1.
Micrography
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Colored micrography is especially distinctive because these rare artworks are customarily rendered in black and white. The artwork is created from text that forms an image viewed at a distance. The Photomosaic, whose tiny individual images form a mosaic when viewed from a distance, is a modern analogue, there is a relationship between this form of art, employing both digital and analogic symbols, and the restrictions on images found in the second commandment. Micrography provides a solution to the visual artist who wishes to remain devout in observation of Jewish law, by using only text. As similar restrictions exist in certain Muslim societies, this solution has been adapted in Islamic calligraphy to the Arabic alphabet as well, MS21160 A German Pentateuch, c.1300 British Library, BL Add
2.
Microphotograph
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Microphotographs are photographs shrunk to microscopic scale – not to be confused with photomicrographs, which are photographs of microscopic things. Microphotography is the art of making such images, other applications of microphotography include espionage such as in the Hollow Nickel Case. Using the daguerreotype process, John Benjamin Dancer was one of the first to produce microphotographs and he achieved a reduction ratio of 160,1. The idea that microphotography could be no more than a novelty was an opinion shared by the 1858 Dictionary of Photography, novelty viewing devices such as Stanhopes were once a popular way to carry and view microphotographs. An important application of microphotography is in microforms
3.
Limestone
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Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
4.
Ooid
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Ooids are small, spheroidal, coated sedimentary grains, usually composed of calcium carbonate, but sometimes made up of iron- or phosphate-based minerals. Ooids usually form on the sea floor, most commonly in tropical seas. After being buried under sediment, these ooid grains can be cemented together to form a sedimentary rock called an oolite. Oolites usually consist of carbonate, these belong to the limestone rock family. Pisoids are similar to ooids, but are larger than 2 mm in diameter, often considerably larger, an ooid forms as a series of concentric layers around a nucleus. The layers contain crystals arranged radially, tangentially or randomly, the nucleus can be a shell fragment, quartz grain or any other small fragment. Most modern ooids are aragonite, a polymorph of calcium carbonate, some are composed of high-magnesium calcite, ancient ooids can be calcitic, either originally precipitated as calcite, or formed by alteration of aragonitic ooids. Moldic ooids occur in young and ancient rocks, indicating the removal of a soluble polymorph. Whether ooids become calcitic or aragonitic can be linked to strontium/calcium substitution within the crystalline structure and this has been shown in some examples to be due to temperature fluctuations in marine environments, which affects salinity levels, which in turn facilitate the substitution. Marine calcitic ooids were typically formed during calcite sea intervals, especially during the Ordovician, the geochemistry of these seas was a function of seafloor spreading and fluctuating Mg/Ca ratios. Low Mg/Ca ratios favor the precipitation of low-magnesium calcite, ooids with radial crystals grow by ions extending the lattices of the radial crystals. The mode of growth of ooids with tangential crystals is less clear and they may be accumulated in a snowball fashion from tiny crystals in the sediment or water, or they may crystallize in place on the ooid surface. Both in tangential and in radial ooids, the cortex is composed of very fine increments of growth. Some modern ooids partially or totally lack clear layering and have a micritic texture, examination of such micritic ooids by scanning electron microscopy often shows evidence of microbial borings later filled by fine cement. Flügel, Erik, Microfacies of Carbonate Rocks, Analysis, Interpretation and Application, 2nd ed. Springer, pp. 242–244
5.
Doubled die
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Doubled die is a term in numismatics used to refer to doubling in the design elements of a coin. Doubled dies can appear as an outline of the design or in cases, having legends. Doubled die error coins can fetch significant prices when they are noticeable to the eye or occur in a popular coin series. One example of this is the 1955 doubled die Lincoln Wheat cent, note that the proper terminology for this occurrence includes the letter d at the end of the first word, hence doubled die. The term double die without the first word ending in d is not proper numismatic terminology, Doubled dies are created when the hub imprints an additional, misaligned image onto a die. Class 2, Distorted A class 2 doubled die results when the design moves toward the rim between hubbings. Class 3, Design A class 3 doubled die results when a hub bearing a different design stamps a die bearing another design, class 4, Offset A class 4 doubled die results when the die receives an additional hubbing that is misaligned in an offset direction. Class 5, Pivoted A class 5 doubled die results when the die receives an additional hubbing that was misaligned via rotation with a point near the rim. Class 6, Distended A class 6 doubled die results when the die receives an additional hubbing from a hub that was distended, class 7, Modified A class 7 doubled die results when the hub is modified between the dies hubbings. Class 8, Tilted A class 8 doubled die results when a die and/or hub is tilted during a hubbing, Doubled dies are a result of the way in which in the United States Mints dies are created. Before 1997, die pairs were made by hubs that contained the raised design elements that were intended to appear on the coin, the blank dies were heated and then were pressed against the hubs to transfer the design from the hub to the working dies. One impression was not enough in case to transfer the design elements from the hub to the die. For this reason, after the first impression was made, the die was reheated and prepared for a second impression, the mint workers would use guides to align the hub and the working die perfectly to prevent overlapping, or a doubled die. It is when mint workers failed to align dies properly during this process that doubled dies were produced, in many instances three to four impressions were required, which could but rarely led to tripled and quadrupled dies. With the new die making process, implemented after 1996, dies only required one impression of the hub to all of the design from the hub to the die. But it has discovered that the pressure created is so great. Modern doubled dies in American coinage are being discovered mainly in Lincoln cents, the 2004 Peace Reverse Nickel shows doubling in the date, motto, designer initials and eyelid of Thomas Jefferson. The 2005 Bison Reverse Nickel, shows slight doubling in the word Liberty, die-deterioration doubling Coining Milled coinage Numismatic terminology Coin collecting Doubled Die Coin Pictures
6.
Photograph
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A photograph or photo is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface, usually photographic film or an electronic medium such as a CCD or a CMOS chip. Most photographs are created using a camera, which uses a lens to focus the scenes visible wavelengths of light into a reproduction of what the eye would see. The process and practice of creating photographs is called photography, the word photograph was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς, meaning light, and γραφή, meaning drawing, writing, together meaning drawing with light. The first permanent photograph, a copy of an engraving, was made in 1822 using the bitumen-based heliography process developed by Nicéphore Niépce. In 1829 Niépce entered into a partnership with Louis Daguerre and the two collaborated to work out a similar but more sensitive and otherwise improved process, after Niépces death in 1833, Daguerre concentrated on silver halide-based alternatives. He named this first practical process for making photographs with a camera the daguerreotype and its existence was announced to the world on 7 January 1839 but working details were not made public until 19 August. Other inventors soon made improvements which reduced the exposure time from a few minutes to a few seconds, making portrait photography truly practical. The daguerreotype had shortcomings, notably the fragility of the image surface. Each was a unique opaque positive that could only be duplicated by copying it with a camera, inventors set about working out improved processes that would be more practical. By the end of the 1850s the daguerreotype had been replaced by the expensive and more easily viewed ambrotype and tintype. The mid-1930s saw the introduction of Kodachrome and Agfacolor Neu, the first easy-to-use color films of the modern multi-layer chromogenic type, the needs of the motion picture industry generated a number of special processes and systems, perhaps the best-known being the now-obsolete three-strip Technicolor process. Non-digital photographs are produced with a chemical process. In the two-step process the film captures a negative image. To produce an image, the negative is most commonly transferred onto photographic paper. Printing the negative onto transparent film stock is used to motion picture films. Alternatively, the film is processed to invert the negative image, such positive images are usually mounted in frames, called slides. Before recent advances in photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness. Most photographs published in magazines were taken on color transparency film, originally, all photographs were monochromatic or hand-painted in color
7.
Microscope
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A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy, microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope. There are many types of microscopes, the most common is the optical microscope, which uses light to image the sample. Other major types of microscopes are the microscope, the ultramicroscope. The earliest microscopes were single lens magnifying glasses with limited magnification which date at least as far back as the wide use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century. Compound microscopes, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image, the actual inventor of the compound microscope is unknown although many claims have been made over the years. These include what may be a claim by the son of Zacharias Janssen that his father invented the microscope and telescope as early as 1590. Historians note the compound microscope did not appear in the Netherlands until the 1620s, giovanni Faber coined the name microscope for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to the Accademia dei Lincei in 1625. The first detailed account of the construction of living tissue based on the use of a microscope did not appear until 1644, in Giambattista Odiernas Locchio della mosca. It was not until the 1660s and 1670s that the microscope was used extensively for research in Italy, marcello Malpighi in Italy began the analysis of biological structures, beginning with the lungs. Robert Hookes Micrographia had an impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations. A significant contribution came from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek who achieved up to 300 times magnification using a single lens microscope. He sandwiched a very small glass ball lens between the holes in two metal plates riveted together, and with a needle attached to mount the specimen. Then, Van Leeuwenhoek re-discovered red blood cells and spermatozoa, on 9 October 1676, he reported the discovery of micro-organisms. The performance of light microscopy depends as much on how the sample is illuminated as on how it is observed, early instruments were limited until this principle was fully appreciated and developed, and until electric lamps were available as light sources. In 1893 August Köhler developed a key principle of sample illumination, Köhler illumination and this method of sample illumination produces even lighting and overcomes the limited contrast and resolution imposed by early techniques of sample illumination. In the early 20th century a significant alternative to light microscopy was developed, ernst Ruska started development of the first electron microscope in 1931 which was the transmission electron microscope. The transmission electron microscope works on the principle as an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light
8.
Magnify
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Magnification is the process of enlarging something only in appearance, not in physical size. This enlargement is quantified by a number also called magnification. When this number is less one, it refers to a reduction in size. Typically, magnification is related to scaling up visuals or images to be able to see detail, increasing resolution, using microscope, printing techniques. In all cases, the magnification of the image does not change the perspective of the image, some optical instruments provide visual aid by magnifying small or distant subjects. A magnifying glass, which uses a lens to make things look bigger by allowing the user to hold them closer to their eye. A microscope, which makes an object appear as a much larger image at a comfortable distance for viewing. A microscope is similar in layout to a telescope except that the object being viewed is close to the objective, a slide projector, which projects a large image of a small slide on a screen. Optical magnification is the ratio between the apparent size of an object and its size, and thus it is a dimensionless number. Optical magnification is sometimes referred to as power, although this can lead to confusion with optical power, for real images, such as images projected on a screen, size means a linear dimension. For optical instruments with an eyepiece, the dimension of the image seen in the eyepiece cannot be given. Strictly speaking, one should take the tangent of that angle, example, The angular size of the full moon is 0. 5°. In binoculars with 10x magnification it appears to subtend an angle of 5°, the linear magnification of a thin lens is where f is the focal length and d o is the distance from the lens to the object. Note that for real images, M is negative and the image is inverted, for virtual images, M is positive and the image is upright. The image recorded by a film or image sensor is always a real image and is usually inverted. When measuring the height of an image using the cartesian sign convention the value for hi will be negative. However, the sign convention used in photography is real is positive. Therefore in photography, Object height and distance are always real, when the focal length is positive the images height, distance and magnification are real and positive
