1.
Profession
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The term is a truncation of the term liberal profession, which is, in turn, an Anglicization of the French term profession libérale. Medieval and early modern tradition recognized only four professions, divinity, medicine, the military officer, just as some professions rise in status and power through various stages, others may decline. Disciplines formalized more recently, such as architecture, now have equally long periods of study associated with them, originally, any regulation of the professions was self-regulation through bodies such as the College of Physicians or the Inns of Court. With the growing role of government, statutory bodies have taken on this role. It may be resisted as limiting the freedom to innovate or to practice as in their professional judgement they consider best. An example was in 2008, when the British government proposed wide statutory regulation of psychologists, besides regulating access to a profession, professional bodies may set examinations of competence and enforce adherence to an ethical code. Typically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a professional body before they are permitted to practice in that profession. However, in countries, individuals may not be required by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order to practice. This requirement is set out by the Educational Department Bureau of Hong Kong, Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own affairs, professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their work. This usually means the freedom to exercise their professional judgement, however, it also has other meanings. Professional autonomy is often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily their own interests, one major implication of professional autonomy is the traditional ban on corporate practice of the professions, especially accounting, architecture, medicine, and law. This means that in many jurisdictions, these professionals cannot do business through regular for-profit corporations, the obvious implication of this is that all equity owners of the professional business entity must be professionals themselves. This avoids the possibility of an owner of the firm telling a professional how to do his or her job. But because professional business entities are locked out of the stock market. Professions enjoy a social status, regard and esteem conferred upon them by society. This high esteem arises primarily from the social function of their work. All professions involve technical, specialized and highly skilled work often referred to as professional expertise, training for this work involves obtaining degrees and professional qualifications without which entry to the profession is barred. Updating skills through continuing education is required through training and this power is used to control its own members, and also its area of expertise and interests
2.
Civilian
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In general, a civilian is a person who is not a member of the military or of a police or firefighting force, as defined by Merriam Websters Dictionary. From the perspective of the U. S, in military and law enforcement slang, the term Civies or Civvies are often used to refer civilian population or civilian clothing. Under the laws of war, a civilian is one not being a member of the services and does not take a direct part of hostilities in times of armed conflict. The term civilian is slightly different from a non-combatant under the laws of war, the privileges that they enjoy under international law depends on whether the conflict is an internal one or an international one. The word civilian goes back to the late 14th century and is from Old French civilien, Civilian is believed to have been used to refer to non-combatants as early as 1829. The term non-combatant now refers to people in general who are not taking part of hostilities, there is no intermediate status, nobody in enemy hands can be outside the law. We feel that this is a satisfactory solution – not only satisfying to the mind, but also, the ICRC has expressed the opinion that If civilians directly engage in hostilities, they are considered unlawful or unprivileged combatants or belligerents. They may be prosecuted under the law of the detaining state for such action. According to Article 50 of the 1977 Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions,1, a civilian is any person who does not belong to one of the categories of persons referred to in Article 4A, and of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of this Protocol. In case of whether a person is a civilian, that person shall be considered to be a civilian. The civilian population comprises all persons who are civilians, the presence within the civilian population of individuals who do not come within the definition of civilians does not deprive the population of its civilian character. The definition is negative and defines civilians as persons who do not belong to definite categories, the categories of persons mentioned in Article 4A, and of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of the Protocol I are combatants. Therefore, the Commentary to the Protocol pointed that, any one who is not a member of the forces is a civilian. Civilians cannot take part in armed conflict, civilians are given protection under the Geneva Conventions and Protocols thereto. Article 51 describes the protection that must be given to the civilian population, chapter III of Protocol I regulates the targeting of civilian objects. The actual position of the civilian in modern war remains problematical, starting in the 1980s, it was often claimed that 90 percent of the victims of modern wars were civilians. The claim was repeated on Wikipedias Did You Know on 14 December 2010 and these claims, though widely believed, are not supported by detailed examination of the evidence, particularly that relating to wars that are central to the claims. It has lost none of its political, legal and moral salience, although it is often assumed that civilians are essentially passive onlookers of war, sometimes they have active roles in conflicts
3.
Military
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The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly
4.
Chaplain
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The concepts of multifaith, secular, generic and/or humanist chaplaincy are also gaining increasing support, particularly within healthcare and educational settings. School chaplains are a fixture in religious and, more recently, in religious schools the role of the chaplain tends to be educational and liturgical. In secular schools the role of the chaplain tends to be that of a mentor, Chaplains provide care for students by supporting them during times of crisis or need. Many chaplains run programs to promote the welfare of students, staff and parents including programs to help deal with grief. Chaplains also build relationships with students by participating in extra activities such as breakfast programs, lunchtime groups. School chaplains can also liaise with external organisations providing support services for the school, with stagnant incomes and rising prices putting pressure on independent school budgets, cutting the post of school chaplain can seem an easy saving. In Australia chaplains in schools have, controversially, been funded by the federal government. Australian chaplains assist school communities to support the spiritual, social, Chaplaincy services are provided by non denominational companies. As of August 2013 there are 2339 chaplains working in Australian secular schools, similarly, in Scotland the focus of school chaplaincy is on welfare and building positive relationships joining students on excursions and sharing meals. Chaplains are also non-denominational and act as a link between the community and society. Like Australian chaplains it is expected that they will not proselytise, in Ireland chaplaincy takes a very different approach in which chaplains are expected to teach up to four hours of class instruction per week and are usually Catholic. Chaplaincy duties include visiting homes, religious services, retreats and celebrations, Chaplains often also oversee programs on campus that foster spiritual, ethical, religious, and political and cultural exchange, and the promotion of service. Each day communities respond to disasters or emergencies. Most often, these incidents are managed effectively at the local level, however, there are some incidents that may require a collaborative approach that includes personnel from,1. A combination of specialties or disciplines,3, Chaplain Fellowship Disaster Response certifies first responder chaplain for crisis and disaster response. At the scene of the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City, for example, New York City Fire Department Chaplain Fr. Judge was killed by flying debris from the South Tower when he re-entered the lobby of the North Tower of the World Trade Center, environmental chaplaincy is an emerging field within chaplaincy. Environmental chaplains provide spiritual care in a way that honors humanitys deep connection to the earth, environmental chaplains may also bear witness to the Earth itself and represent the merging of science and spirituality
5.
Christian
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A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance. The term Christian is also used as an adjective to describe anything associated with Christianity, or in a sense all that is noble, and good. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, there were 2.2 billion Christians around the world in 2010, by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey Christianity will remain the worlds largest religion in 2050, about half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic, while more than a third are Protestant. Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the worlds Christians, other Christian groups make up the remainder. Christians make up the majority of the population in 158 countries and territories,280 million Christian live as a minority. In the Greek Septuagint, christos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, in other European languages, equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such as Chrétien in French and Cristiano in Spanish. The second mention of the term follows in Acts 26,28, where Herod Agrippa II replied to Paul the Apostle, Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. The third and final New Testament reference to the term is in 1 Peter 4,16, which believers, Yet if as a Christian, let him not be ashamed. The city of Antioch, where someone gave them the name Christians, had a reputation for coming up with such nicknames, in the Annals he relates that by vulgar appellation commonly called Christians and identifies Christians as Neros scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome. Another term for Christians which appears in the New Testament is Nazarenes which is used by the Jewish lawyer Tertullus in Acts 24, the Hebrew equivalent of Nazarenes, Notzrim, occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, and is still the modern Israeli Hebrew term for Christian. A wide range of beliefs and practices is found across the world among those who call themselves Christian, denominations and sects disagree on a common definition of Christianity. Most Baptists and fundamentalists, for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian, in fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity. The identification of Jesus as the Messiah is not accepted by Judaism, the term for a Christian in Hebrew is נוּצְרי, a Talmudic term originally derived from the fact that Jesus came from the Galilean village of Nazareth, today in northern Israel. Adherents of Messianic Judaism are referred to in modern Hebrew as יְהוּדִים מָשִׁיחַיים, the term Nasara rose to prominence in July 2014, after the Fall of Mosul to the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The nun or ن— the first letter of Nasara—was spray-painted on the property of Christians ejected from the city, where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi is used by Christians themselves for those with a religious faith in Jesus. In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim Western foreigners, another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Ṣalībī from ṣalīb which refers to Crusaders and has negative connotations
6.
Ethics
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Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The term ethics derives from the Ancient Greek word ἠθικός ethikos, the branch of philosophy axiology comprises the sub-branches of ethics and aesthetics, each concerned with values. As a branch of philosophy, ethics investigates the questions What is the best way for people to live, and What actions are right or wrong in particular circumstances. In practice, ethics seeks to resolve questions of morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice. As a field of enquiry, moral philosophy also is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics. Richard William Paul and Linda Elder define ethics as a set of concepts, the Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word ethics is commonly used interchangeably with morality. And sometimes it is used narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition. Paul and Elder state that most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs, the word ethics in English refers to several things. It can refer to philosophical ethics or moral philosophy—a project that attempts to use reason in order to various kinds of ethical questions. As bioethicist Larry Churchill has written, Ethics, understood as the capacity to think critically about moral values, Ethics can also be used to describe a particular persons own idiosyncratic principles or habits. For example, Joe has strange ethics, the English word ethics is derived from an Ancient Greek word êthikos, which means relating to ones character. The Ancient Greek adjective êthikos is itself derived from another Greek word, meta-ethics asks how we understand, know about, and what we mean when we talk about what is right and what is wrong. An ethical question fixed on some particular practical question—such as, Should I eat this particular piece of chocolate cake. —cannot be a meta-ethical question, a meta-ethical question is abstract and relates to a wide range of more specific practical questions. For example, Is it ever possible to have knowledge of what is right. Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics, meta-ethics is also important in G. E. In it he first wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy, moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics, in his Open Question Argument. This made thinkers look again at second order questions about ethics, earlier, the Scottish philosopher David Hume had put forward a similar view on the difference between facts and values. Studies of how we know in ethics divide into cognitivism and non-cognitivism, non-cognitivism is the claim that when we judge something as right or wrong, this is neither true nor false
7.
Morality
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Morality is the differentiation of intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are distinguished as proper and those that are improper. Morality may also be synonymous with goodness or rightness. Moral philosophy includes moral ontology, or the origin of morals, as well as moral epistemology, an example of normative ethical philosophy is the Golden Rule, which states that, One should treat others as one would like others to treat oneself. Immorality is the opposition to morality, while amorality is variously defined as an unawareness of, indifference toward. Ethics is the branch of philosophy which addresses questions of morality, the word ethics is commonly used interchangeably with morality, and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group, or individual. It does not connote objective claims of right or wrong, descriptive ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense. In its normative sense, morality refers to whatever is actually right or wrong, normative ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies morality in this sense. For example, while they might concede that forces of social conformity significantly shape individuals moral decisions and this may be the philosophical view propounded by ethical naturalists, however not all moral realists accept that position. Moral anti-realism, on the hand, holds that moral statements either fail or do not even attempt to report objective moral facts. Some forms of non-cognitivism and ethical subjectivism, while considered anti-realist in the robust sense used here, are considered realist in the sense synonymous with moral universalism, celia Green made a distinction between tribal and territorial morality. She characterizes the latter as predominantly negative and proscriptive, it defines a persons territory, including his or her property and dependents, apart from these proscriptions, territorial morality is permissive, allowing the individual whatever behaviour does not interfere with the territory of another. By contrast, tribal morality is prescriptive, imposing the norms of the collective on the individual, Green relates the development of territorial morality to the rise of the concept of private property, and the ascendancy of contract over status. Some observers hold that individuals apply distinct sets of rules to people depending on their membership of an in-group or an out-group. Some biologists, anthropologists and evolutionary psychologists believe this in-group/out-group discrimination has evolved because it enhances group survival and this belief has been confirmed by simple computational models of evolution. In simulations this discrimination can result in both unexpected cooperation towards the in-group and irrational hostility towards the out-group, falger have argued that nationalism and patriotism are forms of this in-group/out-group boundary. Jonathan Haidt has noted that experimental observation indicating an in-group criterion provides one moral foundation substantially used by conservatives, peterson and Seligman approach the anthropological view looking across cultures, geo-cultural areas and across millennia. They conclude that certain virtues have prevailed in all cultures they examined, the major virtues they identified include wisdom / knowledge, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. Each of these includes several divisions, for instance humanity includes love, kindness, and social intelligence
8.
Secular humanism
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Secular humanism posits that human beings are capable of being ethical and moral without religion or a god. It does not, however, assume that humans are inherently evil or innately good. Rather, the humanist life stance emphasizes the unique responsibility facing humanity, along with this, an essential part of secular humanism is a continually adapting search for truth, primarily through science and philosophy. Many secular humanists derive their moral codes from a philosophy of utilitarianism, ethical naturalism, or evolutionary ethics, the Happy Human is the official symbol of the IHEU as well as being regarded as a universally recognised symbol for those who call themselves Humanists. Secular humanist organizations are found in all parts of the world and those who call themselves humanists are estimated to number between four and five million people worldwide. The meaning of the phrase secular humanism has evolved over time, the phrase has been used since at least the 1930s, and in 1943, the then Archbishop of Canterbury, William Temple, was reported as warning that the Christian tradition. Was in danger of being undermined by a Secular Humanism which hoped to retain Christian values without Christian faith, the release in 1980 of A Secular Humanist Declaration by the newly formed Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism gave secular humanism an organisational identity within the United States. However, many adherents of the approach reject the use of the secular as obfuscating and confusing. All too often secular humanism is reduced to a sterile outlook consisting of more than secularism slightly broadened by academic ethics. This kind of hyphenated humanism easily becomes more about the adjective than its referent, adherents of this view, including the International Humanist and Ethical Union and the American Humanist Association, consider that the unmodified but capitalised word Humanism should be used. The endorsement by the IHEU of the capitalization of the word Humanism, the American Humanist Association began to adopt this view in 1973, and the IHEU formally endorsed the position in 1989. In 2002 the IHEU General Assembly unanimously adopted the Amsterdam Declaration and this declaration makes exclusive use of capitalized Humanist and Humanism, which is consistent with IHEUs general practice and recommendations for promoting a unified Humanist identity. To further promote Humanist identity, these words are also free of any adjectives, such usage is not universal among IHEU member organizations, though most of them do observe these conventions. Historical use of the humanism, is related to the writings of pre-Socratic philosophers. These writings were lost to European societies until Renaissance scholars rediscovered them through Muslim sources, in 1851 George Holyoake coined the term secularism to describe a form of opinion which concerns itself only with questions, the issues of which can be tested by the experience of this life. The modern secular movement coalesced around Holyoake, Charles Bradlaugh and their intellectual circle, the first secular society, the Leicester Secular Society, dates from 1851. Similar regional societies came together to form the National Secular Society in 1866, holyoakes secularism was strongly influenced by Auguste Comte, the founder of positivism and of modern sociology. Comte believed human history would progress in a law of three stages from a phase, to the metaphysical, toward a fully rational positivist society
9.
Russo-Japanese War
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The Russo-Japanese War was fought between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. The major theatres of operations were the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden in Southern Manchuria and the seas around Korea, Japan, Russia sought a warm-water port on the Pacific Ocean for their navy and for maritime trade. Vladivostok was operational only during the summer, whereas Port Arthur, since the end of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, Japan feared Russian encroachment on its sphere of influence. Russia had demonstrated an expansionist policy in the Siberian Far East from the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century, through threat of Russian expansion, Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in Manchuria in exchange for recognition of Korea as being within the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia refused and demanded Korea north of the 39th parallel to be a buffer zone between Russia and Japan. The Japanese government perceived a Russian threat to its strategic interests, after negotiations broke down in 1904, the Japanese Navy opened hostilities by attacking the Russian Eastern Fleet at Port Arthur, China, in a surprise attack. The war concluded with the Treaty of Portsmouth, mediated by US President Theodore Roosevelt, the complete victory of the Japanese military surprised world observers. The consequences transformed the balance of power in East Asia, resulting in a reassessment of Japans recent entry onto the world stage and it was the first major military victory in the modern era of an Asian power over a European one. Scholars continue to debate the historical significance of the war, after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Meiji government endeavored to assimilate Western ideas, technological advances and ways of warfare. By the late 19th century, Japan had transformed itself into an industrial state. The Japanese wanted to be recognized as equal with the Western powers, the Meiji restoration had always been intended to make Japan a modernized state, not a Westernized one, and Japan was always an imperialist power, looking towards overseas expansionism. By the 1890s it had extended its realm across Central Asia to Afghanistan, the Russian Empire stretched from Poland in the west to the Kamchatka Peninsula in the east. With its construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway to the port of Vladivostok, in the Tsushima incident of 1861 Russia had directly assaulted Japanese territory. Between the Meiji Restoration and its participation in World War I, the first war Japan fought was the First Sino-Japanese War, fought in 1894 and 1895. The war revolved around the issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the Joseon dynasty, from the 1880s onward, there had been vigorous competition for influence in Korea between China and Japan. The Korean court was prone to factionalism, and was divided by a reformist faction that was pro-Japanese. In 1884, a coup attempt was put down by Chinese troops. A peasant rebellion led by the Tonghak religious movement led to a request by the Korean government for the Qing dynasty to send in troops to stabilize the country
10.
Four Chaplains
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They helped other soldiers board lifeboats and gave up their own life jackets when the supply ran out. The chaplains joined arms, said prayers, and sang hymns as they went down with the ship, the relatively new chaplains all held the rank of first lieutenant. Their backgrounds, personalities, and denominations were different, although Goode, Poling and they met at the Army Chaplains School at Harvard University, where they prepared for assignments in the European theater, sailing on board Dorchester to report to their new assignments. George L. Fox was born March 15,1900, in Lewistown, Pennsylvania, when he was 17, he left school and lied about his age in order to join the Army to serve in World War I. He joined the corps in 1917, assigned to Camp Newton D. Baker in Texas. On December 3,1917, George embarked from Camp Merritt, New Jersey, as a medical corps assistant, he was highly decorated for bravery and was awarded the Silver Star, Purple Heart and the French Croix de Guerre. Upon his discharge, he returned home to Altoona, where he completed high school and he entered Moody Bible Institute in Illinois in 1923. He and Isadora G. Hurlbut of Vermont were married in 1923 and he served parishes in Thetford, Union Village, and Gilman, Vermont, and was appointed state chaplain and historian for the American Legion in Vermont. In 1942, Fox volunteered to serve as an Army chaplain and he began active duty on August 8,1942, the same day his son Wyatt enlisted in the Marine Corps. After Army Chaplains school at Harvard, he reported to the 411th Coast Artillery Battalion at Camp Davis and he was then united with Chaplains Goode, Poling and Washington at Camp Myles Standish in Taunton, Massachusetts, where they prepared to depart for Europe on board the Dorchester. Reform-Rabbi Alexander D. Goode was born in Brooklyn, New York on May 10,1911 and he later received his Ph. D. from Johns Hopkins University in 1940. While studying for the rabbinate at HUC, he worked at the Washington Hebrew Congregation during summer breaks and he originally applied to become a Navy chaplain in January 1941, but was not accepted. After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, he applied to the Army, Chaplain Goode went on active duty on August 9,1942, and was selected for the Chaplains School at Harvard. Chaplain Goode was then assigned to the 333rd Airbase Squadron in Goldsboro, in October 1942, he was transferred to Camp Myles Standish in Taunton, Massachusetts and reunited with chaplains Fox, Poling and Washington, who had been among his classmates at Harvard. Poling was born August 7,1910, in Columbus, Ohio, the son of evangelical minister Daniel A. Poling, clark Poling studied at Yale Universitys Divinity School in New Haven, Connecticut and graduated with his B. D. degree in 1936. He was ordained in the Reformed Church in America, and served first in the First Church of Christ, New London, Connecticut, with the outbreak of World War II, Poling decided to enter the Army, wanting to face the same danger as others. Later he reported to Army Chaplains School at Harvard, where he would meet Chaplains Fox, Goode, john P. Washington was born in Newark, New Jersey on July 18,1908. He studied at Seton Hall, in South Orange, New Jersey, to complete his high school and college courses in preparation for the Catholic priesthood
11.
Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)
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The Ministry of Defence is the British government department responsible for implementing the defence policy set by Her Majestys Government and is the headquarters of the British Armed Forces. The MoD states that its objectives are to defend the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and its interests and to strengthen international peace. The MoD also manages day-to-day running of the forces, contingency planning. As rearmament became a concern during the 1930s, Stanley Baldwin created the position of Minister for Coordination of Defence. Winston Churchill, on forming his government in 1940, created the office of Minister of Defence to exercise control over the Chiefs of Staff Committee. The post was held by the Prime Minister of the day until Clement Attlees government introduced the Ministry of Defence Act of 1946, the new ministry was headed by a Minister of Defence who possessed a seat in the Cabinet. These departments merged in 1964, the functions of the Ministry of Aviation Supply merged into the Ministry of Defence in 1971. The Ministers in the Ministry of Defence are as follows, The Ministers and Chiefs of the Defence Staff are supported by a number of civilian, scientific, the Permanent Under-Secretary of State for Defence is the senior civil servant at the MoD. His or her role is to ensure the MoD operates effectively as a department of the government, Permanent Under-Secretary of State, Stephen Lovegrove—commencing April 2016 Defence Equipment & Support CEO - Tony Douglas — commencing 2016 Chief Scientific Adviser, Professor Vernon C. He is supported by the Vice Chief of the Defence Staff, vice-Chief of the Defence Staff, General Sir Gordon Messenger, Royal Marines. First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff, Admiral Sir Philip Jones, Royal Navy Chief of the General Staff, General Sir Nick Carter, the Surgeon General, represents the Defence Medical Services on the Defence Staff, and is the clinical head of that service. These forces must be capable of representing Britain as lead nation in any coalition operations, the ability, at longer notice, to deploy forces in a large-scale operation while running a concurrent small-scale operation. The MoD has since been regarded as a leader in elaborating the post-Cold War organising concept of defence diplomacy, the UK is establishing air and naval bases in the Persian Gulf, located in the UAE and Bahrain. A presence in Oman is also being considered, the Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 included £178 billion investment in new equipment and capabilities. The review set a policy with four primary missions for the Armed Forces, Defend and contribute to the security and resilience of the UK. Contribute to improved understanding of the world through strategic intelligence and the defence network. Reinforce international security and the capacity of our allies, partners. Conduct operations to restore peace and stability, conduct major combat operations if required, including under NATO Article 5
12.
Britannia Royal Naval College
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Britannia Royal Naval College, commonly known as Dartmouth, is the initial officer training establishment of the British Royal Navy. It is located on a hill overlooking the port of Dartmouth, Devon, Royal Naval officer training has taken place in Dartmouth since 1863. The buildings of the current campus were completed in 1905, earlier students lived in two wooden hulks moored in the River Dart. Since 1998, BRNC has been the centre for Royal Naval officer training. The training of officers at Dartmouth dates from 1863, when the wooden hulk HMS Britannia was moved from Portland. In 1864, after an influx of new recruits, Britannia was supplemented by HMS Hindostan, prior to this, a Royal Naval Academy had operated for more than a century from 1733 to 1837 at Portsmouth, a major naval installation. The original Britannia was replaced by the Prince of Wales in 1869, the foundation stone for a new building at the college was laid by King Edward VII in March 1902. Sir Aston Webb designed the college at Dartmouth, which was built by Higgs and Hill. The first term of cadets entered at the R. N, College Osborne were transferred to Dartmouth in September 1905. The college was known as the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. As a Royal Naval shore establishment, it was known also by the ship name HMS Britannia. The college was named in 1953, when the name Britannia was given to the newly launched royal yacht HMY Britannia, the training ship moored in the River Dart at Sandquay, currently the former Sandown class minehunter HMS Cromer, continues to bear the name Hindostan. Cadets originally joined the Royal Naval College, Osborne, at the age of 13 for two years study and work before joining Dartmouth and they studied there for four years there before starting sea training at age 17. The entry age for the Naval College was changed to 16 in 1948, until 1941, Dartmouth was in effect a specialised boarding school, with parents paying fees for tuition and board. During the Second World War, after six Focke-Wulf aircraft bombed the College in September 1942, students, two bombs had penetrated the Colleges main block, causing damage to the quarterdeck and surrounding rooms. In the early 21st century, officer cadets, as they are known until passing out from the college, while most cadets join BRNC after finishing university, some join directly from secondary school. All spend between 30 and 49 weeks at the college, depending on specialisation, a large contingent of foreign and Commonwealth students are part of the student body. The Royal Fleet Auxiliary sends its cadets to BRNC for an 8-week initial officer training course
13.
Commando Training Centre Royal Marines
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Commando Training Centre Royal Marines is the principal military training centre for the Royal Marines. It is situated near the villages of Lympstone and Exton, between the city of Exeter, and the town of Exmouth in Devon, the centre delivers new entry training to recruits. The site was established in 1940 as the Royal Marines Depot Exton and was renamed the Royal Marines Depot Lympstone later in the Second World War, in February 1960 the Commando School Royal Marines, which had been based at Bickleigh Barracks, moved to the site. The site was renamed the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines in 1972, CTCRM is under the full command of Fleet Commander and Deputy Chief of Naval Operations, and responsible for providing commando trained officers and other ranks for the front line. CTCRM is overseen by the Commandant CTCRM, a colonel, Royal Marines, CTCRM is structured with three training wings each with its own commanding officer. Candidates for the RM are required to attend the Potential Royal Marine Course, held at CTCRM, in addition to academic, medical, PRMC lasts four days and assesses physical ability and intellectual capacity to undertake the recruit training. New entry training for Royal Marines other ranks is undertaken at CTCRM, Woodbury Common, candidates who pass the commando course receive the award of the green beret, the distinguishing mark of a commando. CTCRM is served by Lympstone Commando railway station on the Avocet Line, CTCRM is the home of Lympstone Division Royal Marines Volunteer Cadet Corps which is open to boys and girls aged 9 to 16 from the local south east Devon area
14.
Amport House
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Amport House, currently the British Armed Forces Chaplaincy Centre, is a manor house in the village of Amport, near Andover, Hampshire. It is now a Grade II listed building, the gardens were designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and planted by Gertrude Jekyll. During the 1930s the house was owned by Col. Sofer-Whitburn until it was taken over, the last of the Paulet family to reside at Amport was Henry Paulet, 16th Marquess of Winchester, who died in 1962. Later that year the Royal Air Force Chaplains School moved from Dowdeswell Court in Dowdeswell to Amport House, there is also a gatehouse and a pleached avenue of lime trees, believed to be the longest such avenue in the United Kingdom. A converted stable block of the house holds the Museum of Army Chaplaincy. In September 2016 it was announced that Amport House would be put up for sale as part of a programme of defence estate rationalisation by the Ministry of Defence, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom official website Who we are, Amport House
15.
Royal Military Academy Sandhurst
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The Academys stated aim is to be the national centre of excellence for leadership. All British Army officers, including officers who were previously Warrant Officers. The Academy is the British Army equivalent of the Britannia Royal Naval College Dartmouth, Royal Air Force College Cranwell, despite its name, The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst is located in Camberley, the boundaries of the academy straddle the counties of Berkshire and Surrey. The county border is marked by a stream known as the Wish Stream. The main entrance is located on the east of the Academy, the nearest railway station is Camberley. The present Royal Military Academy Sandhurst was founded in 1947 with the merger of two institutions, the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. The first Military Academy had been established in 1720 at Woolwich, known as the Shop, this academy moved to a permanent site at Woolwich Common in 1806 and was granted royal status in 1841. In 1806, the Military Academy took on the training of Royal Engineers officer cadets and, later, coincidentally,1802 was also the year of foundation of Saint-Cyr in France and of West Point in the United States. In 1812 the Junior Department of the Royal Military College moved from Great Marlow into buildings designed by James Wyatt at Sandhurst. A few years later, the Junior Department was joined at Sandhurst from High Wycombe by the Senior Department, which in 1858 became a separate institution, in 1984, the Womens Officer Training College Bagshot moved to Sandhurst. In 1992 a new Commissioning Course finally unified the training of male, female, the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst Collection illustrates the history of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, the Royal Military College, Sandhurst, and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst. The collection includes the Gentlemen Cadet registers, historic archives, uniforms, paintings, photographs, for the 1948 Summer Olympics in London, the newly created Academy hosted the running leg of the modern pentathlon competition. Contemporary training at Sandhurst was the subject of a television series, first broadcast by BBC television in October 2011. In 2012 Sandhurst accepted a £15 million donation from the government of United Arab Emirates for the Zayed Building, an accommodation block, named after the UAEs founding ruler. In 2013 Sandhurst accepted a donation of £3 million from the government of Bahrain for the refurbishment of Mons Hall and it was renamed as King Hamad Hall in honour of the King of Bahrain, which generated some controversy in the United Kingdom. In 2015 Sandhurst appointed Lucy Giles as the first female commander in its history. Potential officers are identified by the Army Officer Selection Board situated in Westbury in Wiltshire, nearly 10 percent of British cadets are female and nearly 10 percent of all cadets come from overseas. More than eighty percent of entrants are university graduates, although a degree is not required for admission, the course is accredited by various academic and professional institutions
16.
Royal Air Force College Cranwell
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The Royal Air Force College is the Royal Air Force training and education academy which provides initial training to all RAF personnel who are preparing to be commissioned officers. The College also provides training to aircrew cadets and is responsible for all RAF recruiting along with officer. Originally established as an aviation training centre during World War I. During World War II, the College was closed and its facilities were used as a training school. Reopening after the War, the College absorbed the Royal Air Force Technical College in 1966, the Royal Air Force College is based at RAF Cranwell near Sleaford in Lincolnshire, and is sometimes titled as the Royal Air Force College Cranwell. Cranwell was first established in 1916 as the Royal Navy air training centre, the Royal Navys Central Depot and Training Establishment opened on 1 April 1916 at Cranwell under Paines leadership. In 1917 Paine was succeeded by Commodore Luce and in 1918 following the foundation of the Royal Air Force in April, as a Royal Air Force establishment, Cranwell became the headquarters of No.12 Group for the last few months of the war. In practice this meant that Cranwell cadets could not reach the temptations of London in their free time, the Royal Air Force College was formed on 1 November 1919 as the RAF College under the authority of its first commandant Air Commodore Charles Longcroft. On 5 February 1920 the College was raised to command status and it is the oldest military air academy in the world. On 20 June 1929, an aeroplane piloted by Flight Cadet C J Giles crashed on landing at the College, a fellow flight cadet, William McKechnie pulled Giles, who was incapable of moving himself, from the burning wreckage. McKechnie was awarded the Empire Gallantry Medal for his actions, in 1936 the College was reduced from command to group status within Training Command and the commandant ceased to hold the title of Air Officer Commanding RAF Cranwell. Just before the outbreak of World War II, the Air Ministry closed the College as an officer training establishment. With the need to train aircrew in large numbers it was redesignated the RAF College Flying Training School and it was also in 1947 that the Equipment and Secretarial Branch cadets were admitted to the College alongside the traditional flight cadets. The postwar restoration of the College was a period of change, by 1960 they lived and were dressed as officers, served by batmen. In the same period the 1957 Defence White Paper suggested the RAF would replace human pilots by guided missiles and these vicissitudes are documented in Haslams narrative and the personal memoir of a New Zealand cadet 1951-53. In 1952 a College Memorial Chapel was established within College Hall, ten years later it was relocated to the then new College Church, St Michael and All Angels, which is situated nearby to the south-east of College Hall. In 1966 the Royal Air Force Technical College at RAF Henlow, the College functioned 1919-71 as a cadet college graduates receiving permanent RAF commissions after a residential course of two to three years. These trainees now include women, and the Royal Air Force College Cranwell is today the RAFs only initial officer training establishment, prior to the construction of the neo-classical College Hall, training took place in old naval huts
17.
United States Merchant Marine Academy
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The United States Merchant Marine Academy is one of the five United States service academies, located in Kings Point, New York. It is charged with training officers for the United States Merchant Marine, branches of the military, between 1874 and 1936, diverse federal legislation supported maritime training through school ships, internships at sea, and other methods. Originally — and in cooperation with the State of New York — the U. S. government planned to establish a large-scale Merchant Marine Academy at Fort Schuyler, New York, nothing came of these plans. Congress passed the landmark Merchant Marine Act in 1936, and two later, the U. S. Merchant Marine Cadet Corps was established, in that year, the USTS Nantucket was transferred from the Massachusetts Maritime Academy to Kings Point and renamed the USTS Emory Rice. The first training was given at temporary facilities until the Academys permanent site in Kings Point, the Kings Point campus was originally Walter Chryslers twelve-acre waterfront estate, named Forker House. Construction of the Academy began immediately, and 15 months later the task was virtually completed, the Academy was dedicated on 30 September 1943, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who noted the Academy serves the Merchant Marine as West Point serves the Army and Annapolis the Navy. World War II required the Academy to forgo its normal operation and its enrollment rose to 2,700 men, and the planned course of instruction was reduced in length from four years to 18 months. In spite of the war, shipboard training continued to be a part of the Academy curriculum. One hundred and forty-two midshipmen gave their lives in service to their country, from 1942–1945, the Academy graduated 6,895 officers. As the war drew to a close, plans were made to convert the Academys wartime curriculum to a four-year, in 1948, such a course was instituted. Authorization for awarding the degree of bachelor of science to graduates was granted by Congress in 1949, the Academy became fully accredited as a degree-granting institution in the same year. It was made a permanent institution by an Act of Congress in 1956, the Academy accelerated graduating classes during the Korean War and the Vietnam War. It was involved in programs as training U. S. officers for the nuclear-powered merchant ship. Midshipmen training at sea also participated in the humanitarian sealift to Somalia during Operation Restore Hope, in 1992, the Academy acquired its largest campus-based training vessel, the T/V Kings Pointer. After 20 years at the Academy, MARAD transferred the ship to the Texas Maritime Academy in Galveston to serve as its new training vessel. In June 2014, the vessel was rechristened the T/V Kings Pointer, the rechristening followed the earlier dedication of the Academy’s newly replaced Mallory Pier. In the 1990s, the Academy’s future came into question when it was included in the National Performance Review, chaired by Vice President Albert Gore, the report recommended halving the federal subsidy and requiring students to pay half of tuition to reduce costs
18.
Churches of Christ
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Churches of Christ are autonomous Christian congregations associated with one another through common beliefs and practices. They seek to base doctrine and practice on the Bible alone in order to be the church described in the New Testament, Churches of Christ in the United States have heritage in the American Restoration Movement. This evangelistic and Bible-based effort began in places as several people sought a return to the original teachings. The Restoration ideal was also similar and somewhat connected to restoration efforts in Europe. They did not see themselves as establishing a new church, the names Church of Christ, Christian Church, and Disciples of Christ were adopted by the movement because they believed these terms to be biblical, rather than denominational. Religious Census of 1906, all associated with the Restoration Movement had been reported together by the Census Bureau. The congregations in the a cappella tradition are the subject of this article, both issues highlighted differences in the groups underlying approaches to Biblical interpretation. For the Christian Churches, any practice not expressly forbidden could be considered, though not officially recognized as distinct movements until 1906, the separation of the Churches of Christ and the Christian Churches had been taking place gradually for decades. The Restoration Movement was not a purely North American phenomenon, there are now Churches of Christ in Africa, Asia, Australia, South America, Central America, and Europe. Members of the church of Christ do not conceive of themselves as a new church started near the beginning of the 19th century, rather, the whole movement is designed to reproduce in contemporary times the church originally established on Pentecost, A. D.33. The strength of the lies in the restoration of Christs original church. D. They simply identify themselves as Christians, without using any other forms of religious or denominational identification and they believe that they are recreating the New Testament church as established by Christ. In American congregations the terms Communion or body and blood are used, the term Eucharist is rarely, if ever, used. All but a small segment of churches use unfermented grape juice instead of wine), and Practice of a cappella singing. In keeping with their history, the churches of Christ claim the New Testament as their rule of faith and practice in deciding matters of doctrine. They view the Old Testament as divinely inspired and historically accurate and they believe that the New Testament demonstrates how a person may become a Christian and how a church should be collectively organized and carry out its scriptural purposes. These churches comprise about 2,000,000 members in over 40,000 individual congregations worldwide, there are approximately 13,000 congregations in the United States. Overall U. S. membership was approximately 1.8 million in 1990 and 1.9 million in 2008, estimates of the proportion of the US adult population associated with the Churches of Christ vary from 0. 8% to 1. 5%
19.
Geneva Conventions
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The Geneva Conventions comprise four treaties, and three additional protocols, that establish the standards of international law for the humanitarian treatment in war. The treaties of 1949 were ratified, in whole or with reservations, the Swiss businessman Henry Dunant went to visit wounded soldiers after the Battle of Solferino in 1859. He was shocked by the lack of facilities, personnel, as a result, he published his book, A Memory of Solferino, in 1862, on the horrors of war. The latter led to the 1864 Geneva Convention, the first codified international treaty that covered the sick, for both of these accomplishments, Henry Dunant became corecipient of the first Nobel Peace Prize in 1901. The ten articles of this first treaty were initially adopted on 22 August 1864 by twelve nations, on 20 October 1868 the first, unsuccessful, attempt to expand the 1864 treaty was undertaken. With the Additional Articles relating to the Condition of the Wounded in War an attempt was undertaken to clarify some rules of the 1864 convention, the Articles were signed but never ratified by all parties. Only the Netherlands and the United States ratified the Articles, the Netherlands later withdrew their ratification. The protection of the victims of warfare would later be realized by the third Hague Convention of 1899. In 1906 thirty-five states attended a conference convened by the Swiss government and it remained into force until 1970 when Costa Rica acceded to the 1949 Geneva Conventions. The 1929 conference yielded two conventions that were signed on July 27th 1929, one, the Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field, was the third version to replace the original convention of 1864. The other was adopted after experiences in World War I had shown the deficiencies in the protection of prisoners of war under the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. The Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War was not to replace these earlier conventions signed at The Hague, the Second Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea replaced the Hague Convention of 1907. It was the first Geneva Convention on the protection of the victims of warfare and mimicked the structure. The Third Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War replaced the 1929 Geneva Convention that dealt with prisoners of war. In addition to these three conventions, the conference added a new elaborate Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. It was the first Geneva Convention not to deal with combatants, the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions had already contained some provisions on the protection of civilians and occupied territory. Article 154 specifically provides that the Fourth Geneva Convention is supplementary to these provisions in the Hague Conventions, despite the length of these documents, they were found over time to be incomplete. In light of developments, two Protocols were adopted in 1977 that extended the terms of the 1949 Conventions with additional protections
20.
Protocol I
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As of June 2013, it had been ratified by 174 states, with the United States, Israel, Iran, Pakistan, India, and Turkey being notable exceptions. However, the United States, Iran, and Pakistan signed it on 12 December 1977, protocol I is an extensive document, containing 102 articles. Following is an overview of the protocol. For a comprehensive listing of all provisions, consult the text, in general, the protocol reaffirms the provisions of the original four Geneva Conventions. However, the additional protections are added. Article 42 outlaws attacks on pilots and aircrews who are parachuting from an aircraft in distress, airborne troops who are parachuting from an aircraft, whether in distress or not, are not given the protection afforded by this Article and, therefore, may be attacked during their descent. Articles 51 and 54 outlaw indiscriminate attacks on civilian populations, and destruction of food, water, indiscriminate attacks include directly attacking civilian targets, but also using technology such as biological weapons, nuclear weapons and land mines, whose scope of destruction cannot be limited. A total war that does not distinguish between civilian and military targets is considered a war crime, articles 56 and 53 outlaw attacks on dams, dikes, nuclear generating stations, and places of worship. The first three are works and installations containing dangerous forces and may be attacked but only in ways that do not threaten to release the dangerous forces. Articles 76 and 77,15 and 79 provide special protections for women, children, and civilian medical personnel, Article 77 forbids conscription of children under age 15 into the armed forces. It does allow, however, for persons under the age of 15 to participate voluntarily, articles 43 and 44 clarify the military status of members of guerrilla forces. Combatant and prisoner of war status is granted to members of dissident forces when under the command of a central authority, such combatants cannot conceal their allegiance, they must be recognizable as combatants while preparing for or during an attack. Article 35 bans weapons that cause injury or unnecessary suffering, as well as means of warfare that cause widespread, long-term. Article 85 states that it is a war crime to use one of the protective emblems recognized by the Geneva Conventions to deceive the opposing forces, articles 17 and 81 authorize the ICRC, national societies, or other impartial humanitarian organizations to provide assistance to the victims of war. 74 states have such a declaration. Bothe, K. J. Partsch, W. A. Solf, Pub, Martinus Nijhoff The Hague/Boston/London,1982, ISBN 90-247-2537-2 U. S. President Ronald Reagans message to the Senate on Protocols I & II
21.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
22.
George MacDonald Fraser
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George MacDonald Fraser OBE FRSL was a Scottish author who wrote historical novels, non-fiction books and several screenplays. He is best known for a series of works featured the character Flashman. Fraser was born to Scottish parents in Carlisle, England on 2 April 1925 and his father was a doctor and his mother a nurse. It was his father who passed on to Fraser his love of reading, Fraser was educated at Carlisle Grammar School and Glasgow Academy, he later described himself as a poor student due to sheer laziness. This meant that he was unable to follow his fathers wishes, in 1943, during World War II, Fraser enlisted in the Border Regiment and served in the Burma Campaign, as recounted in his memoir Quartered Safe Out Here. After completing his OCTU course, Fraser was granted a commission into the Gordon Highlanders and he served with them in the Middle East and North Africa immediately after the war, notably in Tripoli. In 1947, Fraser decided against remaining with the army and took up his demobilisation and he has written semi-autobiographical stories and anecdotes of his time with the Gordon Highlanders in the McAuslan series. After his discharge, Fraser returned to the United Kingdom, through his father he got a job as a trainee reporter on the Carlisle Journal and married another journalist, Kathleen Hetherington. They travelled to Canada, working on newspapers there, before returning to Scotland, starting in 1953, Fraser worked for many years as a journalist at the Glasgow Herald newspaper, where he was deputy editor from 1964 until 1969. He briefly held the title of acting editor, the book proved popular and sale of the film rights enabled Fraser to become a full-time writer. He moved to the Isle of Man where he could pay less tax, there were a series of further Flashman novels, presented as packets of memoirs written by the nonagenarian Flashman looking back on his days as a hero of the British Army during the 19th century. The series is notable for the accuracy of its historical settings, wodehouse said of Flashman, If ever there was a time when I felt that watcher-of-the-skies-when-a-new-planet stuff, it was when I read the first Flashman. The first Flashman sequel was Royal Flash, the following year Fraser published a third Flashman, Flash for Freedom. As well as a non fiction work, The Steel Bonnets, the film rights to Flashman were bought by Richard Lester, who was unable to get the film funded but hired Fraser to write the screenplay for The Three Musketeers in Christmas 1972. This would be turned into two films, The Three Musketeers and The Four Musketeers, both popular at the box office, and it launched Fraser as a screenwriter. For the next 20 years, Fraser alternated between writing novels and film scripts, he worked as a script doctor. Following Flashman at the Charge, Fraser wrote the screenplay for the movie Royal Flash and it was not a success at the box office. There was another collection of Dand McNeill stories, McAuslan in the Rough, then Flashman in the Great Game and he was hired to rewrite Crossed Swords and Force 10 from Navarone
23.
Leslie Hardman
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Hardman was born in Glynneath, Wales to a Polish father and Russian mother who were both Jewish. The couple lived in the Welsh valleys and worked as small business traders, while he was still young, the family moved to Liverpool where he attended the Hope Street Jewish School. Hardman attended a yeshivah and then the University of Leeds, where he took his BA and he married his wife Josi on 14 October 1936, two years after becoming minister of the Jewish community at St. Annes, where he was also the shochet, or ritual slaughterer. From there he took an appointment in Leeds. On the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, Hardman enlisted in the Army Chaplains Department, in the autumn of 1944 Hardman served in the Netherlands, where he learned of the atrocities perpetrated against Jews. There he became involved with members of the remaining Jewish community, from the Netherlands he was sent to Nazi Germany, where he remained until the end of the war. Unusually for a chaplain, he insisted on being armed while on active service, by April 1945 Captain Hardman was the 32-year-old Senior Jewish Chaplain to the British Forces, attached to the 8th Corps of the British 2nd Army. On 17 April 1945, Hardman entered Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, two days after it had been liberated by British military forces, under the command of fellow Welshman Brigadier Glyn Hughes, Hardman became the first Jewish chaplain at the site. On arriving at the camp he tried to bring comfort to the survivors and said the Kaddish and he tried to persuade the army bulldozer drivers who were pushing the bodies of the dead into a pit to bury them with some kind of dignity. Hardman supervised the burial of about 20,000 victims, giving them the dignity in death of which they had robbed in life. Later he wrote of his experience at the camp, Towards me came what seemed to be the remnants of a holocaust – a staggering mass of blackened skin and bones and my God, the dead walk, I cried aloud, but I did not recognise my voice. At the double star, the emblem of Jewry on my tunice - one poor creature touched and then stroked the badge of my faith and he circumcised Jewish babies who had been born in the camp as well as burying those who died. He conducted the marriage of a survivor and the British sergeant who had liberated her and he was recorded as having said that he had lost his faith at Belsen. However, he stated, I didnt lose my faith. I couldnt understand how the God I worshipped could permit this, Hardman was present during the interrogation of Josef Kramer, the Commandant of Bergen-Belsen, Kramers complete lack of remorse made a deep impression on him. Kramer would later be tried, and was hanged in December 1945, after the war Hardman served as the rabbi at Hendon United Synagogue from 1947 to 1982, and was the Hendon Branch Chaplain of the Association of Jewish Ex-Servicemen and Women. He also served as chaplain to the unit at Edgware Hospital and was a strong supporter of the Holocaust Educational Trust. Early in the 1960s the North Western Reform Synagogue invited a young German pastor, Hardman was reported in the Jewish Chronicle as having criticised the invitation on the grounds that it was inappropriate
24.
Second Army (United Kingdom)
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The British Second Army was a field army of the British Army active during both World War I and World War II. During the First World War the army was active on the Western Front throughout most of the war, during the Second World War the army was the core element in the British contribution in the D-Day landings in Normandy and subsequent advance across Europe. The Second Army was part of the British Army formed on 26 December 1914, the army controlled both III Corps and IV Corps. Second Army spent most of the war positioned around the Ypres salient, in 1919 it was reconstituted as the British Army of the Rhine. Two of its formations, I Corps and XXX Corps took part in the D-Day landings of Operation Overlord, the third corps to land, VIII Corps, entered the line during late June to add its weight to the assault, in particular for the launching of Operation Epsom. The main British objective during the stages of the campaign was to capture the French city of Caen. However, due to various factors the city was not captured until mid-July during Operation Atlantic, by the end of July, American forces had broken out of Normandy. As they swept east, the German Seventh Army was pinned by the Second Army, the German formation was subsequently annihilated during the battle of the Falaise pocket. The Second Army then commenced a dash across France in tandem with the Americans on its right, during the interim, I Corps was transferred from Second Armys control, and assigned to the First Canadian Army. Due to the casualties sustained by the army during the Normandy campaign. Second Army entered Belgium quickly, and cleared much of the country and its captures included the capital Brussels and the port city of Antwerp. Second Armys highest profile operation in 1944, apart from Operation Overlord, was providing the force for Operation Market Garden. Second Army spent the rest of 1944 exploiting the salient in the German line that it had created during Operation Market Garden, to advance on the Rhine and Meuse rivers in the Netherlands. The final part of this took place in mid-January 1945. This enabled the completion of the advance on the River Roer, during February,1945, Second Army entered a holding phase. Second Army crossed the Rhine on 23 March in an attack codenamed Operation Plunder and it then headed across the North German Plain towards Osnabrück, with the First Canadian Army on its left wheeling to clear the north of the Netherlands and the area of Lower Saxony west of Oldenburg. The US Ninth Army on its right turned south-east towards Lippstadt to trap the German Army Group B, under General Walther Model, with Army Group B trapped, the last major German formation in the west had been neutralized. Second Army reached the Weser on 4 April, the Elbe on 19 April, by 7 May the Soviet Army had met up with the British forces
25.
Bergen-Belsen concentration camp
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Bergen-Belsen, or Belsen, was a Nazi concentration camp in what is today Lower Saxony in northern Germany, southwest of the town of Bergen near Celle. Originally established as a prisoner of war camp, in 1943, initially this was an exchange camp, where Jewish hostages were held with the intention of exchanging them for German prisoners of war held overseas. The camp was expanded to accommodate Jews from other concentration camps. After 1945 the name was applied to the displaced persons camp established nearby, from 1941 to 1945, almost 20,000 Soviet prisoners of war and a further 50,000 inmates died there. The camp was liberated on April 15,1945, by the British 11th Armoured Division, the soldiers discovered approximately 60,000 prisoners inside, most of them half-starved and seriously ill, and another 13,000 corpses lying around the camp unburied. The horrors of the camp, documented on film and in pictures, today, there is a memorial with an exhibition hall at the site. In 1935 the Wehrmacht began to build a military complex close to the village of Belsen. This became the largest military training area in Germany of the time and was used for armoured vehicle training, the barracks were finished in 1937. The camp has been in operation since then and is today known as Bergen-Hohne Training Area. It is used by the NATO armed forces, the workers who constructed the original buildings were housed in camps near Fallingbostel and Bergen, the latter being the so-called Bergen-Belsen Army Construction Camp. Once the military complex was completed in 1938/39, the camp fell into disuse. However, after the German invasion of Poland in September 1939, the camp of huts near Fallingbostel became known as Stalag XI-B and was to become one of the Wehrmachts largest POW camps, holding up to 95,000 prisoners from various countries. In June 1940, Belgian and French POWs were housed in the former Bergen-Belsen construction workers’ camp and this installation was significantly expanded from June 1941, once Germany prepared to invade the Soviet Union, becoming an independent camp known as Stalag XI-C. It was intended to hold up to 20,000 Soviet POWs and was one of three camps in the area. The others were at Oerbke and Wietzendorf, by the end of March 1942, some 41,000 Soviet POWs had died in these three camps of starvation, exhaustion, and disease. By the end of the war, the number of dead had increased to 50,000. When the POW camp in Bergen ceased operation in early 1945, as the Wehrmacht handed it over to the SS, in the summer of 1943, Stalag XI-C was dissolved and Bergen-Belsen became a branch camp of Stalag XI-B. It served as the hospital for all Soviet POWs in the region until January 1945, in April 1943, a part of the Bergen-Belsen camp was taken over by the SS Economic-Administration Main Office
26.
Medic
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A medic is an umbrella term for a person involved in medicine. The following fall under this term, a physician, paramedic, medical student, in some locations, the EMT-B is trained to reduce joint dislocations - they are allowed one attempt - to reduce the risk of compartmentalization. Splinting a femur fracture may involve use of a traction splint, some medications can only be administered or assisted to a patient with a prior prescription. Training requirements and treatment protocols vary from area to area and it should be noted that in some EMS parlance the use of the term medic is used to refer explicitly to the EMT-paramedic level and not to the other EMT certifications. An example of this can occasionally be seen in the callsigns for paramedic-level staffed ambulances, first aider, a person who is specifically trained to give initial care or treatment to a casualty on scene before more advanced personnel arrives. Organizations such as St. John Ambulance, St. Andrews Ambulance Association, both first aiders and certified emergency responders are covered by Good Samaritan laws provided they give care corresponding to their level of training if the situation is safe. Medical encyclopedia National Association of Emergency Medical Technicians National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians Triage
27.
9th Infantry Division (United States)
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The 9th Infantry Division was created as the 9th Division during World War I, but never deployed overseas. Later, the division was an important unit of the United States Army in World War II, nicknamed the Old Reliables, the division was eventually inactivated in December 1991. The shoulder sleeve insignia is an octofoil resembling a heraldic design given to the son of a family. This represents the son as a circle in the middle with eight brothers around him, the blue represents the infantry, the red the artillery with all the white making the colors of the flag of the United States of America. The 9th Infantry Division was created on 18 July 1918 at Camp Sheridan, Alabama and it was disbanded on 15 February 1919 at Camp Sheridan. Elliott, Brig. Gen. Francis W. Honeycutt, Maj. Gen. Jacob L. Devers, with the collapse of French resistance on 11 November 1942, the division patrolled the Spanish Moroccan border. The 9th returned to Tunisia in February and engaged in defensive actions. On 28 March 1943 it launched an attack in southern Tunisia, in August, the 9th landed at Palermo, Sicily, and took part in the capture of Randazzo and Messina. After returning to England for further training, the division landed on Utah Beach on 10 June 1944, cut off the Cotentin Peninsula, drove on to Cherbourg and penetrated the ports heavy defenses. After a brief rest in July, the took part in the St. Lo break-through. Turning east, the 9th crossed the Marne,28 August, swept through Saarlautern, moving north to Bergrath, Germany, it launched an attack toward the Roer,10 December, taking Echtz and Schlich. From mid-December through January 1945, the division held positions from Kalterherberg to Elsenborn. On 30 January the division jumped off from Monschau in a drive across the Roer and to the Rhine, crossing at Remagen,7 March. After breaking out of the Remagen bridgehead, the 9th assisted in the sealing and clearing of the Ruhr Pocket, then moved 150 miles east to Nordhausen and attacked in the Harz Mountains, 14–20 April. On 21 April the Division relieved the 3d Armored Division along the Mulde River, near Dessau, and held that line until VE-day. Gen. Manton S. Eddy 19 August 1944 Maj. Gen. Louis A. Craig 17 May 1945 Brig. Gen. Reese M. Howell Assistant Division Commander 27 November 1943 Brig. Gen. Donald A. Barth 16 June 1944 Col. Jesse L. Gibney 24 June 1944 Col. Noah M. Brinson 30 August 1944 Col. John G. Van Houten 9 October 1944 Lt. Col. James W. Lockett 12 October 1944 COL William C. Sundin 1 April 1944 Lt. Col. Frederick C, feil 10 December 1944 Maj. Reginald L. Riley 6 January 1945 Lt. Col. Frederick C
28.
Prisoner of war
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A prisoner of war is a person, whether combatant or non-combatant, who is held in custody by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the prisoner of war dates to 1660. The first Roman gladiators were prisoners of war and were named according to their ethnic roots such as Samnite, Thracian, typically, little distinction was made between enemy combatants and enemy civilians, although women and children were more likely to be spared. Sometimes, the purpose of a battle, if not a war, was to capture women, a known as raptio. Typically women had no rights, and were legally as chattel. For this he was eventually canonized, during Childerics siege and blockade of Paris in 464, the nun Geneviève pleaded with the Frankish king for the welfare of prisoners of war and met with a favourable response. Later, Clovis I liberated captives after Genevieve urged him to do so, many French prisoners of war were killed during the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. In the later Middle Ages, a number of religious wars aimed to not only defeat, in Christian Europe, the extermination of heretics was considered desirable. Examples include the 13th century Albigensian Crusade and the Northern Crusades, likewise, the inhabitants of conquered cities were frequently massacred during the Crusades against the Muslims in the 11th and 12th centuries. Noblemen could hope to be ransomed, their families would have to send to their captors large sums of wealth commensurate with the status of the captive. In feudal Japan there was no custom of ransoming prisoners of war, in Termez, on the Oxus, all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain. The Aztecs were constantly at war with neighbouring tribes and groups, for the re-consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, between 10,000 and 80,400 persons were sacrificed. During the early Muslim conquests, Muslims routinely captured large number of prisoners, aside from those who converted, most were ransomed or enslaved. Christians who were captured during the Crusades, were either killed or sold into slavery if they could not pay a ransom. The freeing of prisoners was highly recommended as a charitable act, there also evolved the right of parole, French for discourse, in which a captured officer surrendered his sword and gave his word as a gentleman in exchange for privileges. If he swore not to escape, he could gain better accommodations, if he swore to cease hostilities against the nation who held him captive, he could be repatriated or exchanged but could not serve against his former captors in a military capacity. Early historical narratives of captured colonial Europeans, including perspectives of literate women captured by the peoples of North America. The writings of Mary Rowlandson, captured in the fighting of King Philips War, are an example
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United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
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United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
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Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
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United States Army Air Forces
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Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Army Chief of Staff. S. Army to control its own installations and support personnel, the peak size of the AAF during the Second World War was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft by 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943. By V-E Day, the Army Air Forces had 1.25 million men stationed overseas, in its expansion and conduct of the war, the AAF became more than just an arm of the greater organization. By the end of World War II, the Army Air Forces had become virtually an independent service and this contrast between theory and fact is. fundamental to an understanding of the AAF. Gen. Billy Mitchell that led to his later court-martial, a strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers emerged, formulated by the men who would become its leaders. Since 1920, control of units had resided with commanders of the corps areas. Both were created in 1933 when a conflict with Cuba seemed possible following a coup détat. Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts but was small in comparison to European air forces. Corps area commanders continued to control over airfields and administration of personnel. The expected activation of Army General Headquarters prompted Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to request a study from Chief of the Air Corps Maj. Gen. Henry H. Arnold resulting on 5 October 1940 in a proposal for creation of an air staff, unification of the air arm under one commander, and equality with the ground and supply forces. Marshall implemented a compromise that the Air Corps found entirely inadequate, naming Arnold as acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air but rejecting all organizational points of his proposal. GHQ Air Force instead was assigned to the control of Army General Headquarters, although the latter was a training and not an operational component, when it was activated in November 1940. A division of the GHQ Air Force into four air defense districts on 19 October 1940 was concurrent with the creation of air forces to defend Hawaii. The air districts were converted in March 1941 into numbered air forces with an organization of 54 groups. Marshall had come to the view that the air forces needed a simpler system, Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy a general autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence following the war
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Victoria Cross
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The Victoria Cross is the highest award of the United Kingdom honours system. It is awarded for gallantry in the face of the enemy to members of the British armed forces and it was previously awarded to Commonwealth countries, most of which have established their own honours systems and no longer recommend British honours. It may be awarded to a person of any rank in any service. Since the first awards were presented by Queen Victoria in 1857 and these investitures are usually held at Buckingham Palace. The VC was introduced on 29 January 1856 by Queen Victoria to honour acts of valour during the Crimean War, since then, the medal has been awarded 1,358 times to 1,355 individual recipients. Only 15 medals,11 to members of the British Army, the traditional explanation of the source of the metal from which the medals are struck is that it derives from Russian cannon captured at the Siege of Sevastopol. Some research has suggested a variety of origins for the material, research has established that the metal for most of the medals made since December 1914 came from two Chinese cannons that were captured from the Russians in 1855. Owing to its rarity, the VC is highly prized and the medal has fetched over £400,000 at auction, a number of public and private collections are devoted to the Victoria Cross. The private collection of Lord Ashcroft, amassed since 1986, contains over one-tenth of all VCs awarded, following a 2008 donation to the Imperial War Museum, the Ashcroft collection went on public display alongside the museums Victoria and George Cross collection in November 2010. These are unique awards of honours system, recommended, assessed, gazetted and presented by each country. In 1854, after 39 years of peace, Britain found itself fighting a war against Russia. The Crimean War was one of the first wars with modern reporting, before the Crimean War, there was no official standardised system for recognition of gallantry within the British armed forces. This structure was limited, in practice awards of the Order of the Bath were confined to officers of field rank. Brevet promotions or Mentions in Despatches were largely confined to those who were under the notice of the commanders in the field. Other European countries had awards that did not discriminate against class or rank, France awarded the Légion dhonneur and The Netherlands gave the Order of William. There was a feeling among the public and in the Royal Court that a new award was needed to recognise incidents of gallantry that were unconnected with a mans lengthy or meritorious service. Queen Victoria issued a Warrant under the Royal sign-manual on 29 January 1856 that officially constituted the VC, the order was backdated to 1854 to recognise acts of valour during the Crimean War. Queen Victoria had instructed the War Office to strike a new medal that would not recognise birth or class, the medal was meant to be a simple decoration that would be highly prized and eagerly sought after by those in the military services
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Medal of Honor
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The medal is normally awarded by the President of the United States in the name of the U. S. Congress. There are three versions of the medal, one for the Army, one for the Navy, personnel of the Marine Corps and Coast Guard receive the Navy version. U. S. awards including the Medal of Honor do not have titles and while there is no official abbreviation. The Medal of Honor is the oldest continuously issued combat decoration of the United States armed forces, because the medal is presented in the name of Congress, it is often referred to as the Congressional Medal of Honor. However, the name is Medal of Honor, which began with the U. S. Armys version. Within United States Code the medal is referred to as the Medal of Honor, in 1990, Congress designated March 25 annually as National Medal of Honor Day. The capture saved the fort of West Point from the British Army, although the Badge of Military Merit fell into disuse after the American Revolutionary War, the concept of a military award for individual gallantry by members of the U. S. 539 Certificates were approved for this period and this medal was later replaced by the Army Distinguished Service Medal which was established on January 2,1918. Those Army members who held the Distinguished Service Medal in place of the Certificate of Merit could apply for the Army Distinguished Service Cross effective March 5,1934. There were no awards or medals at the beginning of the Civil War except for the Certificate of Merit which was awarded for the Mexican-American War. Scott however, was strictly against medals being awarded which was the European tradition, after Scott retired in October 1861, the Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Welles, adopted the idea of a decoration to recognize and honor distinguished naval service. Senator James W. Secretary Wells directed the Philadelphia Mint to design the new military decoration, on May 15,1862, the United States Navy Department ordered 175 medals with the words Personal Valor on the back from the U. S. Mint in Philadelphia. Senator Henry Wilson, the chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs, the resolution was approved by Congress and signed into law on July 12,1862. During the war, Townsend would have some medals delivered to recipients with a letter requesting acknowledgement of the Medal of Honor. By mid-November the War Department contracted with Philadelphia silversmith William Wilson and Son, the Army version had The Congress to written on the back of the medal. Both versions were made of copper and coated with bronze, which gave them a reddish tint,1863, Congress made the Medal of Honor a permanent decoration. On March 3, Medals of Honor were authorized for officers of the Army, the Secretary of War first presented the Medal of Honor to six Union Army volunteers on March 25,1863 in his office. 1890, On April 23, the Medal of Honor Legion is established in Washington,1896, The ribbon of the Army version Medal of Honor was redesigned with all stripes being vertical
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Four Chaplains' Medal
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The Four Chaplains Medal was a decoration approved by an Act of Congress on July 14,1960. The decoration recognizes the heroic actions of four Army Chaplains during World War II, Fox of Gilman, Vermont, Chaplain Alexander D. Goode of Washington, District of Columbia, Chaplain Clark V. Poling of Schenectady, New York, and Chaplain John P, also known as the Chaplains Medal of Honor and the Chaplains Medal for Heroism, its design commemorates the actions of the Four Chaplains who gave their lives in the line of duty on February 3,1943. The medal was designed by Thomas Hudson Jones of the United States Army Institute of Heraldry and it was presented posthumously to their next of kin by Secretary of the Army Wilber M. Brucker at Ft. Myer, Virginia on January 18,1961. Congress had attempted to confer the Medal of Honor but was blocked by the stringent requirements that required heroism performed under fire, the special medal was intended to have the same weight and importance as the Medal of Honor. The four chaplains were lieutenants in the United States Army, Rev. George L. Fox, Rabbi Alexander D. Goode, in late 1942, the chaplains were transferred to Camp Myles Standish in Taunton, Massachusetts and attended Chaplains School at Harvard University. In January 1943, the chaplains embarked on board the SS Dorchester, on February 2,1943 the German submarine U-223 spotted the convoy on the move and closed with the ships, firing a torpedo which struck the Dorchester shortly after midnight. Hundreds of men packed the decks of the sinking ship. Several of the lifeboats had been damaged and the four began to organize frightened soldiers. They distributed life jackets from a locker, when the supply of life jackets ran out, when the last lifeboats were away, the chaplains prayed with those unable to escape the sinking ship. Twenty-seven minutes after the torpedo struck, the Dorchester disappeared below the waves with 672 men still aboard, the last anyone saw of the four chaplains, they were standing on the deck, arms linked and praying together. As to official military decorations, each of the four chaplains was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, sea of glory, the magnificent story of the four chaplains. Pp.243 LCCN 52-10662 OCLC1349281
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SS Dorchester
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Of the 904 on board,675 died. Dorchester had been sailing to Greenland as part of naval convoy SG19 when the U-boat attacked, keel laying was September 10,1925 with launching on March 20,1926 and delivery on July 17,1926. The ship was designed for the trade with a capacity for 302 first class and 12 steerage passengers for a total of 314 with a crew of 90 along the East coast between Miami and Boston. Propulsion was by a 3,000 horsepower, triple expansion steam engine supplied by four oil fired Scotch boilers with steam at 220 pounds pressure driving a propeller for a speed of 13.5 knots. Public spaces included a pavilion and sun parlor in addition to the typical lounge. Cargo of about 3,300 tons was all handled through side ports rather than deck hatches, refrigerated spaces of 1,873 cubic feet for provisions, including ice cream storage, was provided to six compartments cooled by a 4-ton Brunswick compressor. A separate chilled pantry had 210 cubic feet of storage. Dorchester was converted to a troopship by Agwilines in New York, and fitted with lifeboats and life rafts, as well as four 20 mm guns, a 3/50 caliber gun fore. Dorchester entered service in February 1942, crewed by many of her officers, including her master initially. The ship was neither owned nor bareboat chartered by the Army, on January 23,1943, Dorchester left New York harbor, bound for the Army Command Base at Narsarsuaq in southern Greenland. During the early morning hours of February 3,1943, at 12,55, the damage was severe, boiler power was lost, and there was inadequate steam to sound the full 6-whistle signal to abandon ship, and Dorchester sank by the bow in about 20 minutes. Loss of power prevented the crew from sending a distress signal. A severe list prevented launch of some port side lifeboats, survivors in the water were so stiff from cold they could not even grasp the cargo nets on rescue vessels. The crew of Escanaba employed a new rescue technique whereby swimmers clad in wet suits swam to victims in the water. By this method, Escanaba saved 133 men and Comanche saved 97 men of the 904 aboard Dorchester, the sinking of Dorchester was the worst single loss of American personnel of any American convoy during World War II. Life jackets offered little protection from hypothermia, which killed most men in the water, water temperature was 34 °F and air temperature was 36 °F. When additional rescue ships arrived on February 4 hundreds of bodies were seen floating on the water. These chaplains included Methodist minister George L. Fox, Reformed Church in America minister Clark V. Poling, Catholic Church priest John P. Washington, brucker at Fort Myer, Virginia on January 18,1961
37.
Chief of Chaplains of the United States Army
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The Chief of Chaplains of the United States Army is the chief supervising officer of the U. S. Army Chaplain Corps. From 1775 to 1920, chaplains were attached to separate units, the Office of the Chief of Chaplains was created by the National Defense Act of 1920 in order to better organize the Chaplaincy. The current CCH is Chaplain Paul K. Hurley, armed Forces Chaplains Board Deputy Chief of Chaplains of the United States Army Chiefs of Chaplains of the United States International Military Chiefs of Chaplains Conference
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Chief of Chaplains of the United States Navy
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The position was created in 1917 to provide a system of appointing qualified and professional chaplains that meet the needs of the Navy. The current CCHN is Rear Admiral Margaret G. Kibben, the first woman to hold this office, a hallway to honor former Chiefs of Navy Chaplain Corps was dedicated at the Navy Annex, in Arlington, Va. in 2004. Five former Chiefs of Chaplains were present at the dedication ceremony, koeneman, Neil M. Stevenson, Ross H. Trower, and David F. White
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Armed Forces Chaplains Board
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It is made up of the three Chiefs of Chaplains and three active duty Deputy Chiefs of Chaplains of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. The Chair of the AFCB is a position rotated among the three services, with the Chief of Chaplains appointed as Chair for a period of eighteen months, in addition a senior military chaplain holding the rank of O-6 serves as the AFCB Executive Director for a three-year term. The current executive director is, CAPT Jere Hinson, previously CH Jerry Pitts, CH Steve Moon, previously CH Thomas E. Preston
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Chief of Naval Operations
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The Chief of Naval Operations is a statutory office held by a four-star admiral in the United States Navy, and is the most senior naval officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Navy. The office is an adviser and deputy to the Secretary of the Navy. The current Chief of Naval Operations is Admiral John M. Richardson, under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, the CNO also designates naval personnel and naval resources to the commanders of Unified Combatant Commands. The CNO also performs all other functions prescribed under 10 U. S. C. §5033, the CNO is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty in the Navy unless the Chairman and/or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are naval officers. Like the other joint chiefs, the CNO is a position and has no operational command authority over United States naval forces. The Chief of Naval Operations is nominated by the President for appointment, however, the president may waive those requirements if he determines that appointing the officer is necessary for the national interest. By statute, the CNO is appointed as a four-star admiral, number One Observatory Circle, located on the northeast grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, DC, was built in 1893 for its superintendent. The Chief of Naval Operations liked the house so much that in 1923 he took over the house as his own official residence and it remained the residence of the CNO until 1974, when Congress authorized its transformation to an official residence for the Vice President. The Chief of Naval Operations currently resides in Quarters A in the Washington Naval Yard, the position of CNO replaced the position of Aide for Naval Operations, which was a position established by regulation rather than statutory law. Lists of Commanding Officers and Senior Officials of the US Navy, archived from the original on 18 December 2007
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