolution images of a sample surface, revealing details less than 1 nm in size. Back-scattered electrons are beam electrons that are reflected from the sample by elastic scattering and they emerge from deeper locations within the specimen and consequently the resolution of BSE images is generally poorer than SE images. BSE images can provide information about the distribution of different elements in the sample, characteristic X-rays are emitted when the electron beam removes an inner shell electron from the sample, causing a higher-energy electron to fill the shell and release energy. These characteristic X-rays are used to identify the composition and measure the abundance of elements in the sample, due to the very narrow electron beam, SEM micrographs have a large depth of field yielding a characteristic three-dimensional appearance useful for understanding the surface structure of a sample
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Close-up
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A close-up or closeup in filmmaking, television production, still photography and the comic strip medium is a type of shot, which tightly frames a person or an object. Close-ups are one of the shots used regularly with medium shots. Close-ups display the most detail, but they do not include the broader scene, moving in to a close-up or away from a close-up is a common type of zooming. Most early filmmakers—such as Thomas Edison, Auguste and Louis Lumière and Georges Méliès—tended not to use close-ups and preferred to frame their subjects in long shots, film historians disagree as to which filmmaker first used a close-up. In 1901, James Williamson, also working in Hove, made perhaps the most extreme close-up of all in The Big Swallow, when his character approaches the camera and appears to swallow it. D. W. Griffith, who pioneered screen cinematographic techniques, for example, one of Griffiths short films, The Lonedale Operator, makes significant use of a close-up of a wrench that a character pretends is a gun. Lillian Gish remarked on Griffiths pioneering use of the close-up, The people in the front office got very upset and they came down and said, The public doesn’t pay for the head or the arms or the shoulders of the actor. Let’s give them their money’s worth. ’ Griffith stood very close to them and said, ‘Can you see my feet. ’ When they said no, he replied, I am using what the eyes can see. Close-ups are used in ways and for many reasons. They are often employed as cutaways from a distant shot to show detail, such as characters emotions. Close cuts to characters faces are used far more often in television than in movies, for a director to deliberately avoid close-ups may create in the audience an emotional distance from the subject matter. Close-ups are used for distinguishing main characters, major characters are often given a close-up when they are introduced as a way of indicating their importance. Leading characters will have multiple close-ups, there is a long-standing stereotype of insecure actors desiring a close-up at every opportunity and counting the number of close-ups they received. Close-up shots do not show the subject in the context of its surroundings. If overused, they may leave viewers uncertain as to what they are seeing, Close-ups are rarely done with wide-angle lenses, because perspective causes objects in the center of the picture to be unnaturally enlarged. Certain times, different directors will use wide-angle lenses, because they can convey the message of confusion, there are various degrees of close-up depending on how tight the shot is. The terminology varies between countries and even different companies, but in general these are, Medium Close Up, usually covers the subjects head and shoulders. Close Up, A certain feature, such as someones head, extreme Close Up, The shot is so tight that only a detail of the subject, such as someones eyes, can be seen
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Digital microscope
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A digital microscope is a variation of a traditional optical microscope that uses optics and a digital camera to output an image to a monitor, sometimes by means of software running on a computer. A digital microscope often has its own in-built LED light source, since the image is focussed on the digital circuit the entire system is designed for the monitor image. The optics for the eye are omitted. The low price commercial microscopes normally omit the optics for illumination and are akin to webcams with a macro lens. For information about stereo microscopes with a camera in research and development. An early digital microscope was made by a company in Tokyo, Japan in 1986. It included a box and a lens connected to a computer. The original connection to the computer was analog through an S-video connection, over time that connection was changed to Firewire 800 to handle the large amount of digital information coming from the digital camera. But some of their current advanced versions are all-in-one and do not require a computer, the most advanced all-in-one systems now have HD monitors built-in. Invention of the USB port resulted in a multitude of USB microscopes ranging in quality and they continue to fall in price, especially compared with traditional optical microscopes. They offer high resolution images which are normally recorded directly to a computer, the resolution is directly related to the number of megapixels available on a specific model, from 1.3 MP,2 MP,5 MP and upwards. A primary difference between a stereo microscope and a microscope is the magnification. With a stereo microscope the magnification is found by multiplying the lens magnification by the eyepiece magnification, since the digital microscope does not have an eyepiece, the magnification cannot be found using this method. Instead the magnification for a microscope is found by how many times larger the sample is reproduced on the monitor. Therefore, the magnification will depend on the size of the monitor, the average digital microscope system, which has a 15 monitor, would result in an average difference in magnification between an optical microscope and a digital microscope of about 40%. Thus the magnification number of a microscope is usually 40% less than the magnification number of a digital microscope. Since the digital microscope has the image projected directly on to the CCD camera, with the stereo microscope, the lenses are made for the optics of the eye. Attaching a CCD camera to a stereo microscope will result in an image that has made for the eyepiece
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Macro photography
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Macro photography, is extreme close-up photography, usually of very small subjects and living organisms like insects, in which the size of the subject in the photograph is greater than life size. By some definitions, a photograph is one in which the size of the subject on the negative or image sensor is life size or greater. However, in other uses it refers to a photograph of a subject at greater than life size. The ratio of the size on the film plane to the actual subject size is known as the reproduction ratio. Likewise, a lens is classically a lens capable of reproduction ratios of at least 1,1, although it often refers to any lens with a large reproduction ratio. For example, when producing a 6×4 inch print using 35 format film or sensor, reproduction ratios much greater than 1,1 are considered to be photomicrography, often achieved with digital microscope. In the digital age, a macro photograph can be more practically defined as a photograph with a vertical subject height of 24 mm or less. The term photo-macrograph was proposed in 1899 by W. H. Walmsley for close-up images with less than 10 diameters magnification, one of the earliest pioneers of macro photography was Percy Smith, born in 1880. He was a British nature documentary filmmaker, and was known for his close-up photographs, Macro lenses specifically designed for close-up work, with a long barrel for close focusing and optimized for high reproduction ratios, are one of the most common tools for macro photography. Most modern macro lenses can focus continuously to infinity as well, others, such as the Infinity Photo-Opticals TS-160 can achieve magnifications from 0-18x on sensor, focusing from infinity down to 18 mm from the object. The further the lens is from the film or sensor, the closer the distance, the greater the magnification. Tubes of various lengths can be stacked, decreasing lens-to-subject distance, bellows or tubes eliminate infinity focus. Placing an auxiliary close-up lens in front of the lens is another option. Inexpensive screw-in or slip-on attachments provide close focusing and this method works with cameras that have fixed lenses, and is commonly used with bridge cameras. These lenses add diopters to the power of the lens, decreasing the minimum focusing distance. They are typically designated by their diopter, and can be stacked to achieve the desired magnification, photographers may employ view camera movements and the Scheimpflug principle to place an object close to the lens in focus, while maintaining selective background focus. This technique requires the use of a camera or perspective control lens with the ability to tilt the lens with respect to the film or sensor plane. Traditional view cameras permit such adjustment as part of their design, ordinary lenses can be used for macro photography by using a reversing ring
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Microscopy
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Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye. There are three branches of microscopy, optical, electron, and scanning probe microscopy. This process may be carried out by irradiation of the sample or by scanning of a fine beam over the sample. Scanning probe microscopy involves the interaction of a probe with the surface of the object of interest. The development of microscopy revolutionized biology, gave rise to the field of histology and so remains an essential technique in the life and physical sciences. Optical or light microscopy involves passing visible light transmitted through or reflected from the sample through a single or multiple lenses to allow a view of the sample. The resulting image can be detected directly by the eye, imaged on a plate or captured digitally. The single lens with its attachments, or the system of lenses and imaging equipment, along with the lighting equipment, sample stage and support. The most recent development is the microscope, which uses a CCD camera to focus on the exhibit of interest. The image is shown on a screen, so eye-pieces are unnecessary. Limitations of standard optical microscopy lie in three areas, This technique can only image dark or strongly refracting objects effectively, diffraction limits resolution to approximately 0.2 micrometres. This limits the practical limit to ~1500x. Out of focus light from points outside the focal plane reduces image clarity, live cells in particular generally lack sufficient contrast to be studied successfully, since the internal structures of the cell are colourless and transparent. The most common way to increase contrast is to stain the different structures with selective dyes, staining may also introduce artifacts, apparent structural details that are caused by the processing of the specimen and are thus not legitimate features of the specimen. In general, these make use of differences in the refractive index of cell structures. It is comparable to looking through a window, you dont see the glass. There is a difference, as glass is a material. The human eye is not sensitive to this difference in phase, in order to improve specimen contrast or highlight certain structures in a sample special techniques must be used
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Boston Children's Hospital
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Boston Childrens Hospital is a 395-licensed-bed childrens hospital in the Longwood Medical and Academic Area of Boston, Massachusetts. At 300 Longwood Avenue, Childrens is adjacent both to its affiliate, Harvard Medical School, and to Dana-Farber Cancer Institute. Childrens was ranked #1 in 8 out of 10 clinical specialties by the U. S. News & World Report, and as the nations number one pediatric hospital for 2014–15. In 2012, for the 23rd year in a row, U. S. News & World Report rated Boston Childrens Hospital one of the top hospitals specializing in pediatric care. Childrens was the first stand-alone pediatric hospital in New England to be awarded Magnet status by the American Nurses Credentialing Center. One of the largest pediatric medical centers in the United States and its Advanced Fetal Care Center can begin interventions at 15 weeks gestation, and in some situations Childrens treats adults. The institution is home to 40 clinical departments and 225 specialized clinical programs, a trained team of more than 800 volunteers devote thousands of hours each year to support the hospital staff and patients. Sandra Fenwick is the current president and COO, having replaced urologist Dr. James Mandell on October 1,2013, the International Center at Boston Childrens Hospital serves patients from more than 100 countries including coordination of visits, medical records, travel, accommodation, and immigration. The hospital offers a global medical second opinion program in partnership with Grand Rounds, Childrens operated its own Critical Care Transport Team, staffed by a team of two critical care transport registered nurses and a Critical Care Paramedic. Childrens is part of the consortium of hospitals that operates Boston MedFlight as a resource for transports needing a helicopter or jet. Several neighborhood air quality studies have been planned, and some completed, at the center of the Childrens hospital campus is the Prouty Memorial Garden and Terrace, which since its creation in 1956, has been a place of solace for children and their families. Despite vigorous neighborhood protest against the demolition of the Prouty Garden, Childrens was founded on July 20,1869 by Dr. Francis Henry Brown, a Civil War surgeon, who traveled to Europe in 1867 to study the pioneering specialized approach to treating children. Brown was impressed with the treatments he witnessed and he wanted to bring that level of care to Boston, Brown opened a 20-bed facility in a small townhouse at 9 Rutland Street in Bostons South End. Approximately one year after opening, the hospital was moved to the corner of Rutland, Childrens Hospital stayed at this location until 1871 when the hospital moved to Huntington Avenue before its final move to what would become the Longwood Medical and Academic Area. Childrens became affiliated with the Harvard Medical School in 1903, below is a partial list* of historic milestones,1891, Childrens establishes the nations first laboratory for the modification and production of bacteria-free milk. 1920, Dr. William Ladd devises procedures for correcting various congenital defects such as intestinal malformations,1938, Dr. Robert E. Gross performs the worlds first successful surgical procedure to correct a congenital cardiovascular defect, ushering in the era of modern pediatric cardiac surgery. 1947, Dr. Sidney Farber, pediatric pathologist, requested Dr. Yellapragada Subbarow to supply Aminopterin and he achieves the worlds first partial remission of acute leukemia. He went on to co-found the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in 1950,1954, Dr. John Enders and his colleagues win the Nobel Prize for successfully culturing the polio virus in 1949, making possible the development of the Salk and Sabin vaccines
