1.
Foreign worker
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A foreign worker is a person who works in a country other than the one of which he or she is a citizen. Migrant workers may work within their own country or between countries, depending on which definition is used. Some foreign workers are present temporarily and legally through a guest worker program in a country with more preferred job prospects than their home country. Foreign workers temporarily reside in the country in which they work, in Canada, foreign nationals are accepted into Canada on a temporary basis for a number of reasons, including student visas, refugee claims, or under special permits. The largest category however is called the Temporary Foreign Worker Program, in 2006, there were a total of 265,000 foreign workers in Canada. Amongst those of working age, there was a 118% increase from 1996, by 2008, the intake of non-permanent immigrants, had overtaken the intake of permanent immigrants. Green card workers are individuals who have requested and received permanent residence in the United States from the government. The initial plan was a principle, a temporary stay. The rotation principle proved inefficient for the industry, because the workers were constantly replaced by inexperienced ones. The companies asked for legislation to extend the residence permits, many of these foreign workers were followed by their families in the following period and stayed forever. The underestimation of the required integration services by the state and the society of the host countries, switzerlands transformation into a country of immigration was not until after the accelerated industrialization in the second half of the 19th century. Switzerland was no longer a purely rural Alpine area but became a European vanguard in various industries at that time, first of textile, later also the mechanical and chemical industries. An estimated 14 million foreign workers live in the United States and it is estimated that around 5 million foreign workers live in Northwestern Europe, half a million in Japan, and around 5 million in Saudi Arabia. A comparable number of dependents are accompanying international workers, maquiladora Slavery In Asia, some countries in Southeast Asia offer workers. Their destinations include Japan, South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, in 1973, an oil boom in the Persian Gulf region, created an unprecedented demand for labor in the oil, construction and industrial sectors. This demand was met by foreign workers, primarily those from the Arab states, a rise in the standards of living for citizens of Middle Eastern countries also created a demand for domestic workers in the home. Since the 1970s, foreign workers have become a large percentage of the population in most nations in the Persian Gulf region, remittances are becoming a prominent source of external funding for countries that contribute foreign workers to the countries of the GCC. On average, the top recipients globally are India, the Philippines, in 2001, $72.3 billion was returned as remittances to the countries of origin of foreign workers
2.
Person
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The common plural of person, people, is often used to refer to an entire nation or ethnic group. The plural persons is often used in philosophical and legal writing, in ancient Rome, the word persona or prosopon originally referred to the masks worn by actors on stage. The various masks represented the various personae in the stage play, the concept of person was further developed during the Trinitarian and Christological debates of the 4th and 5th centuries in contrast to the word nature. During the theological debates, some tools were needed so that the debates could be held on common basis to all theological schools. The purpose of the debate was to establish the relation, similarities and differences between the Λóγος/Verbum and God, the philosophical concept of person arose, taking the word prosopon from the Greek theatre. Therefore, Christus and God were defined as different persons and this concept was applied later to the Holy Ghost, the angels and to all human beings. Since then, a number of important changes to the meaning and use have taken place. Personhood is the status of being a person, defining personhood is a controversial topic in philosophy and law, and is closely tied to legal and political concepts of citizenship, equality, and liberty. According to law, only a person or legal personality has rights, protections, privileges, responsibilities. Various debates have focused on questions about the personhood of different classes of entities, historically, the personhood of animals, women, and slaves has been a catalyst of social upheaval. The category may exclude some human entities in prenatal development, personal identity is the unique identity of persons through time. That is to say, the necessary and sufficient conditions under which a person at one time, in the modern philosophy of mind, this concept of personal identity is sometimes referred to as the diachronic problem of personal identity. The synchronic problem is grounded in the question of what features or traits characterize a person at one time. Identity is an issue for both continental philosophy and analytic philosophy, a key question in continental philosophy is in what sense we can maintain the modern conception of identity, while realizing many of our prior assumptions about the world are incorrect. The Concept of Personality in Greek and Christian Thought, in Studies in Philosophy and the History of Philosophy. Edited by J. K. Ryan, Washington, Catholic University of America Press, pp. 20–60 Lukes, Steven, Carrithers, Michael, Collins, Steven, eds. The Category of the Person, Anthropology, Philosophy, History, persons, A Study of Possible Moral Agents in the Universe. The Person, Readings in Human Nature
3.
Administrative detention
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Administrative detention is arrest and detention of individuals by the state without trial, usually for security reasons. A large number of countries, both democratic and undemocratic, resort to administrative detention as a means to combat terrorism, to illegal immigration. Unlike criminal incarceration imposed upon conviction following a trial, administrative detention is a forward-looking mechanism and it is meant to be preventive in nature rather than punitive. The practice has been criticized by human rights organizations as a breach of civil, Administrative detentions are defined in the law of many of the worlds states. Proponents of administrative detention maintain that criminal laws reliance on defendant rights and it is also claimed that the conditions under which some suspected terrorists are captured, especially in combat zones, make it impossible to prove criminal cases using normal evidentiary rules. The Laws of War are also seen by the proponents as inadequate and these laws allow the capture of enemy fighters, and also allow holding them for the duration of hostilities without trial. However, these laws grew out of the need to regulate combat between professional armies accountable to a state, who were engaged in combat of possibly lengthy. Opponents of administrative detention challenge the above assumptions and they point to the historical record of prosecutors who were able to obtain convictions against terrorists on the basis of existing laws. Opponents maintain that in essence, administrative detention is a form of collective punishment, since it does not require proof of individual guilt, it attributes to all members of a group the actions of a few. Immigration detention is controversial because it presents a clash between traditional notions of liberty and the territorial sovereignty of states. In many non-democratic countries, administrative detention is used by the regime to suppress dissent. In Asia in particular, administrative detention was first introduced by the British and French colonial authorities prior to, in many cases, they were and codified as emergency measures or internal security acts. Vietnam is an example where administrative detention was used by the French colonial authorities in the 1930s. Post-independence, the now-ruling Communist authorities have employed very similar means to detain those suspected of counter-revolutionary offenses. Some of these prisoners, such as Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar, have become known worldwide due to the detention. The legal basis for this system is found in Australias Migration Act 1958, any member of the Brazilian Armed Forces may be imprisoned if found to be repeatedly in violation of the Military Disciplinary Regulations by his or her superiors. Each military branch has issued a list of transgressions in their Disciplinary Regulations, the harshest punishment of this kind, in the Brazilian Army, is a 30-day imprisonment penalty. Notwithstanding, members of the Brazilian Armed Forces under administrative detention may be granted a habeas corpus by the system to deliver them from imprisonment
4.
Citizenship
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Citizenship is the status of a person recognized under the custom or law as being a legal member of a sovereign state. A person may have multiple citizenships and a person who does not have citizenship of any state is said to be stateless. Nationality is often used as a synonym for citizenship in English – notably in international law – although the term is understood as denoting a persons membership of a nation. In some countries, e. g. the United States, each country has its own policies, regulations and criteria as to who is entitled to its citizenship. A person can be recognised or granted citizenship on a number of bases, usually citizenship based on the place of birth is automatic, in other cases an application may be required. If one or both of a persons parents are citizens of a state, then the person may have the right to be a citizen of that state as well. Formerly this might only have applied through the line. Citizenship is granted based on ancestry or ethnicity, and is related to the concept of a nation state common in China, where jus sanguinis holds, a person born outside a country, one or both of whose parents are citizens of the country, is also a citizen. States normally limit the right to citizenship by descent to a number of generations born outside the state. This form of citizenship is not common in civil law countries, Some people are automatically citizens of the state in which they are born. This form of citizenship originated in England where those who were born within the realm were subjects of the monarch, in many cases both jus solis and jus sanguinis hold, citizenship either by place or parentage. Many countries fast-track naturalization based on the marriage of a person to a citizen, States normally grant citizenship to people who have entered the country legally and been granted permit to stay, or been granted political asylum, and also lived there for a specified period. Some states allow dual citizenship and do not require naturalized citizens to renounce any other citizenship. In the past there have been exclusions on entitlement to citizenship on grounds such as color, ethnicity, sex. Most of these no longer apply in most places. The United States grants citizenship to those born as a result of reproductive technologies, Some exclusions still persist for internationally adopted children born before Feb 27,1983 even though their parents meet citizenship criteria. Polis meant both the assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship has generally been identified as a western phenomenon, there is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny
5.
Immigration
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As for economic effects, research suggests that migration is beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries. Studies show that the elimination of barriers to migration would have effects on world GDP. Development economists argue that reducing barriers to labor mobility between developing countries and developed countries would be one of the most efficient tools of poverty reduction. Research shows that country of origin matters for speed and depth of immigrant assimilation, many animals have migrated across evolutionary history, including pre-humans. Human migration started with the out of Africa into the Middle East, and then to Asia, Australia, Europe, Russia. This is discussed in the article pre-modern human migration, recent history is discussed in the articles history of human migration and human migration. When people cross national borders during their migration, they are called migrants or immigrants from the perspective of the country which they enter, from the perspective of the country which they leave, they are called emigrant or outmigrant. Sociology designates immigration usually as migration, as of 2015, the number of international migrants has reached 244 million worldwide, which reflects a 41% increase since 2000. One third of the worlds international migrants are living in just 20 countries, the largest number of international migrants live in the United States, with 19% of the worlds total. Germany and Russia host 12 million migrants each, taking the second, Saudi Arabia hosts 10 million migrants, followed by the United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates. Between 2000 and 2015, Asia added more international migrants than any major area in the world. Europe added the second largest with about 20 million, in most parts of the world, migration occurs between countries that are located within the same major area. In 2015, the number of international migrants below the age of 20 reached 37 million, while 177 million are between the ages of 20 and 64. International migrants living in Africa were the youngest, with an age of 29, followed by Asia, and Latin America/Caribbean, while migrants were older in Northern America, Europe. Nearly half of all international migrants originate in Asia, and Europe was the birthplace of the second largest number of migrants, india has the largest diaspora in the world, followed by Mexico and Russia. The other top desired destination countries were Canada, France, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Germany, one theory of immigration distinguishes between push and pull factors. Push factors refer primarily to the motive for immigration from the country of origin, in the case of economic migration, differentials in wage rates are common. If the value of wages in the new country surpasses the value of wages in ones country, he or she may choose to migrate
6.
Illegal immigration
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Many countries have had or currently have laws restricting immigration. Whether a person is permitted to stay in a country legally may be decided by quotas or point systems or may be based on such as family ties. Article 13 on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares the right to any country, including ones own. Illegal immigration, as well as immigration in general, is overwhelmingly upward, however, it is also noted that illegal immigrants tend not to be the poorest within the populations they emigrate from. Living in another country illegally includes a variety of restrictions as well as the risk of being detained and deported or of facing other sanctions, if the status of being illegal is any way perceivable to host community residents, illigal migrants may additionally face visible or verbal disdain. There have been campaigns in many countries since 2007 discouraging the use of the illegal immigrant. They are generally based on the argument that the act of immigrating illegally does not make the people themselves illegal, however, related terms that do not directly describe people are still used. For example, Associated Press still uses the illegal immigration to describe the action of entering or residing in a country illegally. In contrast, in some contexts the term illegal immigrants is shortened, often pejoratively, there are multiple models that try to explain illegal immigration from the perspective of the immigrants. Gaining employment and legal status are mainly what is perceived as successful result of the illegal immigration, there are two contradicting views on the impact of illegal immigrants on the labor market in terms of competition between host community workers and newcomers. According to this view it is assumed that illegal workers tend to add to, and compete with, Illegal workers may find employment by accepting lower wages than host community workers, sometimes below the minimum wage and off-the-books. This may result in a downward spiralling of wages, economist George Borjas has calculated that real wages of US workers without a high school degree declined by 9% from 1980–2000 and claims that this was due to competition from illegal immigrants. Since the decline of middle-class blue-collar jobs in manufacturing and industry, in the US, only 12% of the labor force has less than high school education, but 70% of illegal workers from Mexico lack a high school degree. The majority of new blue-collar jobs qualify as Masseys underclass work, and suffer from unreliability, subservient roles and, critically, from this it is assumed that the willingness to take undesirable jobs is what gives illegal immigrants their employment. Entry-level white-collar and service jobs offer advancement opportunities only for people with work permits, however, the advantage decreases with the skill level of the firms workers, In recent years, developing countries have pursued the benefits of globalization by adopting measures to liberalize trade. Illegal immigrants are not impoverished by standards of the home country, the poorest classes in a developing country may lack the resources needed to mount an attempt to cross illegally, or the connections to friends or family already in the destination country. Other examples do show that increases in poverty, especially associated with immediate crises. It also marked the start of a swell in Mexican immigration
7.
Nationality
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Nationality is the legal relationship between a person and a state. Nationality affords the state jurisdiction over the person and affords the person the protection of the state, what these rights and duties are vary from state to state. By custom and international conventions, it is the right of state to determine who its nationals are. Such determinations are part of nationality law, in some cases, determinations of nationality are also governed by public international law—for example, by treaties on statelessness and the European Convention on Nationality. Nationality differs technically and legally from citizenship, which is a different legal relationship between a person and a country, the noun national can include both citizens and non-citizens. The most common distinguishing feature of citizenship is that citizens have the right to participate in the life of the state. However, in most modern countries all nationals are citizens of the state, in English and some other languages, the word nationality is sometimes used to refer to an ethnic group. This meaning of nationality is not defined by political borders or passport ownership, individuals may also be considered nationals of groups with autonomous status which have ceded some power to a larger government. In international law, nationality is the status or relationship that gives a nation the right to protect a person from other nations, diplomatic and consular protection are dependent upon this relationship between the person and the state. A persons status as being the national of a country is used to resolve the conflict of laws, Nationality is also the status that allows a nation to grant rights to the subject and to impose obligations upon the subject. In most cases, no rights or obligations are automatically attached to this status, although the status is a precondition for any rights. Within the broad limits imposed by few treaties and international law, however, since the Nottebohm case, other states are only required to respect their claim to protect an alleged national if the nationality is based on a true social bond. In the case of dual nationality, states may determine the most effective nationality for a person, there are also limits on removing a persons status as a national. Nationals normally have the right to enter or return to the country belong to. Passports are issued to nationals of a state, rather only to citizens. However, nationals may not have the right of abode in the countries that grant them passports, Nationality is legally a distinct concept from citizenship. Conceptually, citizenship is focused on the political life of the state. In the modern era, the concept of full citizenship encompasses not only political rights
8.
Naturalization
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Naturalization is the legal act or process by which a non-citizen in a country may acquire citizenship or nationality of that country. It may be done by a statute, without any effort on the part of the individual, or it may involve an application, an oath or pledge of allegiance is also sometimes required. In some rare cases, laws for mass naturalization were passed, since World War II, the increase in international migrations created a new category of refugees, most of them economic refugees. The Peoples Republic of China gives citizenship to persons with one or two parents with Chinese nationality who have not taken residence in other countries, the country also gives citizenship to people born on its territory to stateless people who have settled there. Furthermore, individuals may apply for nationality if they have a relative with Chinese nationality, if they have settled in China. In practice, only few people gain Chinese citizenship, as of 2010, the naturalization process starts with a written application. Applicants must also submit original copies of a passport, a residence permit, a permanent residence permit. The Indian citizenship and nationality law and the Constitution of India provides single citizenship for the entire country, the provisions relating to citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution are contained in Articles 5 to 11 in Part II of the Constitution of India. Relevant Indian legislation is the Citizenship Act 1955, which has been amended by the Citizenship Act 1986, the Citizenship Act 1992, the Citizenship Act 2003, and the Citizenship Ordinance 2005. The Citizenship Act 2003 received the assent of the President of India on 7 January 2004, the Citizenship Ordinance 2005 was promulgated by the President of India and came into force on 28 June 2005. Following these reforms, Indian nationality law largely follows the jus sanguinis as opposed to the jus soli, Indonesian nationality is regulated by Law No. The Indonesian nationality law is based on jus sanguinis and jus soli, the Indonesian nationality law does not recognize dual citizenship except for persons under the age of 18. After reaching 18 years of age individuals are forced to choose one citizenship, Israels Declaration of Independence was made on 14 May 1948, the day before the British Mandate was due to expire as a result of the United Nations Partition Plan. The Israeli parliament created two laws regarding immigration, citizenship and naturalization, the Law of Return and the Israeli nationality law, the Law of Return, enacted on July 15,1950, gives Jews living anywhere in the world the right to immigrate to Israel. This right to immigrate did not and still does not grant citizenship, in fact, for four years after Israel gained independence, there were no Israeli citizens. On July 14,1952, the Israeli parliament enacted the Israeli Nationality Law. The Nationality Law naturalized all citizens of Mandated Palestine, the inhabitants of Israel on July 15,1952, because of Israels relatively new and culturally mixed identity, Israel does not grant citizenship to persons born on Israeli soil. Instead, the government chose to enact a jus sanguinis system, there is currently no legislation on second-generation immigrants
9.
Statelessness
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In international law, statelessness is the lack of citizenship. A stateless person is someone who is not considered as a national by any state under the operation of its law, some stateless persons are also refugees. However, not all refugees are stateless, and many persons who are stateless have never crossed an international border. Most people belonging to a nation, despite lacking their own nation state, nonetheless hold citizenship in one or more countries. Conflicting nationality laws are one of causes of statelessness. Nationality is usually acquired through one of two modes, Jus soli denotes a regime by which nationality is acquired through birth on the territory of the state and this is common in the Americas. Jus sanguinis is a regime by which nationality is acquired through descent, today, many nations apply a combination of the two systems. Although many states allow the acquisition of nationality through parental descent irrespective of where the child is born, there are 27 countries in the world that do not grant equal rights to women in passing on their nationality. This can result in statelessness when the father is stateless, unknown, there have, however, been recent changes in favor of gender neutrality in nationality laws, including successful reform processes in Algeria, Morocco, and Senegal that may inform change elsewhere. Moreover, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women prohibits sex-based discrimination in the conferral of nationality, an important measure to prevent statelessness at birth provides nationality to children born in a territory who would otherwise be stateless. In most large-scale statelessness situations, statelessness is a result of discrimination, many states define their body of citizens based on ethnicity, leading to the exclusion of large groups. This violates international laws against discrimination, in some cases, statelessness is a consequence of state succession. Some people become stateless when their state of nationality ceases to exist and this was the case when the Soviet Union disintegrated, and also in the cases of Yugoslavia and Ethiopia. People may also become stateless as a result of administrative and practical problems, individuals might be entitled to citizenship but unable to undertake the necessary procedural steps. In disruptive conflict or post-conflict situations, many find that difficulties in completing simple administrative procedures are exacerbated. Such obstacles may affect the ability of individuals to complete such as birth registration. The United Nations Children’s Fund estimated in 2013 that 230 million children under the age of 5 have not been registered, not holding proof of nationality—being undocumented—is not the same as being stateless, but the lack of identity documents such as a birth certificate can lead to statelessness. Many millions of people live their lives without documents, without their nationality ever being questioned
10.
Alien (law)
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In law, an alien is a person who resides within the borders of a country and is not a national of that country, though definitions and terminology differ to some degree. The term Alien is derived from the Latin alienus, meaning stranger, foreign and it is a non-citizen who has entered a country through irregular migration, for example entered illegally, or an alien who entered a country legally but who has fallen out of status. A legal alien is a non-citizen who is permitted to remain in a country. This is a broad category which includes tourists, guest workers, legal permanent residents. A nonresident alien is a non-citizen who is visiting a country, for example as a tourist, on business, entertainers, a resident alien is a non-citizen who has permanent resident status in a country. An enemy alien is a non-citizen who is a national of an enemy country, an alien in English law was someone who was born outside of the monarchs dominions and who did not have allegiance to the monarch. Aliens were not allowed to own land and were subject to different taxes to subjects and this idea was passed on in the Commonwealth to other common law jurisdictions. In Australia, citizenship is defined in the Australian nationality law, non-citizens living in Australia are either permanent residents, temporary residents, or illegal residents. Most non-citizens travelling to Australia must obtain a prior to travel. In Canada, the alien is not used in federal laws. Instead, the foreign national serves as its equivalent and is found in legal documents. The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act defines foreign national as a person who is not a Canadian citizen or a permanent resident, permanent residents and Canadian citizens are not considered as foreign. The British Nationality Act 1772 regulated who was to be called a British national, the Aliens Act 1905, the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 and the Aliens Restriction Act 1919 were all products of the turbulence in the early part of the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, the British Nationality Act 1981 defines an alien as a person who is not a British citizen, a citizen of Ireland, in the United States, an alien is any person not a citizen or national of the United States. Governments use of alien dates back to 1798, when it was used in the Alien, U. S. law makes a clear distinction between aliens and immigrants by defining immigrants as a subset of aliens. Although U. S. law provides no overarching explicit definition of the term illegal alien, U. S. law also uses the term unauthorized alien. U. S. immigration laws do not refer to illegal immigrants, because at law, a corporation is a person, the term alien is not limited to natural humans because what are colloquially called foreign corporations are technically called alien corporations. Because corporations are creations of local law, a foreign corporation is an out of state corporation
11.
Enemy alien
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Usually, but not always, the countries are in a state of declared war. At the outbreak of World War II, in 1939, the United Kingdom had become a place of refuge for people who had fled Nazi persecution, including Jews, at first, the authorities interned these refugees with other enemy residents, without distinction. Later on, when Italy also declared war, significant numbers of Italian residents were also interned, the Isle of Man, relatively isolated from the British mainland and with a useful amount of holiday accommodation was used to provide housing for the Alien Civilians. There were also efforts to move internees from Britain, in July,1940, the Arandora Star was torpedoed and sunk while transporting Italian and German aliens to North America,743 died, including prisoners, crew and guards. The 813 surviving prisoners were subsequently included in the 2,500 men transported by HMT Dunera for internment in Hay, the Pioneer Corps was apparently the only British unit that enemy aliens could serve in early in the war. Many thousands of Germans and Austrians joined the Pioneer Corps to assist the Allied war efforts and these men - often dubbed The Kings Most Loyal Enemy Aliens - later moved on to serve in fighting units. Some were recruited by Special Operations Executive as secret agents and they were instructed to choose an English name using their old initials. Serving as German nationals in the British forces was particularly dangerous, since, in case of taken captive, with a high probability they would have been executed as traitors by the Germans. Also, the number of German-born Jews joining the British forces was high, by the end of the war. Their profound knowledge of the German language and customs proved useful, a lot of them served in the administration of the British occupation army in Germany and Austria after the war. A well-known example of aliens were the Japanese citizens residing in the United States during World War II. Many of these Japanese and Japanese Americans were imprisoned in internment camps by President Roosevelt during wartime, alongside many German-, however, many Japanese Americans and Italian-Americans were not actually aliens, as they held American citizenship. The term enemy alien referred only to citizens who were nationals of Axis countries. Therefore, German American, Italian American and Japanese American permanent residents were classified as enemy aliens, in total 10,905 Italian Americans and approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans were interned in many different camps and sites across the country. German Americans were held in more than 50 different locations, citizens of an enemy country who lived in the USA during World War II, were required to have a Enemy Alien card and register monthly with the authorities. Similar regulations existed in Canada and Mexico,1798 US Alien and Sedition Acts Alien Legal alien Resident alien Nonresident alien Crystal City, Texas Defence Regulation 18B Handbook of Texas online entry on WWII internment camps in Texas
12.
Multiple citizenship
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There is no international convention which determines the nationality or citizen status of a person, which is defined exclusively by national laws, which vary and can be inconsistent with each other. Multiple citizenship arises because different countries use different, and not necessarily mutually exclusive, colloquial speech refers to people holding multiple citizenship but technically each nation makes a claim that this person be considered its national. Some countries do not permit dual citizenship, some countries do not permit a renunciation of citizenship. Some countries permit a general dual citizenship while others permit dual citizenship, similarly, it may not permit consular access by another country for a person who is also its national. Some countries prohibit dual citizenship holders from serving in their military, up until the late 19th century, nations often decided who they claimed as their citizens or subjects, and did not recognize any other nationalities they held. Many states did not recognize the right of their citizens to renounce their citizenship without permission and this meant that people could hold multiple citizenships, with none of their nations recognizing any other of their citizenships. This outraged many Irish-Americans, to which the British responded by pointing out that, just like British law, as a result, Congress passed the Expatriation Act of 1868, which granted Americans the right to freely renounce their U. S. citizenship. Britain followed suit with a law, and years later. As a result, the theory of perpetual allegiance largely fell out of favor with governments during the late 19th century, by the mid-20th century, dual nationality was largely prohibited worldwide, although there were exceptions. For example, a series of U. S. Supreme Court rulings permitted Americans born with citizenship in another country to keep it without losing their U. S. citizenship. It proposed laws that would have reduced both, but in the end was ratified by only twenty nations, however, the consensus against dual nationality began to erode due to changes in social mores and attitudes. By the late 20th century it was becoming gradually accepted again, many states were lifting restrictions on dual citizenship. The rights of citizenship are determined by country, which sets its own criteria for citizenship. These laws may create situations where a person may satisfy the requirements of more than one country simultaneously. This would, in the absence of laws of one country or the other, National laws may include criteria as to the circumstances, if any, in which a person may concurrently hold another citizenship. A country may withdraw its own citizenship if a person acquires a citizenship of another country, for example, historically, citizenship was traced through the father, but today most countries permit the tracing through either parent, and some also through a grandparent. Today, the laws of most countries are based on jus sanguinis. In many cases, this basis for citizenship also extends to children born outside the country, Citizenship by birth on the countrys territory
13.
Political prisoner
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A political prisoner is someone imprisoned because they have opposed or criticized the government responsible for their imprisonment. The term is used by persons or groups challenging the legitimacy of the detention of a prisoner, supporters of the term define a political prisoner as someone who is imprisoned for his or her participation in political activity. If a political offense was not the reason for the prisoners detention. Some understand the political prisoner narrowly, equating it with the term prisoner of conscience. Amnesty International campaigns for the release of prisoners of conscience, which include political prisoners as well as those imprisoned for their religious or philosophical beliefs. To reduce controversy, and as a matter of principle, the organizations policy applies only to prisoners who have not committed or advocated violence, thus, there are political prisoners who do not fit the narrower criteria for POCs. The organisation defines the differences as follows, AI uses the political prisoner broadly. It does not use it, as others do, to imply that all such prisoners have a special status or should be released. It uses the only to define a category of prisoners for whom AI demands a fair. Governments often say they have no political prisoners, only prisoners held under the criminal law. AI however describes cases like the examples given above as political, for instance, French anarchist groups typically call the former members of Action Directe held in France political prisoners. While the French government deemed Action Directe illegal, the group fashioned itself as a guerilla movement. In this sense, political prisoner can be used to describe any politically active prisoner who is held in custody for a violent action which supporters deem ethically justified, some libertarians also include all convicted for treason and some convicted of espionage in the category of political prisoners. Currently, there is much controversy and debate around how to define this term. Political prisoners can also be imprisoned with no legal veneer by extrajudicial processes, some political prisoners need not be imprisoned at all. Supporters of Gedhun Choekyi Nyima in the 11th Panchen Lama controversy have called him a political prisoner and he is held under secluded house arrest. This is common in situations which may otherwise be decried nationally and internationally as a human rights violation or suppression of a political dissident, particularly in this latter situation, whether an individual is regarded as a political prisoner may depend upon subjective political perspective or interpretation of the evidence. In the Soviet Union, dubious psychiatric diagnoses were sometimes used to political prisoners in the so-called psikhushkas
14.
Refugee
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A refugee, generally speaking, is a displaced person who has been forced to cross national boundaries and who cannot return home safely. Such a person may be called an asylum seeker until granted refugee status by the state or the UNHCR if they formally make a claim for asylum. The lead international agency coordinating refugee protection is the United Nations Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, the United Nations have a second Office for refugees, which is the UNRWA. This however is solely responsible for supporting Palestinian refugees and it refers to shelter or protection from danger or distress, from Latin fugere, to flee, and refugium, a taking refuge, place to flee back to. In Western history, the term was first applied to French Huguenots, after the Edict of Fontainebleau, who again migrated from France after the Edict of Nantes revocation. The word meant one seeking asylum, until around 1914, when it evolved to mean one fleeing home and this legal concept of a refugee was expanded by the Conventions 1967 Protocol. European Unions minimum standards definition of refugee, underlined by Art, in UN parlance, the concept of refugee also includes descendants of refugees but only in the case of two specific groups, viz. Palestinian refugees and Sahrawi refugees. The UN does not consider refugee status to be hereditary for any other group, the UNHCR also protects people in refugee-like situations. It gives credence to the notion that personal individualized ‘fear of being persecuted’ is the reason for needing support. War, upheaval, famine and pestilence do not in the conventional definition make for refugee status. It does not matter that civilian deaths as a proportion of deaths in war escalated to 10% in World War I and it only matters that persons fear the persecution of their state. Furthermore, not all reasons for seeking asylum in another country satisfy the definition of refugee according to article 1A of the 1951 Refugee Convention, fleeing droughts and hunger, fleeing economic hardship, natural disasters and not even war or terror satisfied the definition of 1951. The idea that a person who sought sanctuary in a place could not be harmed without inviting divine retribution was familiar to the ancient Greeks. However, the right to asylum in a church or other holy place was first codified in law by King Æthelberht of Kent in about AD600. Similar laws were implemented throughout Europe in the Middle Ages, the related concept of political exile also has a long history, Ovid was sent to Tomis, Voltaire was sent to England. By the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, nations recognized each others sovereignty, the term refugee is sometimes applied to people who might fit the definition outlined by the 1951 Convention, were it to be applied retroactively. The repeated waves of pogroms that swept Eastern Europe in the 19th, beginning in the 19th century, Muslim people emigrated to Turkey from Europe. The Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 caused 800,000 people to leave their homes, various groups of people were officially designated refugees beginning in World War I
15.
Immigration law
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Immigration law refers to national government policies controlling the immigration and deportation of people, and other matters such as citizenship. Immigration laws vary from country to country, as well as according to the climate of the times. Immigration law regarding the citizens of a country is regulated by international law, the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights mandates that all countries allow entry to its own citizens. Certain countries may maintain rather strict laws which regulate both the right of entry and internal rights, such as the duration of stay and the right to participate in government, most countries have laws which designate a process for naturalization, by which foreigners may become citizens. During the colonial period, independent colonies created their own immigration laws, the first law governing the naturalization of foreigners was the Naturalization Act of 1790. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act was passed to stop the immigration of Chinese people, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 led to the creation of the Immigration and Naturalization Service. The Department of Homeland Security, which replaced the Immigration and Naturalization Service, the United States allows more than 1 million undocumented immigrants to become Legal Permanent Residents every year. The United States also issues more Visas than any country in the world. Visas in the United States can be separated into two categories, immigrant visas, and non-immigrant visas. The former are subject to per country-caps, whereas the latter is not, most non-immigrant visas are for work purposes, and usually require an offer of employment from a US employer. Such immigration may involve restrictions such as a certification to ensure that no American workers are able to fill the role of the job. Other categories include student, family and tourist visas, each visa category is further divided into numerous subcategories, the large number of specific categories has been recommended as a main area for comprehensive immigration reform. To control immigration, many set up customs at entry points. Some common location for entry points are airports and roads near the border, at the customs department, travel documents are inspected. Some required documents are a passport, a certificate of vaccination. Sometimes travelers are required to declare or register the amount of money they are carrying. This section is an attempt to classify and bring information about immigration legislation on a number of countries with high immigration
16.
Nationalism
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Nationalism is a complex, multidimensional concept involving a shared communal identification with ones nation. It is contrasted by Anti-nationalism as a political ideology oriented towards gaining and maintaining self-governance, or full sovereignty, Nationalism therefore holds that a nation should govern itself, free from unwanted outside interference, and is linked to the concept of self-determination. Nationalism therefore seeks to preserve the nations culture and it often also involves a sense of pride in the nations achievements, and is closely linked to the concept of patriotism. In these terms, nationalism can be considered positive or negative, from a political or sociological outlook, there are three main paradigms for understanding the origins and basis of nationalism. The first, known as Primordialism or Perennialism, sees nationalism as a natural phenomenon and it holds that although the concept nationhood may be recent, nations have always existed. The third, and most dominant paradigm is Modernism, which sees nationalism as a recent phenomenon that needs the structural conditions of society in order to exist. There are various definitions for what constitutes a nation, however and this anomie results in a society or societies reinterpreting identity, retaining elements that are deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable, in order to create a unified community. Nationalism means devotion for the nation and it is a sentiment that binds the people together. National symbols and flags, national anthems, national languages, national myths, Nationalism is a newer word, in English the term dates from 1844, although the concept is older. It became important in the 19th century, the term increasingly became negative in its connotations after 1914. Glenda Sluga notes that The twentieth century, a time of disillusionment with nationalism, was also the great age of globalism. Nationalism is the term used to characterize the modern sense of national political autonomy. For example, German nationalism emerged as a reaction against Napoleonic control of Germany as the Confederation of the Rhine around 1805–14, linda Colley in Britons, Forging the Nation 1707–1837 explores how the role of nationalism emerged about 1700 and developed in Britain reaching full form in the 1830s. The early emergence of a popular patriotic nationalism took place in the mid-18th century, National symbols, anthems, myths, flags and narratives were assiduously constructed by nationalists and widely adopted. The Union Jack was adopted in 1801 as the national one, Thomas Arne composed the patriotic song Rule, Britannia. in 1740, and the cartoonist John Arbuthnot invented the character of John Bull as the personification of the English national spirit in 1712. The political convulsions of the late 18th century associated with the American, the Prussian scholar Johann Gottfried Herder originated the term in 1772 in his Essay on the Origins of Language. Stressing the role of a common language, the political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history, napoleons conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800–06 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity
17.
Nativism (politics)
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Nativism is the political policy or practice of preserving or reviving an indigenous culture. However this is more commonly described as an anti-immigrant position considering the policy to be one of protecting native interests against those of immigrants. According to Fetzer, opposition to immigration commonly arises in many countries because of issues of national, cultural, thus nativism has become a general term for opposition to immigration based on fears that the immigrants will distort or spoil existing cultural values. In situations where immigrants greatly outnumber the original inhabitants, nativistic movements can allow cultural survival, in scholarly studies nativism is a standard technical term. The term is not accepted by those who hold this political view. Do not consider themselves as nativists, for them it is a negative term and they rather consider themselves as Patriots. Anti-immigration offers a neutral term for opposition to immigration. In the United States, nativism has a long history, for a while Benjamin Franklin was hostile to Germans in colonial Pennsylvania, but he reversed himself and became a supporter. The Federalist Party in 1798 passed the Alien and Sedition Acts which lengthened the process to 14 years to weaken the political role of radical immigrants from France. This became a political issue in the 1800 election, the Jeffersonians won. They welcomed immigrants and repealed most of the restrictions, Nativism gained its name from the Native American parties of the 1840s and 1850s. In this context Native does not mean indigenous or American Indian and it impacted politics in the mid-19th century because of the large inflows of immigrants after 1845 from cultures that were different from the existing American culture. Nativists objected primarily to Irish Roman Catholics because of their loyalty to the Pope, labor unions were strong supporters of Chinese exclusion and limits on immigration, because of fears that they would lower wages and make it harder to organize unions. Historian Eric Kaufmann has suggested that American nativism has been explained primarily in psychological and economic terms to the neglect of a crucial cultural and ethnic dimension. Furthermore, Kauffman claims American nativism cannot be understood without reference to an American ethnic group which took shape prior to the immigration of the mid-eighteenth century. Nativist outbursts occurred in the Northeast from the 1830s to the 1850s, in 1836, Samuel Morse ran unsuccessfully for Mayor of New York City on a Nativist ticket, receiving 1,496 votes. In New York City, an Order of United Americans was founded as a nativist fraternity, following the Philadelphia Nativist Riots of the spring and summer. In 1849–50 Charles B. Allen founded a nativist society called the Order of the Star Spangled Banner in New York City
18.
Human migration
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Human migration is the movement by people from one place to another with the intentions of settling, permanently in the new location. The movement is often long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration is also possible, indeed. Migration may be individuals, family units or in large groups, nomadic movements are normally not regarded as migrations as there is no intention to settle in the new place and because the movement is generally seasonal. Only a few people have retained this form of lifestyle in modern times. Many estimates of statistics in worldwide migration patterns exist, the World Bank has published its Migration and Remittances Factbook annually since 2008. The International Organisation for Migration has published a yearly World Migration Report since 1999, the United Nations Statistics Division also keeps a database on worldwide migration. Recent advances in research on migration via the Internet promise better understanding of migration patterns, substantial internal migration can also take place within a country, either seasonal human migration, or shifts of population into cities or out of cities. Studies of worldwide migration patterns, however, tend to limit their scope to international migration, the World Banks Migration and Remittances Factbook of 2011 lists the following estimates for the year 2010, total number of immigrants,215.8 million or 3. 2% of world population. In 2013, the percentage of international migrants worldwide increased by 33% with 59% of migrants targeting developed regions, almost half of these migrants are women, which is one of the most significant migrant-pattern changes in the last half century. Women migrate alone or with their members and community. Even though female migration is largely viewed as rather than independent migration, emerging studies argue complex. The World Banks report estimates that, as of 2010,16.3 million or 7. 6% of migrants qualified as refugees. At the end of 2012, approximately 15.4 million people were refugees, structurally, there is substantial South-South and North-North migration, i. e. most emigrants from high-income O. E. C. D. Countries migrate to other countries, and a substantial part of emigrants from developing countries migrate to other developing countries. Between 2000 and 2013 the average rate of change of the migrant population in the developing regions slightly exceeded that of the developed regions. Remittances, i. e. funds transferred by migrant workers to their home country, the top ten remittance recipients in 2010 were 1. China, Mexico, Philippines, France, Germany, Bangladesh, Belgium, Spain, the Global Commission on International Migration, launched in 2003, published a report in 2005. International migration challenges at the level are addressed through the Global Forum on Migration and Development
19.
Temporary work
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Temporary work or temporary employment refers to an employment situation where the working arrangement is limited to a certain period of time based on the needs of the employing organization. Temporary employees are sometimes called contractual, seasonal, interim, casual staff, outsourcing, freelance, in some instances, temporary, highly skilled professionals refer to themselves as consultants. Temporary workers may work full-time or part-time depending on the individual situation, in some instances, temporary workers receive benefits, but usually benefits are only given to permanent employees as a cost-cutting measure by the employer to save money. Not all temporary employees find jobs through an employment agency. A temporary work agency, temp agency or temporary staffing firm finds, other companies, in need of short-term workers, contract with the temporary work agency to send temporary workers, or temps, on assignments to work at the other companies. Temporary employees are used in work that has a cyclical nature. There has indeed been a paradigm shift since the 1940s in the way firms utilize the temporary worker. Throughout the Fordist era, temporary workers made up a rather marginal proportion of the labor force in North America. In contrast, in the Post-Fordist period, characterized by neoliberalism, deindustrialization and the dismantling of the welfare state, in this paradigm, the idea of the temporary worker as a stopgap solution to permanent labor became an entirely normative employment alternative to permanent work. As the market began to transform from Fordism to a regime of capital accumulation, the social regulation of labor markets. This transformation has been characterized by a restructuring that emphasized flexibility within spaces of work, labor markets, employment relationships, wages. Most governments in Western Europe started to deregulate temporary work, and indeed, global processes of neoliberalism and market rule contributed greatly to this increasing pressure put on local labor markets towards flexibility. This greater flexibility within labor markets is important at the level, particularly within OECD countries. The temporary labor industry is worth over €157 billion per year, the biggest temporary work agencies are most profitable in emerging economies of the Global North, and those that have undergone market liberalization, deregulation and regulation. The desire to market flexible, adaptable temporary workers has become a driving, through this process, the ideal temporary worker has today become largely imagined, produced and marketed by temporary agencies. The role of an agency is as a third party between client employer and client employee. This third party, handles remuneration, work scheduling, complaints, taxes, client firms request the type of job that is to be done, and the skills required to do it. Client firms can also terminate an assignment and are able to file a complaint about the temp, Work schedules are determined by assignment, which is determined by the agency and can last for an indeterminate period of time, extended to any point and cut short
20.
Expatriate
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An expatriate is a person temporarily or permanently residing in a country other than that of their citizenship. In common usage, the term refers to professionals or skilled workers sent abroad by their companies. However, it can refer to retirees and others who have chosen to live outside their native country. Historically, it has referred to exiles. The word expatriate comes from the Latin terms ex and patria, dictionary definitions for the current meaning of the word include, Expatriate, A person who lives outside their native country, or living in a foreign land. The varying use of terms for different groups of foreigners can thus be seen as implying nuances about wealth, intended length of stay, perceived motives for moving, nationality. An older usage of the word expatriate was to refer to an exile, as far back as antiquity, people have gone to live in foreign countries, whether as diplomats, merchants or missionaries. The numbers of such travellers grew markedly after the 15th century with the dawn of the European colonial period, in the 19th century, travel became easier by way of steamship or train. People could more readily choose to live for years in a foreign country. After World War II, decolonisation accelerated, however, lifestyles which had developed among European colonials continued to some degree in expatriate communities. Remnants of the old British Empire, for example, can still be seen in the form of gated communities staffed by domestic workers, social clubs which have survived include the Hash House Harriers and the Royal Selangor. Homesick palates are catered for by specialist food shops, and drinkers can still order a gin and tonic, although pith helmets are mostly confined to military ceremonies, civilians still wear white dinner jackets or even Red Sea rig on occasion. The use of curry powder has long since spread to the metropole, from the 1950s, scheduled flights on jet airliners further increased the speed of international travel. This enabled a hypermobility which led to the jet set, and eventually to global nomads, since the 1990s, the rise of the Internet has allowed some types of worker to become digital nomads. Websites aimed at expatriates began to appear about the same time, the number of expatriates in the world is difficult to determine. In 2013, the United Nations estimated that 232 million people, or 3.2 per cent of the world population, in 2007, only 20 per cent of Dubais population were citizens. Singapore, where 40 per cent of the inhabitants were foreign-born workers, many multinational corporations send employees to foreign countries to work in branch offices or subsidiaries. Expatriate employees allow a parent company to more closely control its foreign subsidiaries and they can also improve global coordination
21.
International Labour Organization
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The International Labour Organization is a United Nations agency dealing with labour problems, particularly international labour standards, social protection, and work opportunities for all. The ILO has 187 member states,186 of the 193 UN member states plus the Cook Islands are members of the ILO, the ILO registers complaints against entities that are violating international rules, however, it does not impose sanctions on governments. Unlike other United Nations specialized agencies, the International Labour Organization has a governing structure – representing governments, employers. The rationale behind the structure is the creation of free and open debate among governments. The ILO secretariat is referred to as the International Labour Office, juan Somavía was the ILOs director-general from 1999 until October 2012, when Guy Ryder was elected as his replacement. This governing body is composed of 28 government representatives,14 workers representatives, ten of the government seats are held by member states that are nations of chief industrial importance, as first considered by an impartial committee. The nations are Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, the terms of office are three years. The ILO organizes the International Labour Conference in Geneva every year in June, also known as the parliament of labour, the conference also makes decisions about the ILOs general policy, work programme and budget. Each member state has four representatives at the conference, two government delegates, a delegate and a worker delegate. All of them have individual voting rights, and all votes are equal, the employer and worker delegates are normally chosen in agreement with the most representative national organizations of employers and workers. Usually, the workers delegates coordinate their voting, as do the employers delegates, all delegate have the same rights, and are not required to vote in blocs. Through July 2011, the ILO has adopted 189 conventions, if these conventions are ratified by enough governments, they become in force. However, ILO conventions are considered international labour standards regardless of ratification, when a convention comes into force, it creates a legal obligation for ratifying nations to apply its provisions. Every year the International Labour Conferences Committee on the Application of Standards examines a number of alleged breaches of international labour standards, governments are required to submit reports detailing their compliance with the obligations of the conventions they have ratified. Conventions that have not been ratified by member states have the legal force as do recommendations. In 1998, the 86th International Labour Conference adopted the Declaration on Fundamental Principles, the ILO asserts that its members have an obligation to work towards fully respecting these principles, embodied in relevant ILO Conventions. The ILO Conventions which embody the principles have now been ratified by most member states. Recommendations do not have the force of conventions and are not subject to ratification
22.
Illegal immigrant
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Many countries have had or currently have laws restricting immigration. Whether a person is permitted to stay in a country legally may be decided by quotas or point systems or may be based on such as family ties. Article 13 on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights declares the right to any country, including ones own. Illegal immigration, as well as immigration in general, is overwhelmingly upward, however, it is also noted that illegal immigrants tend not to be the poorest within the populations they emigrate from. Living in another country illegally includes a variety of restrictions as well as the risk of being detained and deported or of facing other sanctions, if the status of being illegal is any way perceivable to host community residents, illigal migrants may additionally face visible or verbal disdain. There have been campaigns in many countries since 2007 discouraging the use of the illegal immigrant. They are generally based on the argument that the act of immigrating illegally does not make the people themselves illegal, however, related terms that do not directly describe people are still used. For example, Associated Press still uses the illegal immigration to describe the action of entering or residing in a country illegally. In contrast, in some contexts the term illegal immigrants is shortened, often pejoratively, there are multiple models that try to explain illegal immigration from the perspective of the immigrants. Gaining employment and legal status are mainly what is perceived as successful result of the illegal immigration, there are two contradicting views on the impact of illegal immigrants on the labor market in terms of competition between host community workers and newcomers. According to this view it is assumed that illegal workers tend to add to, and compete with, Illegal workers may find employment by accepting lower wages than host community workers, sometimes below the minimum wage and off-the-books. This may result in a downward spiralling of wages, economist George Borjas has calculated that real wages of US workers without a high school degree declined by 9% from 1980–2000 and claims that this was due to competition from illegal immigrants. Since the decline of middle-class blue-collar jobs in manufacturing and industry, in the US, only 12% of the labor force has less than high school education, but 70% of illegal workers from Mexico lack a high school degree. The majority of new blue-collar jobs qualify as Masseys underclass work, and suffer from unreliability, subservient roles and, critically, from this it is assumed that the willingness to take undesirable jobs is what gives illegal immigrants their employment. Entry-level white-collar and service jobs offer advancement opportunities only for people with work permits, however, the advantage decreases with the skill level of the firms workers, In recent years, developing countries have pursued the benefits of globalization by adopting measures to liberalize trade. Illegal immigrants are not impoverished by standards of the home country, the poorest classes in a developing country may lack the resources needed to mount an attempt to cross illegally, or the connections to friends or family already in the destination country. Other examples do show that increases in poverty, especially associated with immediate crises. It also marked the start of a swell in Mexican immigration
23.
Slaves
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced in the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
24.
Service Canada
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The initiative seeks to do this by improving the design and delivery of government programs and services to Canadians. In addition, it currently has well over 600 in-person offices and over 200 mobile outreach service units that operate in remote, as of May 2007, Service Canada has partnered with over 14 other departments and agencies to provide access to more than 50 government programs and services. It also had established close to 500 points of service across Canada – many of which are outreach and mobile offices designed to deliver programs and services into rural, similar initiatives to Service Canada are well-established in many Canadian provinces jurisdictions across Canada, the first being Service New Brunswick. Service Canada is currently a part of the Employment and Social Development Canada portfolio, the portfolio is the Government of Canadas major provider of social programs, services and benefits, and is a key player in the development of the full range of social policies at the federal level. The current Minister responsible for Service Canada is Jean-Yves Duclos
25.
Migration in China
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Internal migration in the Peoples Republic of China is one of the most extensive in the world according to the International Labour Organization. In fact, research done by Kam Wing Chan of the University of Washington suggests that In the 30 years since 1979, of the 440 million increase, about 340 million was attributable to net migration and urban reclassification. Even if only half of that increase was migration, the volume of migration in such a short period is likely the largest in human history. Migrants in China are commonly members of a population, which refers primarily to migrants in China without local household registration status through the Chinese Hukou system. In general, rural-urban migrant workers are most excluded from local resources, citywide social welfare programs. Migrant workers are not necessarily rural workers, they can simply be people living in areas with rural household registration. In 2015 a total of 277.5 million migrant workers existed in China, out of these, migrant workers who left their hometown and worked in other provinces accounted for 158.63 million and migrant workers who worked within their home provinces reached 94.15 million. The balance of gender for migrant workers was two-thirds male to female in 2015. Estimations are that Chinese cities will face an influx of another 243 million migrants by 2025 and this population of migrants would represent almost 40 percent of the total urban population, a number which is almost three times the current level. While it is difficult to collect accurate statistical data on migrant floating populations. In Chinas largest cities, for instance, it is quoted that at least one out of every five persons is a migrant. The other factors influencing migration of people from rural areas to large cities are employment, education, business opportunities. In 1668 during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor, the Qing government decreed a prohibition of non-Eight Banner people getting into Northeast China Manchuria of their origin. Han Chinese were banned from settling in this region but the rule was openly violated, Han Chinese farmers were resettled from north China by the Qing to the area along the Liao River in order to restore the land to cultivation. Wasteland was reclaimed by Han Chinese squatters in addition to other Han who rented land from Manchu landlords, the Qianlong Emperor allowed Han Chinese peasants suffering from drought to move into Manchuria despite him issuing edicts in favor of banning them from 1740-1776. Chinese tenant farmers rented or even claimed title to land from the imperial estates, Han Chinese were officially forbidden to settle in Inner and Outer Mongolia. Mongols were forbidden from crossing into the Han Chinese 18 provinces without permission and were given if they did. Mongols were forbidden from crossing into another Mongol leagues, Han Chinese settlers violated the rule and crossed into and settled in Inner Mongolia
26.
Urbanization in the People's Republic of China
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Urbanization in China increased in speed following the initiation of the reform and opening policy. By the end of 2015, 56% of the population lived in urban areas. Chinas increase in urbanization was one of the functions of the surpluses produced from the agricultural sectors in Chinese. By the same token, urbanization rarely exceeded ten percent of the population although large urban centers were established. For example, during the Song, the northern capital Kaifeng and southern capital Hangzhou had 1.4 million and one million inhabitants, in addition, it was common that urban residents also had one foot in the rural sector due to private landholding property rights. Urban population grew steadily at around 3%-20% from 1950 to 1965, urban population experienced a great jump in 1958-1961 during the Great Leap Forward in conjunction with the massive industrialization effort. During the Cultural Revolution years of 1965-1975, urban population growth dropped as a result of rustication, from 1962 to 1978, it is estimated that almost 18 million urban youth moved to the countryside. However, after reforms were launched at the end of 1978, the inflow of foreign direct investment created massive employment opportunities, which fostered urban population growth. In the 1990s, urban growth started to slow. This reflected an increase in employment growth following the restructuring of the state-owned enterprises. The majority of Chinas people live in the segment of the country. Most are peasants living, as did their forebears, in the low-lying hills, agriculture predominates in this vast area, generally favored by a temperate or subtropical climate. The meticulously tilled fields are evidence in part of the continuing concern over farm output. Although migration to urban areas has been restricted since the late 1950s, an urban and industrial corridor formed a broad arc stretching from Harbin in the northeast through the Beijing area and south to Chinas largest city, the industrial metropolitan complex of Shanghai. The adverse terrain and climate of most of regions have historically discouraged dense population. In 1987 China had a total of twenty-nine provincial-level administrative units directly under the government in Beijing. In addition to the provinces, there were five autonomous regions for minority nationalities. Urban areas were subdivided into lower-level administrative units beginning with municipalities
27.
Hukou system
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A hukou is a record in a government system of household registration required by law in mainland China, and determines where citizens are allowed to live. The system itself is properly called huji, and has origins in ancient China. A household registration record officially identifies a person as a resident of an area and includes identifying information such as name, parents, spouse, and date of birth. Because of its entrenchment of social strata, especially as between rural and urban residency status, the system is sometimes likened to a form of caste system. The system descends in part from ancient Chinese systems of household registration, in present times, a similar household registration system exists within the public administration structures of Japan, Vietnam, and North Korea. In South Korea, the Hoju system was abolished on 1 January 2008, while unrelated in origin, propiska in the Soviet Union or Resident registration in Russia had/has a similar purpose. The formal name for the system is huji, within the huji system, a hukou is the registered residency status of a particular individual in this system. Hukou is more used in everyday conversation. Hukou has been adopted by English-language audiences to refer to both the system and an individuals hukou. Family registers were in existence in China as early as the Xia Dynasty, in the centuries which followed, the family register developed into a system of categorisation of families and clans for purposes of taxation, conscription and social control. The Rites of Zhou notes that three copies of documents were kept in different places, the administrative divisions in Zhou Dynasty were a function of the distance to the state capital. The top division nearest the capital was named Dubi, top division in more distant areas were named Xiang, families were organized under the Baojia system. Guan Zhong, Prime Minister of the Qi state 7th century BCE, in addition, Guan Zhong also banned immigration, emigration, and separation of families without permission. In the Book of Lord Shang, Shang Yang also described his policy restricting immigrations and emigrations. Xiao He, the first Chancellor of the Han Dynasty, added the chapter of Hu as one of the nine basic law codes of Han, the Communist Party promoted a command economy when it came to power in 1949. In 1958, the Chinese government officially promulgated the family register system to control the movement of people between urban and rural areas, individuals were broadly categorised as a rural or urban worker. A worker seeking to move from the country to urban areas to take up non-agricultural work would have to apply through the relevant bureaucracies, the number of workers allowed to make such moves was tightly controlled. Migrant workers would require six passes to work in other than their own
28.
Enlargement of the European Union
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Since then, the EUs membership has grown to twenty-eight, with the latest member state being Croatia, which joined in July 2013. The most recent territorial enlargement of the EU was the incorporation of Mayotte in 2014, the most notable territorial reductions of the EU, and its predecessors, were the exit of Algeria upon independence in 1962 and the exit of Greenland in 1985. On 23 June 2016, a referendum on whether the UK should remain in or leave the European Union was held. The formal withdrawal will not take place until negotiations on the terms of their withdrawal are finalized, currently, accession negotiations are under way with several states. The process of enlargement is referred to as European integration. This term is used to refer to the intensification of co-operation between EU member states as national governments allow for the gradual harmonisation of national laws. According to the Maastricht Treaty, each current member state and the European Parliament must agree to any enlargement. According to the EU treaties, membership of the European Union is open to any European State which respects the values referred to in Article 2 and is committed to promoting them. Those Article 2 values are respect for dignity, freedom, democracy, equality. Today the accession process follows a series of steps, from a pre-accession agreement to the ratification of the final accession treaty. These steps are primarily presided over by the European Commission, before a country applies for membership it typically signs an association agreement to help prepare the country for candidacy and eventual membership. Most countries do not meet the criteria to even begin negotiations before they apply, an association agreement helps prepare for this first step. In the case of the Western Balkans, a special process, when a country formally applies for membership, the Council asks the Commission to prepare an opinion on the countrys readiness to begin negotiations. The Council can then accept or reject the Commissions opinion. If the Council agrees to open negotiations the screening process then begins, the Commission and candidate country examine its laws and those of the EU and determine what differences exist. The Council then recommends opening negotiations on chapters of law that it there is sufficient common ground to have constructive negotiations. Often this will involve time-lines before the Acquis Communautaire has to be fully implemented, to assess progress achieved by countries in preparing for accession to the European Union, the European Commission submits regular reports to the European Council. These serve as a basis for the Council to make decisions on negotiations or their extension to other candidates, once this has been completed it will join the Union on the date specified in the treaty
29.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
30.
2004 enlargement of the European Union
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It occurred on 1 May 2004. Seven of these were part of the former Eastern Bloc, one of the former Yugoslavia, and the remaining two were Mediterranean islands and former British colonies. Part of the wave of enlargement was the accession of Bulgaria and Romania in 2007, who were unable to join in 2004. With the end of the Second World War in 1945, Europe found itself divided between a capitalist Western Bloc and a communist Eastern Bloc, as well as Third World neutral countries. The European Economic Community was created in 1957 between six countries within the Western Bloc and later expanded to countries across Europe. European communist countries had a looser economic grouping with the USSR known as Comecon, to the south there was a non-aligned communist federated country - Yugoslavia. In 1989, the Cold War between the two superpowers was coming to an end, with the USSRs influence over communist Europe collapsing. As the communist states began their transition to free market democracies, aligning to Euro-Atlantic integration, the Phare strategy was launched soon after to adapt more the structure of the Central and Eastern European countries to the European Economic Community. One of the tools of this strategy was the Regional Quality Assurance Program which started in 1993 to help the PECO States implement the New Approach in their economy. The Acquis Communautaire contained 3,000 directives and some 100,000 pages in the Official Journal of the European Union to be transposed. It demanded a lot of work and immense economic change. The Treaty of Accession 2003 was signed on 16 April 2003, at the Stoa of Attalus in Athens, Greece, the text also amended the main EU treaties, including the Qualified Majority Voting of the Council of the European Union. The treaty was ratified on time and entered force on 1 May 2004 amid ceremonies around Europe. European leaders met in Dublin for fireworks and a ceremony at Áras an Uachtaráin. At the same time, citizens across Ireland enjoyed a nationwide celebration styled as the Day of Welcomes,1 EU Association Agreement type, Europe Agreement for the states of the Fifth Enlargement. As of May 2011, there are no longer any restrictions on the free movement of citizens of these new member states. With their original accession to the EU, free movement of people between all 25 states would naturally have applied, however, due to concerns of mass migration from the new members to the old EU-15, some transitional restrictions were put in place. Mobility within the EU-15 and within the new states functioned as normal, No restrictions were placed on Cyprus or Malta
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Accession of Romania to the European Union
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The 2007 enlargement of the European Union saw Bulgaria and Romania join the European Union on 1 January 2007. Together with the 2004 enlargement of the European Union, it is considered part of the wave of enlargement of the European Union. Romania was the first country of post-communist Europe to have relations with the European Community. In 1974, a treaty included Romania in the Communitys Generalized System of Preferences, since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, European Union membership has been the main goal of every Romanian Government and practically every political party in Romania. Along with its official EU application, Romania submitted the “Snagov Declaration”, the objective of joining the EU has also influenced Romanias regional relations. As a result, Romania has imposed visa regimes on a number of states, including Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Serbia, Montenegro, Turkey and Moldova. Within the framework of integration meetings held between the EU member states and Bulgaria, an Association Committee was held on 22 June 2004, there was also, according to the report, limited progress regarding the integration of the Roma community. The findings were reflected in the 2004 Regular Report, the Brussels European Council of December 172004 confirmed the conclusion of accession negotiations with Bulgaria. With this accession, Cyrillic became the official alphabet of the EU, after the Latin. Cyrillic will also be featured on the banknotes and the national side of the Bulgarian euro coins. For details, see Linguistic issues concerning the euro, the issue was decisively resolved in favour of Bulgaria at the 2007 EU Summit in Lisbon, allowing Bulgaria to use the Cyrillic spelling евро on all official EU documents. The date of accession,1 January 2007, was set at the Thessaloniki Summit in 2003, Bulgaria, Romania and the EU-25 signed the Treaty of Accession on 25 April 2005 at Luxembourgs Neumuenster Abbey. The 26 September 2006 monitoring report of the European Commission confirmed the date as 1 January 2007. The last instrument of ratification of the Treaty of Accession was deposited with the Italian government on 20 December 2006 thereby ensuring it came into force on 1 January 2007. Some member states of the EU required Bulgarians and Romanians to acquire a permit to work, in the Treaty of Accession 2005, there is a clause about a transition period so each old EU member state can impose such 2+3+2 transitional periods. Restrictions were planned to remain in place until 1 January 2014 –7 years after their accession, while both countries were admitted, concerns about corruption and organised crime were still high. As a result, although they joined, they were subject to monitoring from the Commission through a Mechanism for Cooperation and Verification, the accession treaty granted Bulgaria and Romania a seat, like every other state, on the Commission. Bulgaria nominated Meglena Kuneva, from NDSV who was given the post of Commissioner for Consumer Protection in the Barroso Commission and she was nominated in 2006 by the then current Bulgarian Prime Minister Sergei Stanishev
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Member State of the European Union
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The European Union comprises 28 member states. Each member state is party to the treaties of the union and thereby subject to the privileges. Unlike members of most international organisations, the states of the EU are subjected to binding laws in exchange for representation within the common legislative. Member states must agree unanimously for the EU to adopt policies concerning defence, subsidiarity is a founding principle of the EU. In 1957, six core states founded the EUs predecessor, the European Economic Community, the remaining states have acceded in subsequent enlargements. On 1 July 2013, Croatia became the newest member state of the EU, Enlargement of the Union is also contingent upon the consent of all existing members and the candidates adoption of the existing body of EU law, known as the acquis communautaire. There is disparity in the size, wealth and political system of member states, while in some areas majority voting takes place where larger states have more votes than smaller ones, smaller states have disproportional representation compared to their population. No member state has withdrawn or been suspended from the EU, in June 2016, the UK held a referendum on membership of the EU, resulting in 51. 89% of votes cast in favour to leaving. Prime Minister Theresa May invoked Article 50 on 29 March 2017 to formally initiate the withdrawal process, notes Enlargement is, and has been, a principal feature of the Unions political landscape. The EUs predecessors were founded by the Inner Six, those willing to forge ahead with the Community while others remained skeptical. It was only a decade before the first countries changed their policy and attempted to join the Union, French President Charles de Gaulle feared British membership would be an American Trojan horse and vetoed its application. Applying in 1969 were the United Kingdom, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, however, declined to accept the invitation to become a member when the electorate voted against it, leaving just the UK, Ireland and Denmark to join. But despite the setbacks, and the withdrawal of Greenland from Denmarks membership in 1985, in 1987, the geographical extent of the project was tested when Morocco applied, and was rejected as it was not considered a European country. The year 1990 saw the Cold War drawing to a close, meanwhile, the members of the former Eastern Bloc and Yugoslavia were all starting to move towards EU membership. Ten of these joined in an enlargement on 1 May 2004 symbolising the unification of East. Bulgaria and Romania joined in 2007, the year 2013 saw the latest member, Croatia, accede to the Union, and the EU has prioritised membership for the rest of the Balkans – namely Western Balkans. Albania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey are all formal, turkish membership, pending since the 1980s, is a more contentious issue but it entered negotiations in 2005. According to the Copenhagen criteria, membership of the European Union is open to any European country that is a stable, free market liberal democracy that respects the rule of law and human rights
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Gastarbeiter
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Gastarbeiter is German for guest worker. It refers to foreign or migrant workers, particularly those who had moved to West Germany mainly in the 1960s and 1970s, similarly, the Netherlands and Belgium had a parallel scheme called the gastarbeider programme. Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Finland had similar programmes called arbetskraftsinvandring, East Germany had a similar programme and referred to the workers as Vertragsarbeiter. During the Nazi era the term Gastarbeiter was created, but Fremdarbeiter was largely used and this term had negative connotations and thus Gastarbeiter was used after the war. These agreements allowed the recruitment of Gastarbeiter to work in the sector for jobs that required few qualifications. There were several reasons for signing these treaties, first of all, during the 1950s, Germany experienced a so-called Wirtschaftswunder or economic miracle and needed laborers. The labour shortage was made acute by the creation of the Berlin Wall in August 1961. Secondly, the Federal Republic saw it as a form of developmental aid and it was hoped that the Gastarbeiter would learn useful skills in Germany, which could help them build their own countries after returning home. The first Gastarbeiter were recruited from European nations, however Turkey pressured the Federal Republic to allow its citizens to become guest workers. Theodor Blank, Secretary of State for Employment, was opposed to such agreements, the United States, however, put some political pressure on Germany, wanting to stabilize and create goodwill from a potential ally. The German Department of Foreign Affairs carried on the negotiations after this, after 1961 Turkish citizens soon became the largest group of Gastarbeiter in West Germany. The perception at the time on the part of both the West German Government and the Turkish Republic representatives was that working in Germany would be only temporary. The migrants, mostly male, were allowed to work in Germany for a period of one or two years returning to their home country in order to make room for other migrants. Many migrants did return, after having built up savings for their return, until very recently, Germany was not perceived as a country of immigration by both the majority of its political leaders and the majority of its population. A Gesetz zur Förderung der Rückkehrbereitsschaft was passed, the government started paying jobless people from a number of nations, such as Turks, Moroccans and Tunisians, a so-called Rückkehrprämie or Rückkehrhilfe if they returned home. The agreement with Turkey ended in 1973 but few workers returned because there were few jobs in Turkey. Instead they brought in wives and family members and settled in ethnic enclaves, in 2013 it was revealed that ex-chancellor Helmut Kohl had plans to halve the Turkish population of Germany in the 1980s. By 2010 there were about 4 million people of Turkish descent in Germany, the generation born in Germany attended German schools, but some had a poor command of either German or Turkish, and thus had either low-skilled jobs or were unemployed
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Central Organisation of Finnish Trade Unions
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The Central Organisation of Finnish Trade Unions, usually referred to by the acronym SAK is the largest trade union confederation in Finland. Its member organisations have a total of more than one million members, the other two Finnish trade unions confederations are the Finnish Confederation of Salaried Employees and the Confederation of Unions for Academic Professionals in Finland. The most important negotiating partner of SAK is the Elinkeinoelämän keskusliitto/Finlands Näringsliv, the SAK, however, considers itself the continuation of the first Finnish central organisation, the Finnish Trade Union Federation. SAKs 2007 television advertisements were found so defaming that SAK had to withdraw the campaign, even some SDP members expressed disgust. SAK has been convicted of discrimination in high court. As of 2008, police is investigating financial fraud committed by SAKs Kiljava school
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Construction worker
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A construction worker is a tradesperson, labourer, or professional employed in the physical construction of the built environment and its infrastructure. The term construction worker is a term and most construction workers are primarily described by the type of work they perform. Construction workers may also colloquially be referred to as hard hat workers or hard hats, construction workers often work under a construction foreman. The division of labor of construction encompasses a range of skilled. Construction safety is important to ensure a safe environment for the workers. All construction workers need to be educated on safety at each site to minimize injury. In 2008, a Human Rights Watch report described unsafe and unfair working conditions, the International Labour Organization estimated that, at the end of 2006, 90% of the 40 million construction workers in China were migrant workers. Many of the migrant workers turned to work after their farming communities collapsed into poverty. In the United States, illegal immigrant labor is prevalent in the construction industry.20 a day
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Bulgarians
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Bulgarians are a South Slavic ethnic group who are native to Bulgaria and its neighboring regions. Bulgarian citizenship shall further be acquirable through naturalization, the population of Bulgaria descend from peoples with different origins and numbers. They became assimilated by the Slavic settlers in the First Bulgarian Empire, from the indigenous Thracian people certain cultural and ethnic elements were taken. Other pre-Slavic Indo-European peoples, including Dacians, Celts, Goths, Romans, Greeks, the Thracian language has been described as a southern Baltic language. Some pre-Slavic linguistic and cultural traces might have preserved in modern Bulgarians. Medieval historians claimed that the Triballi are the largest tribe and that subsequently changed their name to Bulgarians or Serbs. Others claimed that the Paeonians are Bulgarians, others claimed that the Moesi, according to archeological evidence from the late periods of Roman rule, the Romans did not decrease the number of Thracians significantly in major cities. The latter gradually inflicting total linguistic replacement of Thracian if the Thracians had not already been Romanized or Hellenized and they continued coming to the Balkans in many waves, but also leaving, most notably Justinian II settled as many as 30,000 Slavs from Thrace in Asia Minor. The Byzantines grouped the numerous Slavic tribes into two groups, the Sklavenoi and Antes, some Bulgarian scholars suggest that the Antes became one of the ancestors of the modern Bulgarians. The control of the Bulgars in the west was indirect and in the hands of the Slavic chiefs, the Bulgars are first mentioned in the 4th century in the vicinity of the North Caucasian steppe. However, any connection between the Bulgars and postulated Asian counterparts rest on little more than speculative and contorted etymologies. The Bulgars are not thought to have numerous, becoming a ruling elite in the areas they controlled. Their archeological evidence is concentrated in northeast Bulgaria and in Macedonia, mixed Bulgar-Slavic settlements emerged according to archeological evidence. Omurtag was the last ruler with a Turkic name and during the reign of Boris the Slavonic language reached an official level, a substantional number of loan words of the Bulgar language remained in the Medieval Bulgarian Slavic language and fewer survived in the modern. During the Early Byzantine Era, the Roman provincials in Scythia Minor and Moesia Secunda were already engaged in economic, the major port towns in Pontic Bulgaria remained Byzantine Greek in their outlook. The establishment of a new state molded the various Slav, Bulgar, in different periods to the ethnogenesis of the local population contributed also different Indo-European and Turkic people, who settled or lived on the Balkans. The First Bulgarian Empire was founded in 681, after the adoption of Orthodox Christianity in 864 it became one of the cultural centres of Slavic Europe. Its leading cultural position was consolidated with the invention of the Cyrillic script in its capital Preslav at the eve of the 10th century
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Estonians
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Estonians are a Finnic ethnic group related to the Finns that mainly inhabit Estonia, a country located south of Finland and the Finnish Gulf. Their national language belongs to Finnic branch and is known as Estonian, Estonia was first inhabited about 10,000 years ago, just after the Baltic ice lake had retreated from Estonia. Living in the area for more than 5,000 years would put the ancestors of Estonians among the oldest permanent inhabitants in Europe. On the other hand, some recent linguistic estimations suggest that Fenno-Ugrian language arrived around the Baltic Sea considerably later, the oldest known endonym of the Estonians is Maarahvas. Eesti, the endonym of Estonia, is thought to be derived from the word Aestii. The Roman historian Tacitus in 98 AD was the first to mention the Aestii people, and early Scandinavians called the south of the Gulf of Finland Eistland. Proto-Estonians were also called Chuds in Old East Slavic chronicles, the Estonian language belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic family of languages, as does the Finnish language. The first known book in Estonian was printed in 1525, while the oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th-century chronicles, Estonians are genetically closest to their neighbouring Tver region Russians and Latvians. However, Estonians are still the nearest genetic relatives of Finns, although Estonian national consciousness spread in the course of the 19th century during the Estonian national awakening, some degree of ethnic awareness preceded this development. By the 18th century the self-denomination eestlane spread among Estonians along with the older maarahvas, anton thor Helles translation of the Bible into Estonian appeared in 1739, and the number of books and brochures published in Estonian increased from 18 in the 1750s to 54 in the 1790s. By the end of the more than a half of adult peasants could read. The first university-educated intellectuals identifying themselves as Estonians, including Friedrich Robert Faehlmann, Kristjan Jaak Peterson and Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, the ruling elites had remained predominantly German in language and culture since the conquest of the early 13th century. By the end of 1860 the Estonians became unwilling to reconcile with German cultural and political hegemony, before the attempts at Russification in the 1880s, their view of Imperial Russia remained positive. Estonians have strong ties to the Nordic countries stemming from important cultural and religious influences gained over centuries during Scandinavian and German rule, indeed, Estonians consider themselves Nordic rather than Baltic, in particular because of close ethnic and linguistic affinities with the Finns. An estimated 40,000 Estonians lived in Russia in 1920, in sum,37,578 people moved from Soviet Russia to Estonia. During World War II, when Estonia was invaded by the Soviet Army in 1944, many refugees who survived the risky sea voyage to Sweden or Germany later moved from there to Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States or Australia. Some of these refugees and their descendants returned to Estonia after the nation regained its independence in 1991 and this is at least partly due to the easy access to oscillating migration to Finland. Recognising the problems arising from low birth rate and high emigration, the country has launched various measures to both increase the birth rate and to lure migrant Estonians back to Estonia
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Overseas Development Institute
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The Overseas Development Institute is an independent think tank on international development and humanitarian issues, founded in 1960. It does this by locking together high-quality applied research, practical policy advice, since then it has moved several times and is currently on Blackfriars Road. Since 2004 it has had a Partnership Programme Arrangement with the UKs Department for International Development, the Institute also developed a strong focus on communications and bridging research and policy. During Simon Maxwells period as ODI Director, ODI was named Think Tank of the Year 2007 by Public Affairs News magazine and it celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2010, with guests including former ODI Fellow and UK Business Secretary, Vince Cable. As of 2014 ODI had more than 230 staff and its director from 2013 until 2016 was Kevin Watkins who took over from Dr Alison Evans, formerly of the Institute of Development Studies at Sussex University. Its future director will be Alex Their, unlike its counterpart IDS, ODI does not engage in teaching. Speakers include ODI staff, visiting development policymakers, DFID officials and other prominent figures such as Justin Yifu Lin, ODI has published many books, papers, briefings, and two academic journals, Development Policy Review and Disasters. Since 1963 ODI has sent over 900 post-graduate economists to work in 40 mostly low-income countries, participants were initially known as Overseas Development Institute Nuffield Fellows and later titled as ODI Fellows. As a registered charity, ODIs income relies on grants and donations from foundations, non-governmental organisations, david Steven of Global Dashboard criticised the ODI for not making the distinction between subsidy and having a lower VAT rate on fuel comparison to other goods
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Harassment
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Harassment covers a wide range of behaviours of an offensive nature. It is commonly understood as behaviour that disturbs or upsets, in the legal sense, it is behaviour that appears to be disturbing or threatening. Sexual harassment refers to persistent and unwanted sexual advances, typically in the workplace, a hypothesis about the origin of the verb harasser is harace/harache, which was used in the 14th century in expressions like courre à la harache and prendre aucun par la harache. This dictionary suggests a relation of haro/hare with the old lower franconian *hara, the origin itself of harass is thought to be the old Scandinavian hârr with the Romanic suffix –as, which meant grey or dimmish horsehair. Controversial is the relation to the Arabic word for horse whose roman transliteration is faras. In those dictionaries the relationship with harassment were an interpretation of the hare as to urge/set a dog on, despite the fact that it should indicate a shout to come. The American Heritage Dictionary prudently indicates this origin only as possible, electronic harassment is the unproven belief of the use of electromagnetic waves to harass a victim. Psychologists have identified evidence of auditory hallucinations, delusional disorders, or other disorders in online communities supporting those who claim to be targeted. Landlord harassment is the creation, by a landlord or his agents. Such a strategy is often sought because it avoids costly legal expenses, landlord harassment carries specific legal penalties in some jurisdictions, but enforcement can be very difficult or even impossible in many circumstances. It is a form of cyber bullying, Harassment directs multiple repeating obscenities and derogatory comments at specific individuals focusing, for example, on the targets race, religion, nationality, or sexual orientation. This often occurs in chat rooms, through newsgroups, and by sending hate e-mail to interested parties. This may also include stealing photos of the victim and their families, doctoring these photos in offensive ways, power harassment is harassment or unwelcome attention of a political nature, often occurring in the environment of a workplace including hospitals, schools and universities. It includes a range of behavior from mild irritation and annoyances to serious abuses which can even involve forced activity beyond the boundaries of the job description, power harassment is considered a form of illegal discrimination and is a form of political and psychological abuse, and bullying. This is humiliating, intimidating or abusive behaviour which is difficult to detect. This characteristically lowers a person’s self-esteem or causes one torment and this can take the form of verbal comments, engineered episodes of intimidation, aggressive actions or repeated gestures. Falling into this category is workplace harassment by individuals or groups mobbing, community-based psychological harassment, meanwhile, is stalking by a group against an individual using repeated distractions that the individual is sensitized to. The targeting of an individual because of their race or ethnicity, the harassment may include words, deeds, and actions that are specifically designed to make the target feel degraded due to their race or ethnicity
. PMID 17489922. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00716.x.
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