1.
Ministate
–
A microstate or ministate is a sovereign state having a very small population or very small land area, and usually both. According to a definition, microstates are, modern protected states. In line with this and most other definitions the examples of microstates include, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, Andorra, the smallest political unit recognized as a sovereign state is Vatican City, with 842 citizens as of July 2013 and an area of only 44 hectares. Microstates are distinct from micronations, which are not recognized as sovereign states, most scholars identify microstates by using a quantitative threshold and applying it to either one variable or a composite of different variables. With the exceptions of Singapore and Bahrain, all the above have fewer than 500,000 people, with the exceptions of Samoa, Vanuatu, Iceland, Bahamas, Belize, and Brunei, all the above have a non-sea area less than 1,000 km2. While employing simple quantitative criteria may seem straightforward, it can also be perceived as potentially problematic, newer approaches have proposed looking at the behaviour or capacity to operate in the international arena in order to determine which states should deserve the microstate label. Yet, it has argued that such approaches could lead to either confusing microstates with weak states or relying too much on subjective perceptions. Examples of microstates understood as modern protected states include such states as, Liechtenstein, San Marino, Monaco, Niue, Andorra, a small number of tiny sovereign political units are founded on historical anomalies or eccentric interpretations of law. One example is the Republic of Indian Stream, now the town of Pittsburg, revolutionary War, and claimed by both the U. S. and Canada. Between 1832 and 1835, the residents refused to acknowledge either claimant. Another example is the Cospaia Republic, which became independent through a treaty error and its independence made it important in the introduction of tobacco cultivation to Italy
2.
Principality of Sealand
–
The Principality of Sealand is a micronation that claims Roughs Tower, an offshore platform located in the North Sea approximately 12 kilometres off the coast of Suffolk, England, as its territory. Roughs Tower is a disused Maunsell Sea Fort, originally called HM Fort Roughs, since 1967, the decommissioned HM Fort Roughs has been occupied by family and associates of Paddy Roy Bates, who claim that it is an independent sovereign state. Bates seized it from a group of radio broadcasters in 1967 with the intention of setting up his own station at the site. He attempted to establish Sealand as a nation-state in 1975 with the writing of a national constitution, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in force since 1994 states Artificial islands, installations and structures do not possess the status of islands. They have no territorial sea of their own, and their presence does not affect the delimitation of the territorial sea, since 1987, Sealand lies within the territorial waters of the United Kingdom. Bates moved to the mainland when he became elderly, naming his son Michael regent, Bates died in October 2012 at the age of 91. It consisted of a floating pontoon base with a superstructure of two towers joined by a deck upon which other structures could be added. The fort was towed to a position above the Rough Sands sandbar and this is approximately 7 nautical miles from the coast of Suffolk, outside the then 3 nmi claim of the United Kingdom and, therefore, in international waters. The facility was occupied by 150–300 Royal Navy personnel throughout World War II, Roughs Tower was occupied in February and August 1965 by Jack Moore and his daughter Jane, squatting on behalf of the pirate station Wonderful Radio London. On 2 September 1967, the fort was occupied by Major Paddy Roy Bates, a British subject and pirate radio broadcaster, Bates intended to broadcast his pirate radio station – called Radio Essex – from the platform. Despite having the equipment, he never began broadcasting. Bates declared the independence of Roughs Tower and deemed it the Principality of Sealand, in 1968, British workmen entered what Bates claimed to be his territorial waters in order to service a navigational buoy near the platform. Michael Bates tried to scare the workmen off by firing warning shots from the former fort, as Bates was a British subject at the time, he was summoned to court in England on firearms charges following the incident. But as the court ruled that the platform was outside British territorial limits, being beyond the then 3-nautical-mile limit of the countrys waters, in 1975, Bates introduced a constitution for Sealand, followed by a national flag, a national anthem, a currency and passports. They stormed the platform with speedboats, jet skis and helicopters, Michael was able to retake Sealand and capture Achenbach and the mercenaries using weapons stashed on the platform. Achenbach, a German lawyer who held a Sealand passport, was charged with treason against Sealand and was held unless he paid DM75,000. The governments of the Netherlands, Austria and Germany petitioned the British government for his release, Germany then sent a diplomat from its London embassy to Sealand to negotiate for Achenbachs release. Roy Bates relented after several weeks of negotiations and subsequently claimed that the visit constituted de facto recognition of Sealand by Germany
3.
HM Fort Roughs
–
This 4500 ton artificial naval installation is similar in some respects to fixed offshore oil platforms. It is situated on Rough Sands, a sandbar located approximately 11 kilometres from the coast of Suffolk and 13 kilometres from the coast of Essex, today it is the location of the self-proclaimed and unrecognised state, the Principality of Sealand. As a contemporary historical society notes, Fort Roughs or the Rough Towers was the first of four naval forts designed by G. Maunsell to protect the Thames Estuary. The artificial sea fort was constructed in dry dock at Red Lion Wharf, Gravesend, in the year preceding and this artificial naval installation is similar in some respects to early fixed offshore oil platforms. There was a steel framework at one end supporting a jetty and crane which was used to hoist supplies aboard. At that time Rough Sands was situated in international waters, HM Fort Roughs was in operation within 30 minutes of being launched, the crew had been aboard during the fitting out in harbour and were well acquainted with the forts equipment. Approximately 100 men were assigned to the barge before deployment on Rough Sands, thereafter, the fort was occupied by 150–300 Royal Navy personnel, at the conclusion of hostilities all original personnel were evacuated from HM Fort Roughs. British government official entities used Roughs Tower for a variety of purposes until 1956 when all personnel were finally removed. Roughs Tower remained identified by name on buoys placed in position by the Ministry of Defence which are maintained under an arrangement with Trinity House, UK Ordnance Survey now identify the former sea barge fort as Roughs Tower on their charts. In 1966 Paddy Roy Bates, who operated Radio Essex, and Ronan ORahilly, however, after disagreements, Roy Bates seized the tower as his own. ORahilly attempted to storm the fort in 1967, but Roy Bates defended the fort with guns and petrol bombs, the British Royal Marines went on alert and the British authorities ordered Roy Bates to surrender. He and his son were arrested and charged, but the court threw out the case as it did not have jurisdiction over international affairs as Roughs Tower lay beyond the waters of Britain. Bates took this as de facto recognition of his country and seven years later issued a constitution, flag, and national anthem, among other things, for the Principality of Sealand. Bob Le-Rois Fort Fanatics webpage stated on 28 Sep 2011 that modern charts using the WGS84 coordinates normally used for GPS, maritime charts are normally considered more authoritative than land maps for location of maritime obstructions, so those coordinates are chosen for this article. The fort can also be found online on UK government Ordnance Survey maps at grid reference TM3964227615, within 100 m, OpenStreetMap notes that the structure includes a helipad
4.
Sovereign state
–
A sovereign state is, in international law, a nonphysical juridical entity that is represented by one centralized government that has sovereignty over a geographic area. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, one government, and it is also normally understood that a sovereign state is neither dependent on nor subjected to any other power or state. The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact, States came into existence as people gradually transferred their allegiance from an individual sovereign to an intangible but territorial political entity, of the state. States are but one of political orders that emerged from feudal Europe, others being city states, leagues. Westphalian sovereignty is the concept of sovereignty based on territoriality. It is a system of states, multinational corporations. Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused and that position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their sovereignty was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of civilised people. Lassa Oppenheim said There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is a fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon. In the opinion of H. V. Evatt of the High Court of Australia, sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all. The right of nations to determine their own status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognized. The Westphalian model of sovereignty has increasingly come under fire from the non-west as a system imposed solely by Western Colonialism. What this model did was make religion a subordinate to politics and this system does not fit in the Islamic world because concepts such as separation of church and state and individual conscience are not recognised in the Islamic religion as social systems. Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, however, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law. State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory, State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state. Recognition can be expressed or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It does not necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations, There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal, in international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognised as sovereign
5.
Fictional country
–
A fictional country is a country that is made up for fictional stories, and does not exist in real life, or one that people believe in without proof. Sailors have always mistaken low clouds for land masses, and in later times this was given the name Dutch capes, other fictional lands appear most commonly as settings or subjects of myth, literature, movies, or video games. Also, the ISO3166 country code ZZ is reserved as a country code. Fictional countries appear commonly in stories of science fiction. Such countries supposedly form part of the normal Earth landscape although not located in a normal atlas, later similar tales often took place on fictional planets. Jonathan Swifts protagonist, Lemuel Gulliver, visited various strange places, edgar Rice Burroughs placed adventures of Tarzan in areas in Africa that, at the time, remained mostly unknown to the West and to the East. Isolated islands with strange creatures and/or customs enjoyed great popularity in these authors times, by the 19th century, when Western explorers had surveyed most of the Earths surface, this option was lost to Western culture. Thereafter fictional utopian and dystopian societies tended to spring up on other planets or in space, Fictional countries can also be used in stories set in a distant future, with other political borders than today. Superhero and secret agent comics and some also use fictional countries on Earth as backdrops. Most of these countries exist only for a story, a TV-series episode or an issue of a comic book. There are notable exceptions, such as Qumar and Equatorial Kundu in The West Wing, Marvel Comics Latveria and DC Comics Qurac, Fictional countries often deliberately resemble or even represent some real-world country or present a utopia or dystopia for commentary. Variants of the name sometimes make it clear what country they really have in mind. Fictional countries have created for polling purposes. When polled in April 2004, 8% of British people believed that the country of Luvania would soon join the European Union. In the 1989 General Social Survey, U. S. respondents were asked to rate the social status of people of Wisian background, once you let the Wisians in, the neighborhood goes to pot, quipped Time Magazine. Countries from stories, myths, legends, that some believe to exist, ISBN 978-0684849584 Media related to Fictional countries at Wikimedia Commons
6.
Ecovillage
–
Ecovillages are traditional or intentional communities whose goal is to become more socially, culturally, economically and ecologically sustainable. Ecovillages are consciously designed through locally owned, participatory processes to regenerate, most range from a population of 50 to 150 individuals, although some are smaller, and traditional ecovillages are often much larger. Larger ecovillages often exist as networks of smaller subcommunities, ecovillagers are united by shared ecological, social-economic and cultural-spiritual values. Ecovillages offer small-scale communities with ecological impact or regenerative impacts as an alternative. However, such communities often cooperate with peer villages in networks of their own and this model of collective action is similar to that of Ten Thousand Villages, which supports the fair trade of goods worldwide. In 1991, Robert Gilman set out a definition of an ecovillage that became standard for many years and this is clearly a tall order. In fact, using a strict interpretation of this definition, especially with regards to “harmlessly integrated”, Ecovillages are therefore better thought of as communities striving towards these ideals rather than actualised utopias. In this view, ecovillages are seen as an ongoing process and they often start off with a focus on one of the four dimensions of sustainability, e. g. ecology, but evolve into holistic models for restoration. Ecovillages have developed in recent years as technology has improved so they have more sophisticated structures as noted by Baydoun, the ecovillage movement began to coalesce at the annual autumn conference of Findhorn, in Scotland, in 1995. The conference was called, Ecovillages and Sustainable Communities, and conference organizers turned away hundreds of applicants, according to Ross Jackson, somehow they had struck a chord that resonated far and wide. Thus became part of the language of the Cultural Creatives, after that conference, many intentional communities, including Findhorn, began calling themselves ecovillages, giving birth to a new movement. Gaia Trust, Denmark, agreed to fund the network for its first five years, today, there are self-identified ecovillages in over 70 countries on six continents. The principles on which ecovillages rely can be applied to urban and rural settings, as well as to developing, advocates seek a sustainable lifestyle for inhabitants with a minimum of trade outside the local area, or ecoregion. Many advocates also seek independence from existing infrastructures, although others, particularly in urban settings. Rural ecovillages are usually based on farming, permaculture and other approaches which promote ecosystem function. Ecovillages, whether urban or rural, tend to integrate community and ecological values within a principle-based approach to sustainability and their residents value and practice community living. Their residents are not overly dependent on government, corporate or other centralized sources for water, food, rather, they attempt to provide these resources themselves. Their residents have a sense of shared values, often characterized in spiritual terms
7.
Campus
–
A campus is traditionally the land on which a college or university and related institutional buildings are situated. Usually a college campus includes libraries, lecture halls, residence halls, student centers or dining halls, a modern campus is a collection of buildings and grounds that belong to a given institution, either academic or non-academic. Examples include the Googleplex and the Apple Campus, the word derives from a Latin word for field and was first used to describe the large field adjacent Nassau Hall of the College of New Jersey in 1774. The field separated Princeton from the nearby town. Some other American colleges later adopted the word to describe individual fields at their own institutions, a school might have one space called a campus, one called a field, and another called a yard. The tradition of a campus began with the medieval European universities where the students, the notion of the importance of the setting to academic life later migrated to America, and early colonial educational institutions were based on the Scottish and English collegiate system. The campus evolved from the model in Europe to a diverse set of independent styles in the United States. The meaning expanded to include the whole institutional property during the 20th century, sometimes the lands on which company office buildings sit, along with the buildings, are called campuses. The Microsoft Campus in Redmond, Washington is a good example, hospitals, and even airports sometimes use the term to describe the territory of their facilities
8.
Tribe
–
A tribe is viewed, developmentally or historically, as a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states. A tribe is a group of people, dependent on their land for their livelihood, who are largely self-sufficient. It is perhaps the term most readily understood and used by the general public, stephen Corry defines tribal people as those who. have followed ways of life for many generations that are largely self-sufficient, and are clearly different from the mainstream and dominant society. There are a one hundred and fifty million tribal individuals worldwide. Although nearly all people are indigenous, some are not indigenous to the areas where they now live. The distinction between tribal and indigenous is important because tribal peoples have a special status acknowledged in international law and they often face particular issues in addition to those faced by the wider category of indigenous peoples. Many people used the term tribal society to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of social, especially familial, a customary tribe in these terms is a face-to-face community, relatively bound by kinship relations, reciprocal exchange, and strong ties to place. Tribe is a term due to its roots of being defined by outsiders during the period of colonialism. The word has no shared referent, whether in political form, some argue that it conveys a negative connotation of a timeless unchanging past. To avoid these implications, some have chosen to use the ethnic group. In some places, such as India and North America, tribes are polities that have granted legal recognition. The English word tribe occurs in 12th-century Middle English-literature as referring to one of the tribes of Israel. The Ramnes were named after Romulus, leader of the Latins, Tities after Titus Tatius, leader of the Sabines, according to Livy, the three tribes were squadrons of knights, rather than ethnic divisions. The terms ultimate etymology is uncertain, perhaps from the Proto-Indo-European roots tri-, in 242–240 BC, the Tribal Assembly in the Roman Republic included 35 tribes. The Latin word as used in the Bible translates as Greek phyle, race, tribe, clan, in the historical sense, tribe, race and clan can be used interchangeably. Considerable debate has accompanied efforts to define and characterize tribes, scholars perceive differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes, there is also general controversy over cultural evolution and colonialism. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Tribes are an organization among families, which generates a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of a group or of a nation
9.
Sect
–
A sect is a subgroup of a religious, political, or philosophical belief system, usually an offshoot of a larger group. A sect, in an Indian context, refers to an organized tradition, the present gamut of meanings of sect has been influenced by confusion with the homonymous Latin word secta, as though sects were scissionsWiktionary entry cast aside from the mainstream religion. There are several different sociological definitions and descriptions for the term, among the first to define them were Max Weber and Ernst Troeltsch. In the church-sect typology they are described as newly formed groups that form to protest elements of their parent religion. The American sociologists Rodney Stark and William Sims Bainbridge assert that claim to be authentic purged, refurbished version of the faith from which they split. They further assert that sects have, in contrast to churches, other sociologists of religion such as Fred Kniss have asserted that sectarianism is best described with regard to what a sect is in tension with. Some religious groups exist in only with co-religious groups of different ethnicities. The English sociologist Roy Wallis argues that a sect is characterized by “epistemological authoritarianism”, in France, since the 1970s, secte has a specific meaning which is very different from the English word. The term remains valid for this purpose, according to Michaels, Indian sects do not focus on heresy, since the lack of a center or a compulsory center makes this impossible – instead, the focus is on adherents and followers. The ancient schools of fiqh or sharia in Islam are known as madhhabs, in the beginning Islam was classically divided into three major sects. These political divisions are known as Sunni Islam, Shia Islam. Each sect developed several distinct jurisprudence systems reflecting their own understanding of the Islamic law during the course of the history of Islam, for instance, Sunnis are separated into five sub-sects, namely, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, Hanbali and Ẓāhirī. The Shia, on the hand, first developed Kaysanism. The non-Zaydis are initially called as Rafida Groups and these Rafidis were later divided into two sub-groups known as Imamiyyah and Batiniyyah. The Imami-Shia later brought into existence Jafari jurisprudence, Batiniyya groups, on the other hand, were divided into two sub-groups known as Seveners and Ismāīlīs. Qarmatians who did not follow the Fatimid Caliphate were branched from the Seveners and those groups of Batiniyya who followed the Fatimids are the ancestors of todays Ismāīlīs. Druze was emerged as an offshoot of Ismāʿīlism at the beginning of the 11th Century, ismailism at the end of the 11th Century split into two major branches known as Nizārī Ismāīlī and Musta’li Ismaili. The Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii and Hanbali Sunnis, the Twelver groups, the Ismāīlī groups, the Zaydis, the Ibadis, in addition, new sects like Ahmadiyya movement, Black Muslim movements, Quranists, Salafis, Wahhabis, and Zikris have been emerged independently
10.
Secession
–
Secession is the withdrawal of a group from a larger entity, especially a political entity, but also any organization, union or military alliance. Threats of secession can also be a strategy for achieving more limited goals, theories of secession relate to a fundamental question of political philosophy, the basis of the states authority. Ramet, Rights of Secession by Daniel Kofman, The Very Idea of Secession by Donald Livingston and Secession, Autonomy, in 2007 the University of South Carolina sponsored a conference called Secession As an International Phenomenon which produced a number of papers on the topic. Some theories of secession emphasize a general right of secession for any reason while others emphasize that secession should be considered only to rectify grave injustices, if it can not live in the affections of the people, it must one day perish. Congress possesses many means of preserving it by conciliation, but the sword was not placed in their hand to preserve it by force, former President of the United States Thomas Jefferson, in a letter to William H. If any State in the Union will declare that it prefers separation with the first alternative, to a continuance in union without it, I have no hesitation in saying, let us separate. I would rather the States should withdraw, which are for unlimited commerce and war, economic enfranchisement of an economically oppressed class that is regionally concentrated within the scope of a larger national territory. e. Tax schemes, regulatory policies, economic programs, etc, cultural Secessionism, any group which was previously in a minority has a right to protect and develop its own culture and distinct national identity through seceding into an independent state. Institutional empowerment - The growing inability of empires and ethnic federations to maintain colonies, relative strength - Increasingly powerful secessionist movements are more likely to achieve statehood. Negotiated consent - Home states and the international community increasingly consent to secessionist demands, during the 19th century, the single British colony in eastern mainland Australia, New South Wales was progressively divided up by the British government as new settlements were formed and spread. Victoria in 1851 and Queensland in 1859, however, settlers agitated to divide the colonies throughout the later part of the century, particularly in central Queensland in the 1860s and 1890s, and in North Queensland in the 1870s. Western Australia Secession movements have surfaced several times in Western Australia, the referendum had to be ratified by the British Parliament, which declined to act, on the grounds that it would contravene the Australian Constitution. The Principality of Hutt River claims to have seceded from Australia in 1970, according to a lexicon on nationalist movements across the world, Macau happened to recognise that Principality. Austria successfully seceded from Nazi Germany on April 27,1945 and this took place after seven years of Austria being part of Adolf Hitlers Third Reich due to the Anschluss annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in March 1938. On August 25,1830, during the reign of William I, soon after, the Belgian Revolt occurred, which resulted in the Belgian secession from the Netherlands. The peace treaty accepted Uruguay independence, reasserted the rule of both nations over their land and some important points like free navigation in the Silver River, three rather disorganized secessionist rebellions happened in Grão-Pará, Bahia and Maranhão, where the people were unhappy with the Empire. The Malê Revolt, in Bahia, was an Islamic slave revolt and these three rebellions were bloodily crushed by the Empire of Brazil. In the attempts the rebels were crushed, the shot and its territory divided
11.
Coin
–
A coin is a small, flat, round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government, Coins are usually metal or alloy, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. Coins made of metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually the highest value coin in circulation is less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain. Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold, while the Eagle, Maple Leaf, and Sovereign coins have nominal face values, the Krugerrand does not. The first coins were developed independently in Iron Age Anatolia and Archaic Greece, India, Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, throughout Greece and Persia, and further to the Balkans. Standardized Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire, important Roman gold and silver coins were continued into the Middle Ages. Fiat money first arose in medieval China, with the paper money. Early paper money was introduced in Europe in the later Middle Ages, the penny was minted as a silver coin until the 17th century. The first circulating United States coins were cents, produced in 1793, Coins were an evolution of currency systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made and these were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell. According to Aristotle and Pollux, the first issuer of coins was Hermodike of Kyme The earliest coins are associated with Iron Age Anatolia. Early electrum coins were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests. The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver, most of the early Lydian coins include no writing, only an image of a symbolic animal. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν, whose symbol was the stag, a small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend
12.
Flag
–
A flag is a piece of fabric with a distinctive design that is used as a symbol, as a signaling device, or as decoration. National flags are patriotic symbols with varied wide-ranging interpretations, often including strong military associations due to their original, flags are also used in messaging, advertising, or for other decorative purposes. The study of flags is known as vexillology, from the Latin word vexillum, due to the use of flags by military units, flag is also used as the name of some military units. A flag is equivalent to a brigade in Arab countries, and in Spain, in antiquity, field signs or standards were used in warfare that can be categorized as vexilloid or flag-like. During the High Middle Ages flags came to be used primarily as a device in battle. Already during the medieval period, and increasingly during the Late Middle Ages. Regimental flags for individual units became commonplace during the Early Modern period, flags also became the preferred means of communications at sea, resulting in various systems of flag signals, see, International maritime signal flags. One of the most popular uses of a flag is to symbolize a nation or country, some national flags have been particularly inspirational to other nations, countries, or subnational entities in the design of their own flags. Some prominent examples include, The flag of Denmark, the Dannebrog, is attested in 1478, the flag of the Netherlands is the oldest tricolour. Its three colours of red, white and blue go back to Charlemagnes time, the 9th century, the coastal region of what today is the Netherlands was then known for its cloth in these colours. Maps from the early 16th century already put flags in these colours next to this region, a century before that, during the 15th century, the three colours were mentioned as the coastal signals for this area, with the three bands straight or diagonal, single or doubled. As state flag it first appeared around 1572 as the Princes Flag in orange–white–blue, soon the more famous red–white–blue began appearing, becoming the prevalent version from around 1630. Orange made a comeback during the war of the late 18th century. During World War II the pro-Nazi NSB used it, any symbolism has been added later to the three colours, although the orange comes from the House of Orange-Nassau. This use of orange comes from Nassau, which today uses orange-blue, not from Orange, however, the usual way to show the link with the House of Orange-Nassau is the orange pennant above the red-white-blue. It is said that the Dutch Tricolour has inspired many flags but most notably those of Russia, New York City, the national flag of France was designed in 1794. As a forerunner of revolution, Frances tricolour flag style has been adopted by other nations, examples, Italy, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ireland, Haiti, Romania and Mexico. The Union Flag of the United Kingdom is the most commonly used, british colonies typically flew a flag based on one of the ensigns based on this flag, and many former colonies have retained the design to acknowledge their cultural history
13.
Postage stamp
–
Postage stamp may also refer to a formatting artifact in the display of film or video, Windowbox. A postage stamp is a piece of paper that is purchased and displayed on an item of mail as evidence of payment of postage. Typically, stamps are printed on special paper, show a national designation and a denomination on the front. They are sometimes a source of net profit to the issuing agency, stamps are usually rectangular, but triangles or other shapes are occasionally used. The stamp is affixed to an envelope or other postal cover the customer wishes to send, the item is then processed by the postal system, where a postmark, sometimes known as a cancellation mark, is usually applied in overlapping manner to stamp and cover. This procedure marks the stamp as used to prevent its reuse, in modern usage, postmarks generally indicate the date and point of origin of the mailing. The mailed item is delivered to the address the customer has applied to the envelope or parcel. Postage stamps have facilitated the delivery of mail since the 1840s, before then, ink and hand-stamps, usually made from wood or cork, were often used to frank the mail and confirm the payment of postage. The first adhesive postage stamp, commonly referred to as the Penny Black, was issued in the United Kingdom in 1840, there are varying accounts of the inventor or inventors of the stamp. The postage stamp resolved this issue in a simple and elegant manner, concurrently with the first stamps, the UK offered wrappers for mail. S. Postal service for priority or express mailing, the postage stamp afforded convenience for both the mailer and postal officials, more effectively recovered costs for the postal service, and ultimately resulted in a better, faster postal system. With the conveniences stamps offered, their use resulted in greatly increased mailings during the 19th and 20th centuries, as postage stamps with their engraved imagery began to appear on a widespread basis, historians and collectors began to take notice. The study of stamps and their use is referred to as philately. Stamp collecting can be both a hobby and a form of study and reference, as government-issued postage stamps. The postage for the item was prepaid by the use of a hand-stamp to frank the mailed item. Though this stamp was applied to a letter instead of a piece of paper it is considered by many historians as the worlds first postage stamp. Rowland Hill The Englishman Sir Rowland Hill began interest in postal reform in 1835, in 1836, a Member of Parliament, Robert Wallace, provided Hill with numerous books and documents, which Hill described as a half hundred weight of material. Hill commenced a study of these documents, leading him to the 1837 publication of a pamphlet entitled Post Office Reform its Importance
14.
Passport
–
A passport is a travel document, usually issued by a countrys government, that certifies the identity and nationality of its holder for the purpose of international travel. Standard passports may contain information such as the name, place and date of birth, photograph, signature. Passports are moving towards including biometric information in a microchip embedded in the document, making them machine-readable, as of 5 April 2017,96 countries emit biometric passports. A passport holder is entitled to enter the country that issued the passport. Some passports attest to status as a diplomat or other official, entitled to rights, many countries normally allow entry to holders of passports of other countries, sometimes requiring a visa also to be held, but this is not an automatic right. Many other additional conditions, such as not being likely to become a charge for financial or other reasons. Some countries and international organisations issue travel documents which are not standard passports, one of the earliest known references to paperwork that served in a role similar to that of a passport is found in the Hebrew Bible. In the medieval Islamic Caliphate, a form of passport was the baraa, only people who paid their zakah or jizya taxes were permitted to travel to different regions of the Caliphate, thus, the baraa receipt was a travelers basic passport. Etymological sources show that the passport is from a medieval document that was required in order to pass through the gate of a city wall or to pass through a territory. In medieval Europe, such documents were issued to travelers by local authorities, on the whole, documents were not required for travel to sea ports, which were considered open trading points, but documents were required to travel inland from sea ports. King Henry V of England is credited with having invented what some consider the first true passport, the earliest reference to these documents is found in a 1414 Act of Parliament. In 1540, granting travel documents in England became a role of the Privy Council of England, in 1794, issuing British passports became the job of the Office of the Secretary of State. The 1548 Imperial Diet of Augsburg required the public to hold imperial documents for travel, the speed of trains, as well as the number of passengers that crossed multiple borders, made enforcement of passport laws difficult. The general reaction was the relaxation of passport requirements, consequently, comparatively few people held passports. During World War I, European governments introduced border passport requirements for security reasons and these controls remained in place after the war, becoming a standard, though controversial, procedure. British tourists of the 1920s complained, especially about attached photographs and physical descriptions, in 1920, the League of Nations held a conference on passports, the Paris Conference on Passports & Customs Formalities and Through Tickets. Passport guidelines and a general booklet design resulted from the conference, while the United Nations held a travel conference in 1963, no passport guidelines resulted from it. Passport standardization came about in 1980, under the auspices of the International Civil Aviation Organization, ICAO standards include those for machine-readable passports
15.
Medal
–
A medal may be awarded to a person or organization as a form of recognition for sporting, military, scientific, academic, or various other achievements. Military awards and decorations are more precise terms for types of state decoration. Medals may also be created for sale to commemorate particular individuals or events, an artist who creates medals or medallions is called a medallist or medalist. There are also devotional medals which may be worn for religious reasons, Medals have long been popular collectible items either as a variety of exonumia or of militaria. Medallions may also be called table medals because they are too large to be worn and can only be displayed on a wall, table top, desk, the word medallion has the same ultimate derivation, but this time through the Italian medaglione, meaning large medal. The main or front surface of a medal is termed the obverse, the reverse, or back surface of the medal, is not always used and may be left blank or may contain a secondary design. It is not uncommon to only an artistic rendering on the obverse, while all details. The rim is only occasionally employed to display an inscription such as a motto, privy mark, engraver symbol, assayer’s marking. Medals that are intended to be hung from a ribbon also include a suspension piece at the crest with which to loop a suspension ring through. It is through the ring that a ribbon is run or folded so the medal may hang pendent, Medals pinned to the breast use only a small cut of ribbon that is attached to a top bar where the brooch pin is affixed. Top bars may be hidden under the ribbon so they are not visible, be a device from which the ribbon attaches. Some top bars are elaborate and contain a whole design unto themselves, Medals that are made with inexpensive material might be gilded, silver-plated, chased, or finished in a variety of other ways to improve their appearance. Medals have also made of rock, gemstone, ivory, glass, porcelain, terra cotta, coal, wood, paper, enamel, lacquerware. Honorary awards, as a button, which it is custom to give the kings kinsmen. Roman emperors used both military awards of medals, and political gifts of medallions that were very large coins, usually in gold or silver. Both these and actual golden coins were often set as pieces of jewellery, the bracteate is a type of thin gold medal, usually plain on the reverse, found in Northern Europe from the so-called Dark Ages or Migration Period. They often have suspension loops and were intended to be worn on a chain as jewellery. They imitate, at a distance, Roman imperial coins and medallions, the surviving example is mounted for wearing as jewellery
16.
Social networking service
–
Most social network services are web-based and provide means for users to interact over the Internet, such as by e-mail and instant messaging and online forums. Social networking sites allow users to share ideas, digital photos and videos, posts, depending on the social media platform, members may be able to contact any other member. In other cases, members can contact anyone they have a connection to, and subsequently anyone that contact has a connection to, LinkedIn, a career social networking service, generally requires that a member personally know another member in real life before they contact them online. Some services require members to have a connection to contact other members. The main types of social networking services are those that contain category places, means to connect with friends, there have been attempts to standardize these services to avoid the need to duplicate entries of friends and interests. A study reveals that India has recorded worlds largest growth in terms of media users in 2013. A2013 survey found that 73% of U. S. adults use social networking sites, the variety and evolving range of stand-alone and built-in social networking services in the online space introduces a challenge of definition. Furthermore, the idea that these services are defined by their ability to bring people together provides too broad a definition, such a broad definition would suggest that the telegraph and telephone were social networking services – not the Internet technologies scholars are intending to describe. The terminology is unclear, with some referring to social networking services as social media. The potential for computer networking to facilitate newly improved forms of computer-mediated social interaction was suggested early on, efforts to support social networks via computer-mediated communication were made in many early online services, including Usenet, ARPANET, LISTSERV, and bulletin board services. Many prototypical features of social networking sites were present in online services such as America Online, Prodigy, CompuServe, ChatNet. Early social networking on the World Wide Web began in the form of generalized online communities such as Theglobe. com, Geocities, some communities – such as Classmates. com – took a different approach by simply having people link to each other via email addresses. In the late 1990s, user profiles became a feature of social networking sites, allowing users to compile lists of friends. New social networking methods were developed by the end of the 1990s and it also became one of the first companies to profit from the sale of virtual goods. Friendster was followed by MySpace and LinkedIn a year later, friendster became very popular in the Pacific Islands. Orkut became the first popular social networking service in Brazil and quickly grew in popularity in India, attesting to the rapid increase in social networking sites popularity, by 2005, it was reported that Myspace was getting more page views than Google. Facebook, launched in 2004, became the largest social networking site in the world in early 2009, Facebook was first introduced as a Harvard social networking site, expanding to other universities and eventually, anyone. The term social media was introduced and soon became widespread, web-based social networking services make it possible to connect people who share interests and activities across political, economic, and geographic borders
17.
Role-playing game
–
A role-playing game is a game in which players assume the roles of characters in a fictional setting. Players take responsibility for acting out these roles within a narrative, actions taken within many games succeed or fail according to a formal system of rules and guidelines. There are several forms of RPG, the original form, sometimes called the tabletop RPG, is conducted through discussion, whereas in live action role-playing games players physically perform their characters actions. In both of these forms, an arranger called a game master usually decides on the rules and setting to be used, acting as referee, while each of the other players plays the role of a single character. Several varieties of RPG also exist in media, such as multi-player text-based MUDs and their graphics-based successors. These games often share settings and rules with tabletop RPGs, despite this variety of forms, some game forms such as trading card games and wargames that are related to role-playing games may not be included. Role-playing activity may sometimes be present in games, but it is not the primary focus. The term is sometimes used to describe roleplay simulation games and exercises used in teaching, training. Both authors and major publishers of tabletop role-playing games consider them to be a form of interactive and collaborative storytelling, events, characters, and narrative structure give a sense of a narrative experience, and the game need not have a strongly-defined storyline. Interactivity is the difference between role-playing games and traditional fiction. Whereas a viewer of a show is a passive observer. Such role-playing games extend an older tradition of storytelling games where a party of friends collaborate to create a story. Participants in a game will generate specific characters and an ongoing plot. A consistent system of rules and a more or less realistic campaign setting in games aids suspension of disbelief, the level of realism in games ranges from just enough internal consistency to set up a believable story or credible challenge up to full-blown simulations of real-world processes. There is also a variety of systems of rules and game settings. Games that emphasize plot and character interaction over game mechanics and combat sometimes prefer the name storytelling game and these types of games tend to minimize or altogether eliminate the use of dice or other randomizing elements. Some games are played with characters created before the game by the GM and this type of game is typically played at gaming conventions, or in standalone games that do not form part of a campaign. Tabletop and pen-and-paper RPGs are conducted through discussion in a social gathering
18.
Sovereignty
–
Sovereignty is understood in jurisprudence as the full right and power of a governing body to govern itself without any interference from outside sources or bodies. In political theory, sovereignty is a term designating supreme authority over some polity. It is a basic principle underlying the dominant Westphalian model of state foundation, derived from Latin through French souveraineté, its attainment and retention, in both Chinese and Western culture, has traditionally been associated with certain moral imperatives upon any claimant. The concept of sovereignty has been discussed throughout history, and is still actively debated and it has changed in its definition, concept, and application throughout, especially during the Age of Enlightenment. The current notion of state sovereignty contains four aspects consisting of territory, population, authority, Sovereignty is a hypothetical trade, in which two potentially conflicting sides, respecting de facto realities of power, exchange such recognitions as their least costly strategy. The Roman jurist Ulpian observed that, The imperium of the people is transferred to the Emperor, the Emperor is not bound by the law. Emperor is the law making and abiding force, Ulpian was expressing the idea that the Emperor exercised a rather absolute form of sovereignty, although he did not use the term expressly. Classical Ulpians statements were known in medieval Europe, but sovereignty was an important concept in medieval times, Medieval monarchs were not sovereign, at least not strongly so, because they were constrained by, and shared power with, their feudal aristocracy. Furthermore, both were strongly constrained by custom, Sovereignty existed during the Medieval Period as the de jure rights of nobility and royalty, and in the de facto capability of individuals to make their own choices in life. 1380–1400, the issue of sovereignty was addressed in Geoffrey Chaucers Middle English collection of Canterbury Tales. The story revolves around the knight Sir Gawain granting to Dame Ragnell, his new bride, what is purported to be wanted most by women and we desire most from men, From men both lund and poor, To have sovereignty without lies. For where we have sovereignty, all is ours, Though a knight be ever so fierce and it is our desire to have master Over such a sir. Jean Bodin, partly in reaction to the chaos of the French wars of religion, in his 1576 treatise Les Six Livres de la République Bodin argued that it is inherent in the nature of the state that the sovereign must have both great and perpetual authority. Bodin rejected the notion of transference of sovereignty from people to the ruler, however, although he is often connected with absolutism, Bodin held some moderate opinions on how government should in practice be carried out. Thus, Bodin’s sovereign was restricted by the law of the state. Bodin believed that “the most divine, most excellent, and the form most proper to royalty is governed partly aristocratically and partly democratically”. With his doctrine that sovereignty is conferred by law, Bodin predefined the scope of the divine right of kings. During the Age of Enlightenment, the idea of sovereignty gained both legal and moral force as the main Western description of the meaning and power of a State
19.
Nation state
–
A state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity, whilst a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term nation state implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it. The concept of a state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state, city state, empire, confederation. The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the nation state, the origins and early history of nation states are disputed. A major theoretical question is, Which came first, the nation or the nation state and it was with these intellectual discoveries and technological advances that the nation state arose. For others, the nation existed first, then nationalist movements arose for sovereignty, some modernization theories of nationalism see it as a product of government policies to unify and modernize an already existing state. Most theories see the state as a 19th-century European phenomenon, facilitated by developments such as state-mandated education, mass literacy. However, historians note the early emergence of a relatively unified state and identity in Portugal. In France, Eric Hobsbawm argues, the French state preceded the formation of the French people, Hobsbawm considers that the state made the French nation, not French nationalism, which emerged at the end of the 19th century, the time of the Dreyfus Affair. At the time of the 1789 French Revolution, only half of the French people spoke some French, during the Italian unification, the number of people speaking the Italian language was even lower. The French state promoted the unification of various dialects and languages into the French language, the introduction of conscription and the Third Republics 1880s laws on public instruction, facilitated the creation of a national identity, under this theory. Some nation states, such as Germany and Italy, came into existence at least partly as a result of campaigns by nationalists. In both cases, the territory was divided among other states, some of them very small. The sense of identity was at first a cultural movement, such as in the Völkisch movement in German-speaking states. In these cases, the nationalist sentiment and the nationalist movement clearly precede the unification of the German and Italian nation states, some authors deconstruct the distinction between ethnic nationalism and civic nationalism because of the ambiguity of the concepts. They argue that the case of Ernest Renan is an idealisation and it should be interpreted within the German tradition. For example, they argue that the used by Renan at the conference What is a nation. Are not consistent with his thinking and this alleged civic conception of the nation would be determined only by the case of the loss gives Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War
20.
Conch Republic
–
The Conch Republic is a micronation declared as a tongue-in-cheek secession of the city of Key West, Florida, from the United States on April 23,1982. It has been maintained as a booster for the city since. While the protests sparked the creation of the Conch Republic have been described by some as tongue-in-cheek. The original protest event was motivated by a U. S, border Patrol roadblock and checkpoint that greatly inconvenienced residents and tourists. The Conch Republic celebrates Independence Day every April 23 as part of a festival of activities involving numerous businesses in Key West. The official stringed instrument of The Conch Republic is the Conchalele, the Rock Lives On Millionaire Gallery, on Duval Street in Key West, recently had one on display. Bob MacPhail, a Speech Professor at Florida SouthWestern State College in Fort Myers, david Herzog and Chuck Fox of the Island Time Band entertain with it touring throughout the Florida Keys and the Mid West. Vehicles were stopped and searched for narcotics and illegal immigrants, the Key West City Council complained repeatedly about the inconvenience for travelers to and from Key West, claiming that it hurt the Keys important tourism industry. When the City Councils complaints went unanswered by the U. S, in the eyes of the Council, since the U. S. federal government had set up the equivalent of a border station as if they were a foreign nation, they might as well become one. As many of the citizens were referred to as Conchs. Conch Republic officials were invited to the Summit of the Americas in Miami in 1994, the faux secession and the events surrounding it generated great publicity for the Keys plight — the roadblock and inspection station were removed soon afterward. It also resulted in the creation of a new avenue of tourism for the Keys, on September 20,1995, it was reported that the 478th Civil Affairs Battalion of the United States Army Reserve was to conduct a training exercise simulating an invasion of a foreign island. They were to land on Key West and conduct affairs as if the islanders were foreign, however, no one from the 478th notified Conch officials of the exercise. The action was dubbed a full invasion by the Conch Republic. When officials attempted to enter the monument, they were cited, when the citation was contested in court the following year, the resultant case, The United States of America v. Peter Anderson, was quickly dropped. In yet another protest on January 13,2006, Peter Anderson purported to annex the abandoned span of Seven Mile Bridge, the move was in response to a recent event regarding Cuban refugees. On the previous January 4, fifteen Cuban refugees reached the bridge, border Patrol because the U. S. government had declared the bridge a wet feet location under the wet feet, dry feet policy. Anderson, seizing upon the U. S. s apparent disavowal of the abandoned span and he expressed hope to use the bridge for affordable, ecologically friendly housing
21.
Key West International Airport
–
Key West International Airport is an international airport located in Monroe County, Florida, two miles east of Key West. Flights departing from EYW often have weight restrictions because the runway is only 4,801 feet long. Key Wests aviation history began in 1913, with a flight to Cuba by Augustin Parla, in 1928, Pan American Airways began scheduled flights from Key West. After the war, the city took over what became Key West Municipal Airport, in January 1953, the city gave Monroe County the title to Meacham Field, allowing the county to apply for Federal Aviation Administration grants. Around the same time, the airport became Key West International Airport, National Airlines began flights to Miami in the mid 1940s with Lockheed Lodestar twin prop aircraft, although the airport did not have a paved runway until around 1956. National served Key West for nearly 25 years and later operated Convair 340 and Convair 440 prop aircraft, as well as Lockheed L-188 Electra turboprops, in 1968, National began the first jet flights into Key West with Boeing 727-100s, providing nonstop service to Miami. Several other airlines began operating jet service into Key West. In 1979, Air Florida was operating five nonstop flights a day to Miami with Boeing 737 jetliners, in 1987, Eastern Airlines was operating daily mainline Boeing 727-100 jet service nonstop to Miami. By 1989, Piedmont Airlines was operating six nonstop flights a day to Miami with Fokker F28 Fellowship twin jets and this F28 jet service was then continued by USAir following its acquisition of and merger with Piedmont. More recently, Southwest Airlines, following its acquisition of AirTran, operated Boeing 737-700 jet service into the airport, including flights from New Orleans, Orlando. However, Southwest subsequently ceased all service to the airport, American Eagle later operated ATR-72 propjets into the airport before introducing regional jet service. Delta Connection subsequently introduced regional jet service as well, piston engine twin prop aircraft flown by commuter air carriers serving Key West included the Cessna 402, Douglas DC-3, Martin 2-0-2, Martin 4-0-4 and Piper Navajo. Key West International Airport covers 334 acres at an elevation of 3 feet and its one runway, 9/27, is 4,801 by 100 feet asphalt. The airport has two terminals designed by Mark Mosko and Dwane Stark of URS, Mosko also worked on Baltimore–Washington International Airport, the older ground-level terminal building opened in 1957 and now serves arriving passengers. The terminal was expanded with the addition of a second building elevated over the lot in February 2009. With an area of about 30,000 square feet, it more than doubled the airports terminal space, the newer building includes an elevated roadway and houses ticketing, check-in, and the airports security checkpoint. The older building was renovated with the former ticketing area becoming an expanded departure gate lounge. The two buildings are connected by an enclosed walkway, parking for 300 vehicles is at ground level beneath the newer terminal—150 spaces for rental cars and 150 for the public
22.
Montevideo Convention
–
The Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States is a treaty signed at Montevideo, Uruguay, on December 26,1933, during the Seventh International Conference of American States. The Convention codifies the declarative theory of statehood as accepted as part of international law. At the conference, United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Secretary of State Cordell Hull declared the Good Neighbor Policy, the convention was signed by 19 states. The acceptance of three of the signatories was subject to minor reservations and those states were Brazil, Peru and the United States. The convention became operative on December 26,1934 and it was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on January 8,1936. The convention sets out the definition, rights and duties of statehood, furthermore, the first sentence of article 3 explicitly states that The political existence of the state is independent of recognition by the other states. This is known as the theory of statehood. A basic point should be emphasized, Article 1 is qualified by Article 11 because it prohibits using military force to gain recognition of sovereignty. Furthermore, Article 11 reflects the contemporary Stimson Doctrine, and is now a part of international law through article 2 paragraph 4 of the Charter of the United Nations. Some have questioned whether these criteria are sufficient, as they allow less-recognized entities like the Republic of China to claim status as states. According to the constitutive theory of statehood, a state exists only insofar as it is recognized by other states. It should not be confused with the Estrada doctrine, the conference is also notable in American history because one of the U. S. representatives was social worker and educator Dr. Sophonisba Preston Breckinridge. She was the first U. S. female representative at an international conference, in most cases, the only avenue open to self-determination for colonial or national ethnic minority populations was to achieve international legal personality as a nation-state. The majority of delegations at the International Conference of American States represented independent States that had emerged from former colonies, in most cases, their own existence and independence had been disputed, or opposed, by one or more of the European colonial empires. They agreed among themselves to criteria that made it easier for other dependent states with limited sovereignty to international recognition. Independence and sovereignty are not mentioned in article 1 of the convention, the 16 states that have ratified this convention are limited to the Americas. Notes A further four states signed the Convention on 26 December 1933, the only state to attend the Seventh International Conference of American States, where the convention was agreed upon, which did not sign it was Bolivia. Costa Rica, which did not attend the conference, later signed the convention, the committee also found that the existence of states was a question of fact, while the recognition by other states was purely declaratory and not a determinative factor of statehood
23.
Principality of Hutt River
–
The Principality of Hutt River is a micronation in Australia. The principality is located 517 km north of Perth, near the town of Northampton in the state of Western Australia and it has an area of 75 square kilometres, making it larger than several independent countries. The Principality of Hutt River is a regional tourist attraction, and issues its own currency, stamps, the micronation was founded on 21 April 1970 by Leonard Casley, who declared his farm to be an independent country under the name Hutt River Province. He attempted to secede from Australia over a dispute surrounding wheat production quotas, a few years later, Casley began styling himself Prince Leonard and granting family members royal titles, although he did not include the word principality in his countrys official name until 2006. The Casley farm had around 4,000 hectares of wheat ready to harvest when the quotas were issued, which allowed Casley to sell only 1,647 bushels or approximately 40 hectares. Initially, the five families who owned farms at Hutt River banded together to fight the quota, and Casley lodged a protest with the Governor of Western Australia, Sir Douglas Kendrew. Casley believed that because the Governor acts as the Queens representative, Casley lodged a claim under the law of tort for A$52 million in the belief the claim would force a revision of the quota. Two weeks later, Casley claims the government introduced a bill into Parliament to resume his, Casley has said that he nonetheless remains loyal to Queen Elizabeth II. Casley claims that the Government of Western Australia determined it could do nothing about his purported secession without the intervention of the Commonwealth, in correspondence with the Governor-Generals office, Casley says he was on one occasion inadvertently addressed as the Administrator of the Hutt River Province. Casley believes this constitutes legally binding recognition of the Province and he apparently reasoned this from the fact that the Governor-General is, via Royal Prerogative, the Queens representative. After this supposed threat, Casley styled himself His Majesty Prince Leonard I of Hutt, Casley believes that under Australian law the federal government had two years to respond to Casleys declaration, although there appears to be no basis for this belief. Casley says the failure to respond gave the province de facto autonomy on 21 April 1972, Casley accepts that the Western Australian state government can still dispute the secession. In 1976, it is said that Australia Post refused to handle Hutt River mail, on 15 February 1977, Casley was successfully prosecuted for failing to comply with requirements to furnish the Australian Taxation Office with required documents. This action contradicts many of Casleys claims that the Australian Government has somehow acquiesced to the secession of the Principality, on 2 December 1977 the province officially declared war on Australia. Leonard Casley notified authorities of the cessation of several days later. Casley believes that he had set a persuasive precedent for international recognition of Hutt River under the Geneva Conventions. It is unclear why Casley believes this, as the Geneva Conventions do not say anything about the recognition of sovereign states. Casley claims that in 1980, the Principalitys mail service was restored after a Perth court ruled that Hutt River currency and postage stamps were valid and it is unclear why a Perth court would ever have been called upon to rule upon such a matter
24.
Grand Duchy of Flandrensis
–
The Grand Duchy of Flandrensis is a micronation with claims over some territories of Antarctica, which was founded in 2008 by the Belgian Niels Vermeersch. Flandrensis is not recognised by any country or government, nor is it their intention to be recognized as a country, the Grand Duchy of Flandrensis was founded on September 4,2008. The Micronation is inspired by the medieval County of Flanders, Flandrensis is regarded by the founder as a hobby-micronation, still the micronation has its own identity cards, currency, newspaper, constitution and national anthem. Flandrensis is also a simulation with political parties like the APPF, DRP, NPF, FDUP, FL-AL, Lijst Govaert and L&S. Professor Alastair Bonnett of the University of Newcastle described Flandrensis as an example of a micronation that is inspired by a city council in which people learn to make decisions. The founder also describes Flandrensis as a cultural organisation, Flandrensis has also a Commonwealth that unites only Dutch-speaking micronations, the Grand Duchy of Flandrensis, the Principality of Arkel and the Duchy of Campinia. Flandrensis has been mentioned in Belgian regional media like the Krant van West-Vlaanderen, in 2015 Flandrensis was also present on the 3rd International Conference on Micronations in Perugia. Flandrensis is one of the few micronations whose coverage of the elections were published by local media, in 2014 the micronation was the theme of the television show Normale Mensen on the Belgian channel Één. The capital of Grand Duchy of Flandrensis is Giddis, Flandrensis is regarded by the founder as an ecological venture, to raise awareness on ice melting. Flandrensis has no intentions to visit their claims, the territorial claims of Flandrensis are a statement to the international community and they claim that the micronation is the only country in the world that doesnt want any people on its territory. Niels Vermeersch sent letters to the United Nations, the European Union, all of these countries ignored Niels and his claim. Because of the claims, a conflict with the micronation Westarctica arose in 2010. Coverage of this appeared in the Dutch Columbus magazine, the Croatian newssite Telegram. In 2010 the on-line Russian newspaper Chastny Korrespondent published an article about Antarctic micronations, the flag of Flandrensis is inspired by the first Belgian flag of 1830. The original Belgian flags yellow band has replaced by white which symbolises a new beginning. For the same there are also two lions on the coat of arms, based on the Flemish lion. In 2015 the Belgian author Julien Oeuillet published the book Le business des vanités, enquête sur les arnaques à la noblesse about the subject of fake nobility, the book mentions several micronations like Hutt River, Araucanía and Patagonia and Flandrensis. Neither the founder nor the use them outside the community of micronations
25.
Republic of Molossia
–
Molossia, also known as the self-proclaimed Republic of Molossia, is a micronation in the United States, founded by Kevin Baugh and headquartered at his home near Dayton, Nevada. The Republic of Molossia has claimed itself a nation but it is not recognized as a country by the United Nations or any other country. It consists of Baughs house, about 0.01 acres in size and it used to claim a property in Pennsylvania as well. Molossia was established as a project in 1977, and evolved into a territorial entity in the late 1990s. The name Molossia is derived from the Hawaiian word maluhia which means “peace, safety, Baugh has stated the ancient Greek tribe of Molossians is unrelated. On September 3,1999, Baugh created the Republic of Molossia as a successor to a childhood make-believe kingdom called the Grand Republic of Vuldstein, on November 13,2012, Baugh created a petition on the WhiteHouse. gov We the People website requesting recognition of the micronation. However, his petition did not gain enough signatures for recognition, on April 11,2015, Baugh hosted Micro-Con 2015 in Anaheim Central Library in California. Micro-Con was created to attract attention to the micronational world. On April 16,2016, Baugh hosted a tour of his nation and it is the Baugh familys primary place of residence, and the site of Molossias designated capital, Baughston. Baughston was renamed from Espera on 30 July 2013 to commemorate President Baughs 51st birthday, the United States of Americas street address for Kevin Baughs house is 226 Mary Lane Road, Dayton, NV89403. The Protectorate of New Antrim was located at a location in Pennsylvania and was the largest of Molossias territories at a little over 8 acres in extent. It was named after County Antrim in Northern Ireland and had its own governor and it is no longer claimed by Molossia. In August 2003, Baugh purchased a piece of rural land in Northern California. This was referred to the Colony of Farfalla, the property was sold late in 2005, after Baugh inherited more land which he subsequently named Desert Homestead Province, in Southern California. Desert Homestead had been owned by Baughs grandfather, and the property has been declared a monument dedicated to him. In early 2015 a Farfalla Colony became Molossian territory again, vesperia is the name of Molossias claim of 49,881 square miles on the planet of Venus. Molossia claims a spot named Neptune Deep in the North Pacific Ocean, the Republic of Molossia claims to be a sovereign, independent nation-state, completely surrounded by the United States. As a result, it has adopted a system of government recognizably similar in structure to that of a sovereign state, same-sex marriage has been legal in Molossia since 2002
26.
Principality of Seborga
–
The principality is in coexistence with, and claims the territory of, the town of Seborga. Allegedly on 20 January 1729, this independent principality was sold to the Savoy dynasty, the Unification of Italy in 1861 and the Italian Republic in 1946 would therefore illegitimate and unilateral acts, because they violate the legitimate sovereignty of the people of Seborga. The exile of the Savoy, in 1946, involved also the end of ius patronatus, in the early 1960s, Giorgio Carbone, began promoting the idea that Seborga restore its historic independence as a principality. By 1963 the people of Seborga were sufficiently convinced of these arguments to elect Carbone as their Head of State and he then assumed the style and title His Serene Highness Giorgio I, Prince of Seborga, which he held until his death in 2009. Carbones status as Prince was confirmed on 23 April 1995, when Seborgans voted 304 in favour,4 against, for the Principalitys constitution, Prince Giorgio I reigned until his death on 25 November 2009. His successor Marcello Menegatto was elected on 25 April 2010 and crowned on 22 May 2010, the monarchs position is not hereditary and elections are held in Seborga every seven years. The 2017 election is to be held on 23 April and her claim was contested by the then-prince, Giorgio I, who asserted that there were no credible sources supporting her, and said, Pah. No one’s ever even seen her as far as I know, I call her the internet princess. Since 22 February 2016 Nicolas Mutte, a French writer, claims to replace Marcello I. In the 2017 election, and Marcellos position is being contested by Mark Dezzani, a British-born radio DJ from Crawley, West Sussex, in England, according to the constitution of Seborga, the reigning monarch has to rule under advisement by his Privy Council. Four members of the Council are elected by the citizens of Seborga while other members can be named by the Prince himself, the Privy Council is the executive in the principality. Micronations Official website Official English-language blog La Gazzetta di Seborga
27.
Caribbean
–
The Caribbean is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands and the surrounding coasts. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region comprises more than 700 islands, islets, reefs and cays. These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea, in a wider sense, the mainland countries of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana are often included due to their political and cultural ties with the region. Geopolitically, the Caribbean islands are usually regarded as a subregion of North America and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. From December 15,1954, to October 10,2010, there was a known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations, the region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest. The two most prevalent pronunciations of Caribbean are KARR-ə-BEE-ən, with the accent on the third syllable. The former pronunciation is the older of the two, although the variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer KARR-ə-BEE-ən while North American speakers more typically use kə-RIB-ee-ən, usage is split within Caribbean English itself. The word Caribbean has multiple uses and its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to slavery, European colonisation, the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas accords the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas. Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea, to the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America, politically, the Caribbean may be centred on socio-economic groupings found in the region. For example, the known as the Caribbean Community contains the Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Bermuda and the Turks and Caicos Islands, which are in the Atlantic Ocean, are members of the Caribbean Community. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is also in the Atlantic and is a member of the Caribbean Community. According to the ACS, the population of its member states is 227 million people. The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies, Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin and these islands include Aruba, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua
28.
Minerva Reefs
–
The Minerva Reefs, briefly de facto independent in 1972 as the Republic of Minerva, are a group of two submerged atolls located in the Pacific Ocean south of Fiji and Tonga. The reefs were named after the whaleship Minerva, wrecked on what became known as South Minerva after setting out from Sydney in 1829, many other ships would follow, for example the Strathcona, which was sailing north soon after completion in Auckland in 1914. In both cases most of the crew saved themselves in whaleboats or rafts and reached the Lau Islands in Fiji, of some other ships, however, no survivors are known. It is not known when the reefs were first discovered but had been marked on charts as Nicholsons Shoal since the late 1820s. Capt H. M. Denham of the HMS Herald surveyed the reefs in 1854, the Republic of Minerva was a micronation consisting of the Minerva Reefs. It was one of the few attempts at creating a sovereign micronation on the reclaimed land of an artificial island in 1972. The architect was Las Vegas real estate millionaire and political activist Michael Oliver, lithuanian-born Oliver formed a syndicate, the Ocean Life Research Foundation, which allegedly had some $100,000,000 for the project and had offices in New York City and London. They anticipated a libertarian society with no taxation, welfare, subsidies, in addition to tourism and fishing, the economy of the new nation would include light industry and other commerce. According to Glen Raphael, The chief reason that the Minerva project failed was that the libertarians who were involved did not want to fight for their territory, according to Reason, Minerva has been more or less reclaimed by the sea. In 1971, barges loaded with sand arrived from Australia, bringing the level above the water and allowing construction of a small tower. The Republic of Minerva issued a declaration of independence on 19 January 1972, in letters to neighboring countries, in February 1972, Morris C. Davis was elected as Provisional President of the Republic of Minerva. The declaration of independence, however, was greeted with suspicion by other countries in the area. A conference of the states met on 24 February 1972 at which Tonga made a claim over the Minerva Reefs. On 15 June 1972, the proclamation was published in a Tongan government gazette. It reached North Minerva on 18 June 1972, the Flag of the Tonga was raised on 19 June 1972 on North Minerva and on South Minerva on 21 June 1972. Tonga’s claim was recognized by the South Pacific Forum in September 1972, meanwhile, Provisional President Davis was fired by founder Michael Oliver and the project collapsed in confusion. In 1982, a group of Americans led again by Morris C. “Bud” Davis tried to occupy the reefs, in recent years several groups have allegedly sought to re-establish Minerva. No known claimant group since 1982 has made any attempt to take possession of the Minerva Reefs, in 2005, Fiji made it clear that they did not recognize any maritime water claims by Tonga to the Minerva Reefs under the UNCLOS agreements
29.
Fiji
–
Fiji, officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about 1,100 nautical miles northeast of New Zealands North Island. Fiji is an archipelago of more than 330 islands, of which 110 are permanently inhabited, the two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, account for 87% of the population of almost 860,000. The capital, Suva on Viti Levu, serves as Fijis principal cruise port, about three-quarters of Fijians live on Viti Levus coasts, either in Suva or in smaller urban centres like Nadi or Lautoka. Viti Levus interior is sparsely inhabited due to its terrain, Fiji has one of the most developed economies in the Pacific due to an abundance of forest, mineral, and fish resources. Today, the sources of foreign exchange are its tourist industry. The countrys currency is the Fijian dollar, Fijis local government, in the form of city and town councils, is supervised by the Ministry of Local Government and Urban Development. The majority of Fijis islands were formed through volcanic activity starting around 150 million years ago, today, some geothermal activity still occurs on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni. Fiji has been inhabited since the second millennium BC, and was settled first by Austronesians and later by Melanesians, Europeans visited Fiji from the 17th century, and, after a brief period as an independent kingdom, the British established the Colony of Fiji in 1874. Fiji was a Crown colony until 1970, when it gained independence as a Commonwealth realm, a republic was declared in 1987, following a series of coups détat. In a coup in 2006, Commodore Frank Bainimarama seized power, later in 2009, Iloilo was replaced as President by Ratu Epeli Nailatikau. After years of delays, an election was held on 17 September 2014. Bainimaramas FijiFirst party won with 59. 2% of the vote, Fijis main island is known as Viti Levu and it is from this that the name Fiji is derived, though the common English pronunciation is based on that of their island neighbours in Tonga. Its emergence can be described as follows, Fijians first impressed themselves on European consciousness through the writings of the members of the expeditions of Cook who met them in Tonga. They were described as warriors and ferocious cannibals, builders of the finest vessels in the Pacific. They inspired awe amongst the Tongans, and all their Manufactures, especially bark cloth and clubs, were highly valued and much in demand. They called their home Viti, but the Tongans called it Fisi, and it was by this foreign pronunciation, Fiji, first promulgated by Captain James Cook, that these islands are now known. Feejee, the Anglicised spelling of the Tongan pronunciation, was used in accounts and other writings until the late 19th century, by missionaries and other travellers visiting Fiji. Pottery art from Fijian towns shows that Fiji was settled before or around 3500 to 1000 BC, the first settlements in Fiji were started by voyaging traders and settlers from the west about 5000 years ago
30.
Tonga
–
Tonga, officially the Kingdom of Tonga, is a Polynesian sovereign state and archipelago comprising 169 islands of which 36 are inhabited. The total surface area is about 750 square kilometres scattered over 700,000 square kilometres of the southern Pacific Ocean and it has a population of 103,000 people of whom 70% reside on the main island of Tongatapu. Tonga stretches across approximately 800 kilometres in a north-south line and it is surrounded by Fiji and Wallis and Futuna to the northwest, Samoa to the northeast, Niue to the east, Kermadec to the southwest, and New Caledonia and Vanuatu to the farther west. Tonga became known in the West as the Friendly Islands because of the reception accorded to Captain James Cook on his first visit in 1773. He arrived at the time of the festival, the yearly donation of the First Fruits to the Tuʻi Tonga. According to the writer William Mariner, the wanted to kill Cook during the gathering. From 1900 to 1970, Tonga had British protected state status, the country never relinquished its sovereignty to any foreign power. In many Polynesian languages including Tongan, the word tonga means south, the name of Tonga is cognate to the Hawaiian region of Kona. In Malay, the name of Tonga is also cognate to the word Tenggara, an Austronesian-speaking group linked to the archaeological construct known as the Lapita cultural complex reached and inhabited Tonga around 1500–1000 BCE. Scholars have much debated the exact dates of the settlement of Tonga. Not much is known before European contact because of the lack of a writing system, in the 15th century and again in the 17th, civil war erupted. The Tongan people first encountered Europeans in 1616 when the Dutch vessel Eendracht, captained by Willem Schouten, later came other Dutch explorers, including Jacob Le Maire, and in 1643 Abel Tasman. In 1845, the young warrior, strategist, and orator Tāufaʻāhau united Tonga into a kingdom. He held the title of Tuʻi Kanokupolu, but had been baptised by Methodist missionaries with the name Siaosi in 1831. Tonga became a state under a Treaty of Friendship with Britain on 18 May 1900. The treaty posted no higher permanent representative on Tonga than a British Consul, under the protection of Britain, Tonga maintained its sovereignty, and remained the only Pacific nation to retain its monarchical government. The Tongan monarchy follows a succession of hereditary rulers from one family. The 1918 flu pandemic, brought to Tonga by a ship from New Zealand, killed 1,800 Tongans, the Treaty of Friendship and Tongas protection status ended in 1970 under arrangements established by Queen Salote Tupou III prior to her death in 1965
31.
Principality of Freedonia
–
The Principality of Freedonia was a micronation based on libertarian principles. It was created as a project by a group of teenagers in the United States in 1992. The project was formalized as a new project in 1997. The attempt to land was rejected, and a riot ensued in response to the attempt. It was headed by a Texas university student named John Kyle, who uses the title Prince John, mlk is the new general of FreeDonia I. The Principality of Freedonia itself was based in Boston, Massachusetts, while the Freedonia project was active, it minted its own currency. It had a number of 50 Freedonian dollar 1 oz silver coins minted and it offered these coins for sale on the organizations website. E-mail statements from the founder indicate that the project is not being pursued as of 2004. As of 2013, the Freedonia website is no longer available, in 2014 Jlk started a Facebook page about Freedoniajlk
32.
Somaliland
–
Somaliland, officially the Republic of Somaliland, is a self-declared state internationally recognised as an autonomous region of Somalia. Somaliland lies in northwestern Somalia, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Aden and it is bordered by Puntland State of Somalia to the east, Djibouti to the northwest, and Ethiopia to the south and west. Its claimed territory has an area of 137,600 square kilometres, the capital and the largest city is Hargeisa, with the population of around 1,200,000 residents. In 1988, the Siad Barre regime launched a crackdown against the Hargeisa-based Somali National Movement and other militant groups, the conflict left the countrys economic and military infrastructure severely damaged. Since then, the territory has been governed by elected governments that seek international recognition as the Government of the Republic of Somaliland. The central government maintains informal ties with foreign governments, who have sent delegations to Hargeisa. Ethiopia also maintains an office in the region. However, Somalilands self-proclaimed independence remains unrecognised by any country or international organisation and it is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, an advocacy group whose members consist of indigenous peoples, minorities, and unrecognised or occupied territories. The earliest human artefacts in the area are the Laas Geel cave paintings, the region is sometimes thought to be part of the Land of Punt. Islam was introduced to the northern Somali littoral early on from the Arabian peninsula, various Muslim Somali kingdoms were formed around this period in the area. In the 14th century, the Zeila-based Adal Sultanate battled the forces of the Ethiopian emperor Amda Seyon I, the Ottoman Empire later occupied Berbera and environs in the 1500s. Muhammad Ali, Pasha of Egypt, subsequently established a foothold in the area between 1821 and 1841, the British garrisoned the protectorate from Aden and administered it as part of British India until 1898. British Somaliland was then administered by the Foreign Office until 1905, generally, the British did not have much interest in the resource-barren region. The stated purposes of the establishment of the protectorate were to secure a supply market, check the traffic in slaves, hence, the regions nickname of Adens butchers shop. Colonial administration during this period did not extend administrative infrastructure beyond the coast, on 1 July 1960, the protectorate and the Trust Territory of Somaliland united as planned to form the Somali Republic. A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa, with Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President, on 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum, the Somali people ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in 1960. In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke, Shermarke was assassinated two years later by one of his own bodyguards. His murder was followed by a military coup détat on 21 October 1969
33.
Republic of Rose Island
–
The Republic of Rose Island was a short-lived micronation on a man-made platform in the Adriatic Sea,11 kilometres off the coast of the province of Rimini, Italy. Some reports also mention the presence of a station. The platform declared independence on 24 June 1968, under the Esperanto name Insulo de la Rozoj, both Esperanto rozo and Italian rosa mean rose. Soon afterwards Rose Island issued a number of stamps, including a showing the approximate location of Rose Island in the Adriatic Sea. The purported currency of the republic was the Mill and this appeared on the stamp issues. This denomination was translated into Esperanto as Miloj on later stamp issues, Rosas actions were viewed by the Italian government as a ploy to raise money from tourists while avoiding national taxation. On 13 February 1969, the Italian Navy used explosives to destroy the facility, sealand – a declared principality near the United Kingdom which is built on a World War II sea fort. Republic of Minerva – a short-lived artificial island micronation in the Pacific Ocean, REM Island, a platform towed into international waters for the purposes of offshore radio broadcasting. Rose Island, A Dream of Freedom, how to Start Your Own Country. Republics of the Reefs, Nation-Building on the Continental Shelf and in the Worlds Oceans, Italian language website discussing the history of Rose Island and its postage stamps. Includes a scan of part of a newspaper article. LInsulo de Rozoj. storia di una fiaba di costume fine anni 60. and comments from the daughter of one of the people responsible for the destruction
34.
Giorgio Rosa
–
The Republic of Rose Island was a short-lived micronation on a man-made platform in the Adriatic Sea,11 kilometres off the coast of the province of Rimini, Italy. Some reports also mention the presence of a station. The platform declared independence on 24 June 1968, under the Esperanto name Insulo de la Rozoj, both Esperanto rozo and Italian rosa mean rose. Soon afterwards Rose Island issued a number of stamps, including a showing the approximate location of Rose Island in the Adriatic Sea. The purported currency of the republic was the Mill and this appeared on the stamp issues. This denomination was translated into Esperanto as Miloj on later stamp issues, Rosas actions were viewed by the Italian government as a ploy to raise money from tourists while avoiding national taxation. On 13 February 1969, the Italian Navy used explosives to destroy the facility, sealand – a declared principality near the United Kingdom which is built on a World War II sea fort. Republic of Minerva – a short-lived artificial island micronation in the Pacific Ocean, REM Island, a platform towed into international waters for the purposes of offshore radio broadcasting. Rose Island, A Dream of Freedom, how to Start Your Own Country. Republics of the Reefs, Nation-Building on the Continental Shelf and in the Worlds Oceans, Italian language website discussing the history of Rose Island and its postage stamps. Includes a scan of part of a newspaper article. LInsulo de Rozoj. storia di una fiaba di costume fine anni 60. and comments from the daughter of one of the people responsible for the destruction
35.
Global Country of World Peace
–
The Global Country of World Peace was inaugurated by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, the founder of Transcendental Meditation, on October 7,2000. It is a organization that promotes Transcendental Meditation, education. The GCWP was originally conceived as a country without borders for peace-loving people everywhere and it has issued a currency called the Raam, and its leader is neurologist Tony Nader. In 2002, the GCWP was incorporated in the state of Iowa and it has administrative or educational centres in the U. S. the Netherlands and Ireland. The GCWP made unsuccessful attempts to obtain sovereign land as a micronation during the years 2000 to 2002. According to a report from Bloomberg, the GCWPs tax filings describe its mission as the creation of world peace by unifying all nations in happiness prosperity, invincibility, Raam is a bearer bond and local currency issued by Global Country of World Peace. It was designed for the development of projects and to combat poverty in third world countries. As of 2003, it had limited acceptance in some European and U. S. cities. The Raam is issued in denominations of 1,5 and 10 Raams, with one Raam equal to 10 Euros in Europe, in 2002, Maharishi Vedic City Mayor Bob Wynne estimated that there was $40,000 worth of Raam in circulation. The Raam differs from other complementary currencies because its focus is on the export of products rather than improving local circulation to benefit the lives of local people. According to the Minister of Finance for the Global Country of World Peace, CATO Institute currency expert James Dorn expressed doubt about the viability of the plan, suggesting that other economic approaches would be a better way to establish a network of collective farms. According to the issuer, the Raam is also a bond that earns a total of 3% interest after five years. The Raam was used, as of 2003, alongside Euros in accordance with Dutch law in more than 100 shops in the Netherlands, the Raam was convertible in the Netherlands at the Fortis Bank in Roermond. As of 2003, the Dutch Central Bank estimated that there were approximately 100,000 Raam notes in circulation and it also had limited acceptance in the Iowan cities called Maharishi Vedic City and Fairfield. Maharishi Vedic City is the Capital of the Global Country for World Peace, the citys plan and building code follow principles of Vedic architecture. Architecture professor Keller Easterling says that Maharishi Vedic City reflects the GCWPs interest in achieving a form of global sovereignty. From 2004 to 2010 the GCWP owned the American Bank Note Company Building in New York City, when the building became a financial burden it was sold in 2010 and the organizations $5.5 million profit were earmarked for a new Manhattan teaching center and other programs. The US Peace Government has announced plans to build a capital near Smith Center, Kansas in Washington Township
36.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi
–
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi was born Mahesh Prasad Varma and became known as Maharishi and Yogi as an adult. Maharishi Mahesh Yogi became a disciple and assistant of Swami Brahmananda Saraswati, the Maharishi credits Brahmananda Saraswati with inspiring his teachings. In 1955, the Maharishi began to introduce his Transcendental Deep Meditation to India and his first global tour began in 1958. His devotees referred to him as His Holiness, and because he often laughed in TV interviews he was referred to as the giggling guru. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the Maharishi achieved fame as the guru to the Beatles, The Beach Boys, in the late 1970s, he started the TM-Sidhi programme that claimed to offer practitioners the ability to levitate and to create world peace. The Maharishis Natural Law Party was founded in 1992, and ran campaigns in dozens of countries and he moved to near Vlodrop, the Netherlands, in the same year. In 2000, he created the Global Country of World Peace, a non-profit organization, in 2008, the Maharishi announced his retirement from all administrative activities and went into silence until his death three weeks later. His initiatives include schools and universities with campuses in countries including India, Canada, the United States. The Maharishi, his family and close associates created charitable organisations and for-profit businesses including health clinics, mail-order health supplements and organic farms. The birth name, birth date, and caste of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi are not known with certainty, in part because of the tradition of ascetics, many accounts say he was born Mahesh Prasad Varma into a Kayastha family living in the Central Provinces of British India. A different name appears in the Allahabad University list of distinguished alumni, Srivastava. and an obituary says his name was Mahesh Srivastava. Various accounts give the year of his birth as 1911,1917 or 1918, authors Paul Mason and William Jefferson say that he was born 12 January 1917 in Jabalpur, Central Provinces. The place of birth given in his passport is Pounalulla India, Mahesh came from an upper-caste family, being a member of the Kayastha caste, a high-status caste whose traditional profession is writing. Mahesh studied physics at Allahabad University and earned a degree in 1942, Coplin refers to bala brahmachari as both a title and a name, and considers that it identified him as a fully dedicated student of spiritual knowledge and life-long celibate ascetic. The Maharishi recalls how it took two and a half years to attune himself to the thinking of Brahmananda Saraswati and to gain a very genuine feeling of complete oneness. At first Brahmachari Mahesh performed common chores but gained trust and became Guru Devs personal secretary and he was trusted to take care of the bulk of Swami Brahmananda Saraswatis correspondence without direction, and was also sent out to give public speeches on Vedic themes. Brahmachari Mahesh remained with Swami Brahmananda Saraswati until the latter died in 1953, although Brahmachari Mahesh was a close disciple, he could not be the Shankaracharyas spiritual successor because he was not of the Brahmin caste. The Shankaracharya, at the end of his life, charged him with the responsibility of travelling and teaching meditation to the masses, later the technique was renamed Transcendental Meditation
37.
Tony Nader
–
Tony Nader is a Lebanese neuro-scientist, researcher, university president, author and leader of the Transcendental Meditation movement. Nader worked with Deepak Chopra at the Maharishi Ayurveda Health Center in Massachusetts and in 1994, published his first book, Human physiology, Expression of Veda and he is president of both Maharishi University of Management and Maharishi Open University. Nader published his book, Ramayan In Human Physiology in 2011. In 2015 Nader founded the International Journal of Mathematics and Consciousness and is serving as the editor-in-chief. D, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the field of Brain and Cognitive Science and became a visiting physician at their Clinical Research Center. His post-doctoral work was as a clinical and research fellow at the Massachusetts General Hospital, Nader said he learned about the field of spiritual or non-physical, or non-material and how it expresses itself in the universe from the Maharishi. As a professor and director, Nader has conducted Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health programs, in 1986 Nader was criticized for overstating his post graduate connections to MIT and implying that his research was sanctioned by his alma mater. In 1987, Nader worked at the Maharishi Ayurveda Health Center in Lancaster and he also said he discovered similarities between the astrological influence of the planets and parts of the human brain. This body of work is reported to have derived from the Maharishis ideas. The gold was given to Nader as a scientific award to support his continued research. Nader performed the first research on Maharishi Vedic Vibration Technology, which aims to enliven the inner intelligence of the body, during these transitions, Nader was reportedly given various titles including Vishwa Prashasak Raja Raam, Adhi Raam, and Raja Nader Raam. In 2002, Nader was invited by the mayor of Maharishi Vedic City to take residence at The Mansion Hotel, in 2008, a spokesman said Nader would reign in silence and communicate through his governing council. Nader says that his study does not conclude that the Ramayana belongs to any one religion or race or belief system, rather, the Ramayana is the story of Natural Law and how it unfolds in every individual and the universe. In 2012, Nader was the speaker on a tour of 10 cities in North American, entitled A New Paradigm, Veda, Consciousness, the Ramayana. His presentation in Chicago to 650 Indian Americans received a standing ovation, during the tour, Nader gave presentations on “Embodying Totality” and “Introductory Seminar on the Ramayan in Human Physiology. During his 2014 course, Hacking Consciousness, at Stanford University, he presented its mathematical framework
38.
Maharishi Vedic City, Iowa
–
Maharishi Vedic City is a city in Jefferson County, Iowa, United States. The population was 259 at the 2010 census, the city was first incorporated in 2001 as Vedic City but then officially changed its name to Maharishi Vedic City five months later. It was the first city to incorporate in Iowa since 1982, Maharishi Vedic City consists of approximately one square mile, located about four miles north of Fairfield, the home of Maharishi University of Management. The city plan and buildings are based on Maharishi Sthapatya Veda and its goals are to protect, nourish, and satisfy everyone, upholding the different social, cultural, and religious traditions while maintaining the integrity and progress of the city as a whole. The concept of a Vedic City was conceived by the Maharishi, the first resolution of the city council proclaimed the constitution of the city to be the same as the Constitution of the Universe — Total Natural Law — RK Veda. More than a dozen developers purchased 50 farms totaling 3,000 acres, together, they planned a city arranged in ten circles totaling about one square mile, along with paved roads, utilities, sewage and Internet. They then began the first phase of construction, which included two hotels, various houses and office buildings, after one year,46 structures had been built and more than $35 million spent on development. Planners expected the city to have a population of over 1,000 by 2010, in the early stages of development, Vedic City set aside 50 acres as land for conservation and preservation. This acreage was then transformed from fields to native prairies, wetlands. In 2002, a known as The Mansion became a headquarters for the Global Country of World Peace. The Mayor of MVC is Bob Wynne, who is also the GCWPs Raja of the Center of Vedic America, in November 2002, the city council passed an ordinance banning the sale of non-organic food within its borders. In 2003, the city began offering tours to the public and has several thousand visitors per year, the city has an organic farm and sells produce to retail outlets such as the Whole Foods Market. According to city officials in 2004, more than $200 million of capital had been invested in Fairfield. By 2006, the city consisted of more than 200 buildings, the city council voted to ban the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers within the city limits in April 2005, becoming the first all-organic city in the country. The citys residents include about 1,000 pandits from India who live on a campus on the edge of the city, the 2010 census counted 259 people, placing the pandit campus outside the city. However, city officials said the pandits were mistakenly counted as county residents rather than part of the citys population, according to the New York Times, the count was then increased to 1,294 by the Census Bureau to reflect misplaced housing. In October 2011, a show titled Americas Most Unusual Town aired on the Oprah Winfrey Network on March 25,2012. A large fenced compound houses between 300 and 1000 Pandit meditators at the edge of Vedic City as part of a program to foster peace through meditation that began in 2007
39.
Vlodrop
–
Vlodrop is a town in the south-eastern part of The Netherlands in the municipality of Roerdalen. The town is situated near the German border, about 8 km southeast of Roermond, Vlodrop was a separate municipality until 1991, when it was merged with Melick en Herkenbosch. In 2001, Vlodrop had 1995 inhabitants, the built-up area of the town was 0.51 km², and contained 850 residences. The world-famous roller coaster manufacturer Vekoma is based in Vlodrop, J. Kuyper, Gemeente Atlas van Nederland, 1865-1870, Vlodrop. Map of the municipality, around 1868
40.
Tourism
–
Tourism is travel for pleasure or business, also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours. Tourism may be international, or within the travellers country, Tourism can be domestic or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a countrys balance of payments. Today, tourism is a source of income for many countries. International tourism receipts grew to US$1.03 trillion in 2011, the ITB Berlin is the worlds leading tourism trade fair. The word tourist was used by 1772 and tourism by 1811. It is formed from the tour, which is derived from Old English turian, from Old French torner, from Latin tornare, to turn on a lathe. Tourism is an important, even vital, source of income for many regions and it also creates opportunities for employment in the service sector of the economy associated with tourism. This is in addition to goods bought by tourists, including souvenirs, in 1936, the League of Nations defined a foreign tourist as someone traveling abroad for at least twenty-four hours. Its successor, the United Nations, amended this definition in 1945 and it includes movements for all purposes. In 1981, the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism defined tourism in terms of particular activities chosen and undertaken outside the home, in this context, travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited, by contrast, traveler is often used as a sign of distinction. The sociology of tourism has studied the values underpinning these distinctions. International tourist arrivals reached 1.035 billion in 2012, up from over 996 million in 2011, the World Tourism Organization reports the following ten destinations as the most visited in terms of the number of international travellers in 2016. International tourism receipts grew to US$1.2 trillion in 2014, based upon air traffic, the MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index reports the following cities as the top ten most popular destinations of international tourism worldwide. MasterCard reports the following cities as the top ten biggest earners on international tourism worldwide in 2015, as early as Shulgi, however, kings praised themselves for protecting roads and building waystations for travelers. During the Roman Republic, spas and coastal resorts such as Baiae were popular among the rich, pausanias wrote his Description of Greece in the 2nd century AD. In ancient China, nobles sometimes made a point of visiting Mount Tai and, on occasion, the Islamic hajj is still central to its faith and Chaucers Canterbury Tales and Wu Chengens Journey to the West remain classics of English and Chinese literature. The 10th- to 13th-century Song dynasty also saw secular travel writers such as Su Shi, under the Ming, Xu Xiake continued the practice
41.
Philately
–
Philately is the study of stamps and postal history and other related items. It also refers to the collection, appreciation and research activities on stamps, Philately involves more than just stamp collecting, which does not necessarily involve the study of stamps. It is possible to be a philatelist without owning any stamps, for instance, the stamps being studied may be very rare, or reside only in museums. The word philately is the English version of the French word philatélie, Herpin stated that stamps had been collected and studied for the previous six or seven years and a better name was required for the new hobby than timbromanie, which was disliked. He took the Greek root word φιλ- phil-, meaning an attraction or affinity for something, and ἀτέλεια ateleia, meaning exempt from duties and taxes to form philatelie. The introduction of postage meant that the receipt of letters was now free of charge. The alternative terms timbromania, timbrophily and timbrology gradually fell out of use as philately gained acceptance during the 1860s. Comparison with the records of postal authorities may or may not show that the variations were intentional, which leads to further inquiry as to how the changes could have happened, and why. To make things interesting, thousands of forgeries have been produced over the years, some of them very good. Thematic philately, also known as philately, is the study of what is depicted on the stamps. There are hundreds of subjects, such as birds on stamps. A classic example is the Pony Express, which was the fastest way to send letters across the United States during the few months that it operated, covers that can be proven to have been sent by the Pony Express are highly prized by collectors. Aerophilately is the branch of history that specializes in the study of airmail. Philatelists have observed the development of transport by air from its beginning. Postal stationery includes stamped envelopes, postal cards, letter sheets, aérogrammes and wrappers, cinderella philately is the study of objects that look like stamps, but are not postal stamps. Examples include Easter Seals, Christmas Seals, propaganda labels, Philatelic literature documents the results of philatelic study and includes thousands of books and periodicals. Maximaphily is the study of Maximum Cards, Maximum Cards can be defined as a picture post card with postage stamp on the same theme and a cancellation, with a maximum concordance between all three. Philately uses a number of tools, including stamp tongs to safely handle the stamps, a magnifying glass
42.
Numismatics
–
Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money, and related objects. Early money used by people is referred to as Odd and Curious, the Kyrgyz people used horses as the principal currency unit and gave small change in lambskins, the lambskins may be suitable for numismatic study, but the horse is not. Many objects have been used for centuries, such as shells, precious metals, cocoa beans, large stones. Today, most transactions take place by a form of payment with either inherent, standardized, Numismatic value may be used to refer to the value in excess of the monetary value conferred by law, which is known as the collector value. Economic and historical studies of use and development are an integral part of the numismatists study of moneys physical embodiment. First attested in English 1829, the word comes from the adjective numismatic. It was borrowed in 1792 from French numismatiques, itself a derivation from Late Latin numismatis, genitive of numisma, throughout its history, money itself has been made to be a scarce good, although it does not have to be. Many materials have been used to form money, from naturally scarce precious metals and cowry shells through cigarettes to entirely artificial money, called fiat money, many complementary currencies use time as a unit of measure, using mutual credit accounting that keeps the balance of money intact. Modern money is essentially a token – an abstraction, paper currency is perhaps the most common type of physical money today. However, goods such as gold or silver retain many of the properties of money, such as volatility. However, these goods are not controlled by one single authority, coin collecting may have existed in ancient times. Caesar Augustus gave coins of every device, including old pieces of the kings, petrarch, who wrote in a letter that he was often approached by vinediggers with old coins asking him to buy or to identify the ruler, is credited as the first Renaissance collector. Petrarch presented a collection of Roman coins to Emperor Charles IV in 1355, the first book on coins was De Asse et Partibus by Guillaume Budé. During the early Renaissance ancient coins were collected by European royalty and nobility, Numismatics is called the Hobby of Kings, due to its most esteemed founders. Professional societies organized in the 19th century, the Royal Numismatic Society was founded in 1836 and immediately began publishing the journal that became the Numismatic Chronicle. The American Numismatic Society was founded in 1858 and began publishing the American Journal of Numismatics in 1866, in 1931 the British Academy launched the Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum publishing collections of Ancient Greek coinage. The first volume of Sylloge of Coins of the British Isles was published in 1958, after World War II in Germany a project, Fundmünzen der Antike was launched, to register every coin found within Germany. This idea found successors in many countries, in the United States, the US mint established a coin Cabinet in 1838 when chief coiner Adam Eckfeldt donated his personal collection
43.
Liguria
–
Liguria is a coastal region of north-western Italy, its capital is Genoa. The region is popular with tourists for its beaches, towns, Liguria is bordered by France to the west, Piedmont to the north, and Emilia-Romagna and Tuscany to the east. It lies on the Ligurian Sea, the narrow strip of land is bordered by the sea, the Alps and the Apennines mountains. Some mountains rise above 2,000 m, the line runs at an average altitude of about 1,000 m. The highest point of the region is the summit of Monte Saccarello, the winding arched extension goes from Ventimiglia to La Spezia. Of this,3,524.08 km2 are mountainous and 891.95 km2 are hills, Ligurias natural reserves cover 12% of the entire region, or 600 km2 of land. They are made up of one national reserve, six large parks, the continental shelf is very narrow, and so steep it descends almost immediately to considerable marine depths along its 350-kilometre coastline. Except for the Portovenere and Portofino promontories, it is not very jagged. At the mouths of the biggest watercourses there are small beaches, the ring of hills lying immediately beyond the coast together with the sea account for a mild climate year-round. Average winter temperatures are 7 to 10 °C and summer temperatures are 23 to 24 °C, rainfall can be abundant at times, as mountains very close to the coast create an orographic effect. Genoa and La Spezia can see up to 2,000 mm of rain in a year, evidence of Neanderthals living in the area was discovered in the region of Loano, whereas in Ventimiglia, in the grotto of Balzi Rossi, numerous remains were found of Cro-Magnon. According to Classical sources, the Ligurians, once lived in a far broader territory than present-day Liguria, for example, the Greek colony of Massalia, modern Marseille was recorded to lie in Ligurian territory. During the first Punic War, the ancient Ligurians were divided, some of them siding with Carthage, under Augustus, Liguria was designated a region of Italy stretching from the coast to the banks of the Po River. The great Roman roads helped strengthen territorial unity and increase communication, important towns developed on the coast, of which evidence is left in the ruins of Albenga, Ventimiglia and Luni. Between the 4th and the 10th centuries Liguria was dominated by the Byzantines, the Lombards of King Rothari and it was also invaded by Saracen and Norman raiders. In the 10th century, once the danger of pirates decreased, in the 11th and 12th centuries the marches were split into fees, and then with the strengthening of the bishops’ power, the feudal structure began to partially weaken. The main Ligurian towns, especially on the coast, became city-states, inland, however, fiefs belonging to noble families survived for a very long time. Between the 11th century and the 15th century, the Republic of Genoa experienced a political and commercial success
