1.
Conscription
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Conscription, or drafting, is the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often a military service. Conscription dates back to antiquity and continues in countries to the present day under various names. The modern system of national conscription for young men dates to the French Revolution in the 1790s. Most European nations later copied the system in peacetime, so that men at a certain age would serve 1–8 years on active duty and those conscripted may evade service, sometimes by leaving the country. As of the early 21st century, many no longer conscript soldiers. The ability to rely on such an arrangement, however, presupposes some degree of predictability with regard to both war-fighting requirements and the scope of hostilities, many states that have abolished conscription therefore still reserve the power to resume it during wartime or times of crisis. Around the reign of Hammurabi, the Babylonian Empire used a system of conscription called Ilkum, under that system those eligible were required to serve in the royal army in time of war. During times of peace they were required to provide labour for other activities of the state. In return for service, people subject to it gained the right to hold land. It is possible that this right was not to hold land per se, various forms of avoiding military service are recorded. While it was outlawed by the Code of Hammurabi, the hiring of substitutes appears to have practiced both before and after the creation of the code. Later records show that Ilkum commitments could become regularly traded, in other places, people simply left their towns to avoid their Ilkum service. Another option was to sell Ilkum lands and the commitments along with them, with the exception of a few exempted classes, this was forbidden by the Code of Hammurabi. The levies raised in this way fought as infantry under local superiors, although the exact laws varied greatly depending on the country and the period, generally these levies were only obliged to fight for one to three months. Most were subsistence farmers, and it was in everyones interest to send the men home for harvest-time, the bulk of the Anglo-Saxon English army, called the fyrd, was composed of part-time English soldiers drawn from the landowning minor nobility. These thegns were the aristocracy of the time and were required to serve with their own armour. Medieval levy in Poland was known as the pospolite ruszenie, the system of military slaves was widely used in the Middle East, beginning with the creation of the corps of Turkish slave-soldiers by the Abbasid caliph al-Mutasim in the 820s and 830s. In the middle of the 14th century, Ottoman Sultan Murad I developed personal troops to be loyal to him, the new force was built by taking Christian children from newly conquered lands, especially from the far areas of his empire, in a system known as the devşirme
2.
Troupes de marine
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The Troupe de marine are a corps of the French Army which regroups several specialties, infantry, artillery, armoured and airborne. Despite their designation, they are a part of the Army. The troupe de marine have been professionalized progressively since 1970, the Troupe de marine were formerly known as the Troupes Coloniales, with origin dating back to the Troupes de la marine. The French colonies were under the control of the Ministère de la Marine, accordingly and these companies were destined to embark on royal naval ships to service the naval artillery and participate to the boarding of naval ships engaged in combats at sea. Simultaneously, these companies were also in charge in guarding the sea ports. In the 18th century, they constituted the Compagnies Franches de la Marine who mainly swarmed essentially in Nouvelle France, an evolution was followed and which deemed more and more pronouncing vis-à-vis the ship boarding marines and their officers. A tentative close-up merger was attempted by two naval ship corps including their troops in 1786 with the companies of sailors, however the experience came to little conclusions. The Régiment Royal–La Marine and Régiment de lAmiral de France founded by Colbert dispersed their companies between Dunkerque, Le Havre, Brest, Rochefort and Toulon and they adorned for a first time the white and grey uniform with the blue vest. The four regiments of la marine were transferred from the secretariat of La Marine to that of the secretariat of La Guerre, such was put in effect to meet the successive military war demands of the reign of Louis XIV, wanting to control all French units. The regiments have left the French Navy conserved then, only that of a naval designation, the Marine Royale had proud allure in 1671, France was able to align 196 naval vessels. Colbert decided accordingly to create 100 companies of guardian-soldiers destined to defend the naval vessels, however, these men were redirected again towards the French Army by Louvois in 1673. Starting this date, the naval and marine officers were obliged to recruit themselves their crew, owing to the presence of « levées » on the war or commercial sea ports, similar to the « marine press », the officers garrisoned their naval ships with defenders. However, the system found its limits quickly, the recruits were often lacking discipline and experience. A vicious circle and a pride for the performing French naval, Compagnies franches de la Marine created in 1690. Each company was tasked to guard a military harbor and its immediate coastline, beginning in 1695, the Companies were organized in battalions around the major harbors. The Marine Companies and Battalions were suppressed in 1761, Corps dartillerie de Marine, created in 1692 to oversee the training and use of coastal artillery. The Corps was suppressed in 1761, the Infantry and Artillery Marine units were re-organized into a single marine corps by a short-lived merger in 1769. Some colonial units were created at the time, organized along the same lines of artillery and infantry units
3.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
4.
Popular Mechanics
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Popular Mechanics is a classic magazine of popular science and technology. First published by Henry Haven Windsor, January 11,1902, there are nine international editions, including a now-defunct Latin American version that had been published for decades, and a newer South African edition. The Russian edition of Popular Mechanics has been issued since 2002, in 2013, the US edition changed from twelve to ten issues per year. Popular Mechanics features regular sections on automotive, home, outdoors, science, a recurring column is Jay Lenos Garage featuring observations by the famed late-night talk show host and vehicle enthusiast. Popular Mechanics was established in 1902, the first issue appeared on January 11,1902. The magazine was originally self-published by the Popular Mechanics Company but in 1958 became a subsidiary of the Hearst Corporation, a nearly complete archive of Popular Mechanics issues from 1905 through 2005 is available through Google Books. Popular Mechanics Show is the weekly podcast of Popular Mechanics magazine. Enthusiasts and Innovators, Possible Dreams and the Innovation Station at the Henry Ford Museum, society for the History of Technology. Possible Dreams, Enthusiasm for Technology in America, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village
5.
Recruit training
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Recruit training, more commonly known as basic training and colloquially called boot camp, is the initial instruction given to new military personnel, enlisted and officer. After completion of training, new recruits undergo Advanced Individual Training. Officer trainees undergo more detailed programs that may precede or follow the common recruit training in an officer training academy or in special classes at a civilian university. During recruit training, drill instructors do everything possible to push a recruit to his or her physical and mental limits, Recruit training varies by nation according to the national requirement and can be voluntary or mandatory. Approximately 100 nations, including the United Kingdom and United States, have a military service. In voluntary service an individual chooses to join and thereby agrees to be subjected to the process of building an organization in each life depends on the next person. The voluntary status has changed the culture of military service, Recruit training is oriented to the particular service. Navy and Coast Guard training usually focuses on water training, physical fitness, basic seamanship, and such skills as shipboard firefighting, basic engineering. Air force training usually includes physical training, military and classroom instructions. In all training, standard uniforms are issued and recruits typically have their hair cut or shaved in order to meet grooming standards, Recruits are generally given a service number. Recruit training must merge divergent trainees often from different levels of culture, a national basic training will include provision for the basic needs of the recruit and they will meet certain unit standards and unit requirements, such as mobility for an infantry unit. A recruit therefore will be issued basic provisions or equipment according to the requirements of the unit, Recruit training has changed over the years as tactics of war have changed. Infantry units no longer attack in formations, however, to move units around a base, formations are useful. A combat soldier on the ground who may call in artillery air strikes must be more intelligent. Recruits are typically instructed in drill, to stand, march, historically, drills are derived from 18th-century military tactics, soldiers in a fire line performed precise and coordinated movements to load and fire muskets. Although the particular tactics are now obsolete, drilling trains the recruit to act unhesitatingly in the face of real combat situations. Modern militaries have learned that a member often must make critical decisions on behalf of team. Drill serves a role in leadership training, Combat situations include commands to engage and put ones life in danger but also commands to disengage when military necessity so demands
6.
Military service
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Military service is service by an individual or group in an army or other militia, whether as a chosen job or as a result of an involuntary draft. Some nations require an amount of military service from every citizen. A nation with a volunteer military does not normally require mandatory military service from its citizens. In this summary,195 countries are included, Compulsory military service has declined considerably since 1970. Albanias armed forces announced an objective to create an army by the end of 2010. Argentina suspended military conscription in 1995 and replaced it with a military service. It should be noted that military conscription has not been abolished, Conscription was known in Argentina as la colimba. Conscripts themselves were known and referred to as colimbas, voluntary service in the Boer War was initially from a number of the separate colonies before federation in 1901 and later volunteers were deployed as an Australian force. Two conscription referendums were defeated during World War 1, Military service during WW1 was voluntary as was service in WW2. The Vietnam War was lost on 1 May 1975 over three years after the ADF withdrew in late 1971, all forms of conscription were abolished by the Whitlam Government in later 1972. The country has set the age for voluntary recruitment into the Barbados Defence Force at 18. Younger recruits may be conscripted with parental consent, belgium suspended conscription on 31 December 1992 by amending the 1962 Law on Conscription, which became applicable only to conscripts drafted in 1993 and earlier. In practice this meant that the law no longer applied to those born in 1975, since 1 March 1995 the Belgian armed forces consist of professional volunteers only. Belize has set minimum age for recruitment into the Armed Forces at 18. Conscription has never been prescribed in the Defense Act, but is at the Governor General’s discretion, bosnia and Herzegovina abolished compulsory military service as of 1 January 2007. The last conscripts were sent home on 25 November 2007, previously there was mandatory military service for male citizens from eighteen to twenty-seven years of age. Duration of the depended on the degree of education. For citizens studying for or holding a degree or higher the service was six months
7.
Women in the military by country
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Recent history of changes in womens roles includes having women in the military in many countries. Female soldiers in Eritrea played a role in both the Eritrean civil war and the border dispute with Ethiopia, because they make up more than 30% of the Eritrean military. They also serve in combat operations. A 200-strong unit was Muammar al-Gaddafis personal bodyguard and is called variously the Green Nuns, South African women have a long history of service in the South African Defence Force and in the modern South African National Defence Force. In World War I and World War II women served in roles in the South African Defence Force and were assigned to non-combat active roles after 1970. In 1914 a volunteer nursing service was established by the army and 328 nurses to serve with South African troops in Europe, the Womens Auxiliary Army Service began accepting women recruits in 1916. Officials estimated that women volunteers relieved 12,000 men for combat in World War I by assuming clerical, during the late 1970s and 1980s, women were active in civil defence organizations and were being trained as part of the countrys general mobilization against possible terrorist attacks. In 1989, for example, the Johannesburg Civil Defence Program provided training for 800 civil defense volunteers and these classes included such subjects as weapons training for self-defense, antiriot procedures, traffic and crowd control, first aid, and fire-fighting. An unreported number of women also received instruction in counterinsurgency techniques, Women had been promoted as high as warrant officers and brigadiers in the Permanent Force by the early 1990s, but only ten women were SADF colonels in 1994. In 1996 Brigadier Sedibe became the first woman in the military to be promoted to the rank of major general. Widespread cultural attitudes in the 1990s still oppose the idea of women in combat, in 2011 almost 26. 6% of the uniformed services of the South African National Defence Force consisted of women. Military of the Gambia have no gender conscription and women are free to volunteer for the armed forces, in 2011 the first female army general was decorated in the Gambia. The first women became involved with the Australian armed forces with the creation of the Army Nursing Service in 1899, currently, women make up 12. 8% of the Australian Defence Force and 17. 5% of the reserves. However, only 74% of the number of available roles in the Australian armed forces are available to women. Despite this, using 1998-99 figures, the ADF had the highest percentage of women in its employ in the world, in 1998, Australia became the fourth nation in the world to allow women to serve on its submarines. So whilst a woman could not be a Royal Australian Armored Corps Driver/Signaller in an Armored unit such as 2 Cav Regt, they could serve as medic, storeman, Women in such roles undertake the same training and undertake the same jobs as their male counterparts. Health and safety reasons also exclude women from surface finishing and electroplating within the Air Force due to the use of embryo-toxic substances, Australia was the fourth country to permit female crew on submarines, doing so in June 1998 on board Collins class submarines. Australias first deployment of female sailors in a zone was aboard HMAS Westralia in the Persian Gulf during the 1991 Gulf War
8.
Women in the military
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Even though women serving in the military has often been diverse, a very small number of women in history have fought alongside men. In the American Civil War, there were a few women who cross-dressed as men in order to fight, fighting on the battlefront in disguise was not the only way women involved themselves in war. Some also served as nurses and aides, as increasing numbers of countries begin to expand the role of women in their militaries, the debate continues. More recently, from the beginning of the 1970s, most Western armies have begun to admit women to serve active duty in all of military branches, in 9 countries women are conscripted into military. Thousands of women served as nurses and in support roles in the major armies. The only nation to deploy female combat troops in substantial numbers was Russia, from the outset, female recruits either joined up in disguise or were tacitly accepted by their units. The most prominent were a contingent of front-line light cavalry in a Cossack regiment commanded by a female colonel, in 1917, the Provisional Government raised a number of Womens Battalions, with Bochkareva given an officers commission to command the first unit. They fought well, but failed to provide the value expected of them and were disbanded before the end of the year. In the later Russian Civil War, the Bolsheviks employed some women infantry, in the 1918 Finnish Civil War, more than 2,000 women fought in the Womens Red Guards. All the main nations used women in uniform, the great majority performed nursing, clerical or support roles. Over 500,000 had combat roles in anti-aircraft units in Britain and Germany, in 1938, the British took the lead worldwide in establishing uniformed services for women, in addition to the small units of nurses that had long been in operation. In late 1941, Britain began conscripting women, sending most into factory work and some into the military, especially the Auxiliary Territorial Service and it began as a womans auxiliary to the military in 1938, and in 1941 was granted military status. Women had a role in handling anti-aircraft guns against German planes. The daughter of Prime Minister Winston Churchill was there, and he gushed that any general who saved him 40,000 fighting men had gained the equivalent of a victory. By August,1941, women were operating the instruments, they were never allowed to pull the trigger. By 1943,56,000 women were in Anti-Aircraft Command, most in units close to London where there was a risk of getting killed, the first kill came in April 1942. The Third Reich, contrary to belief, had similar roles for women. Women also served in units in the navy, air force
9.
Military
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The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly
10.
Violent non-state actor
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Violent non-state actors, also known as armed non-state actors, are non-state actors, i. e. The term has been used in papers published by the U. S. military. There are many reasons why violent non-state actors develop, in the United States there are fears that the gangs have gotten so out of control they may become violent non-state actors. Thomas, Kiser and Casebeer in 2005 asserted that VNSA play a prominent, often destabilizing role in nearly every humanitarian, phil Williams, in an overview article, states that violent non-state actors have become a pervasive challenge to nation-states in the 21st century. Williams argues that VNSAs develop out of state governance but also contribute to further undermining governance by the state. This causes the family, tribe, clan etc. to become the reference points for political action. According to Williams, globalization has not only, challenged individual state capacity to manage economic affairs, it has also provided facilitators and force multipliers for VNSAs. Transnational flows of arms, for example, are no longer under the surveillance of states. With the onset of globalization, development of social capital and alliances. However, humanitarian agencies too often fail to engage strategically with VNSAs, in their opinion further study is necessary to identify ways in which humanitarian agencies can develop productive dialogue with VNSAs. Modeling Violent Non-State Actors, A Summary of Concepts and Methods, Colorado, Institute for Information Technology Applications, United States Air Force Academy. Deterring Violent Non-State Actors in the New Millenium, archived from the original on March 6,2008. Briefing Paper, Talking to the side, Humanitarian engagement with armed non-state actors. Thomas, Troy S. Casebeer, William D, Violent Non-State Actors, Countering Dynamic Systems. Archived from the original on March 1,2009, shultz, Richard H. Farah, Douglas, Lochard, Itamara V. Armed Groups, A Tier-One Security Priority, USAF Institute for National Security Studies, USAF Academy. Thomas, Troy S. Kiser, Stephen D. Casebeer, zurich, International Relations and Security Network. Violent Non-State Actors in World Politics, thomas, Troy S. Kiser, Stephen D
11.
Combat
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Combat or fighting is a purposeful violent conflict meant to weaken, establish dominance over, or kill the opposition, or to drive the opposition away from a location where it is not wanted or needed. Combat violence can be unilateral, whereas fighting implies at least a defensive reaction, a large-scale fight is known as a battle. A verbal fight is known as an argument. Combat effectiveness, in the field, requires combat readiness. In military areas, the term is applied also to personnel, Combat may take place under a specific set of rules or be unregulated. Examples of rules include the Geneva Conventions, medieval chivalry, the Marquess of Queensberry rules, Combat in warfare involves two or more opposing military organizations, usually fighting for nations at war. Warfare falls under the laws of war, which govern its purposes and conduct, Combat may be armed or unarmed. Hand-to-hand combat is combat at close range, attacking the opponent with the body and/or with a melee weapon. “Combat Motivation in Today’s Soldiers, U. S. Army War College Strategic Studies Institute. ”Armed Forces & Society, vol. “Combat Casualties and Race, What Can We Learn from the 2003-2004 Iraq Conflict. ”“Undermining Combat Readiness in the Russian Military, 1992-2005. ”Armed Forces & Society, Jul 2006, vol. Http, //afs. sagepub. com/cgi/content/abstract/32/4/513 Ben-Shalom, Uzi, Lehrer, Zeev, and Ben-Ari, Eyal. “Cohesion during Military Operations, A Field Study on Combat Units in the Al-Aqsa Intifada. ”Http, //afs. sagepub. com/cgi/content/abstract/32/1/63 Woodruff, Todd, Kelty, Ryan, Segal, Archie Cooper, David R.2006. “Propensity to Serve and Motivation to Enlist among American Combat Soldiers. ”Armed Forces & Society, Apr 2006, vol
12.
Close quarters combat
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Close quarters combat is a tactical concept that involves physical confrontation between several combatants. It can take place between military units, police and criminals, and other similar scenarios. In the typical close quarters combat scenario, the try a very fast, violent takeover of a vehicle or structure controlled by the defenders. Because enemies, hostages/civilians, and fellow operators can be intermingled, close quarters combat demands a rapid assault. The operators need great proficiency with their weapons, and the ability to make decisions in order to minimize accidental casualties. Therefore, much material relating to close quarters combat is written from the perspective of the authorities who must break into the stronghold where the force has barricaded itself. Typical examples would be commando operations behind enemy lines and hostage rescues, although there is considerable overlap, close quarters combat is not synonymous with urban warfare, now sometimes known by the military acronyms MOUT, FIBUA or OBUA in the West. After the May Thirtieth Movement riots, which resulted in a massacre, Fairbairn was charged with developing an auxiliary squad for riot control. After absorbing the most appropriate elements from a variety of experts, from China, Japan and elsewhere. The aim of his system was simply to be as brutally effective as possible. It was also a system, that, unlike traditional Eastern martial-arts that required years of intensive training, the method incorporated training in point shooting and gun combat techniques, as well as the effective use of more ad hoc weapons such as chairs or table legs. During the Second World War, Fairbairn was brought back to Britain, during this period, he expanded his Shanghai Method into the Silent Killing Close Quarters Combat method for military application. This became standard training for all British Special Operations personnel. He also designed the pioneering Fairbairn-Sykes fighting knife, which was adopted for use by British, in 1942, he published a textbook for close quarters combat training called Get Tough. U. S. Applegate published his work in 1943, called Kill or Get Killed, during the war, training was provided to British Commandos, the Devils Brigade, OSS, U. S. Army Rangers and Marine Raiders. Other combat systems designed for combat were introduced elsewhere, including European Unifight, Chinese Sanshou, Soviet/Russian sambo. The prevalence and style of combat training often changes based on perceived need. Elite units such as forces and commando units tend to place higher emphasis on hand-to-hand combat training
13.
Western world
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The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
14.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
15.
Children in the military
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Throughout history and in many cultures, children have been extensively involved in military campaigns even when such practices were against cultural morals. In World War I, in Great Britain 250,000 boys under 18 managed to join the army, in World War II, child soldiers fought throughout Europe, in the Warsaw Uprising, in the Jewish resistance, and in the Soviet Army. According to one study, children have been used militarily across the globe, Children are easy targets to recruit for military purposes because of their vulnerability to influence. Many are seized and recruited by force whereas others join to escape their reality, research shows that child soldiering prolongs the duration of civil wars, as it increases the strength of rebel organizations vis-a-vis the government. This reduction in both the calibre of infantry rifles and the mass of many items of equipment makes it easier for children to carry. However, children who are over the age of 15 but under the age of 18 are still able to take part in combat as soldiers. The United Nations Security Council convenes regularly to debate, receive reports, the most recent meeting was on 17 July 2008. The first resolution on the issue, Resolution 1261, was passed in 1999, in 2014, more than 17 cases were covered about children in armed conflict. Many children in different countries are involved in such illegal conflicts and these children are detained with no real evidence, or in massive sweeps. Some of them are captured with their families, or by the activity of one of their family members, lawyers and relatives are banded to the court. They can be detained without sufficient food, medical care, or under other inhumane conditions, some of these children live with physical and sexual torture. Refraining from recruiting children under fifteen does not exclude children who volunteer for armed service, non-state actors and guerrilla forces are forbidden from recruiting anyone under the age of 18 for any purpose. Opinion is currently divided over whether children should be prosecuted for committing war crimes, many child soldiers fought in the Sierra Leone Civil War. In its wake, the UN sanctioned the Special Court for Sierra Leone to try the participants for war crimes, if found guilty under US law such a crime carries a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. This was agreed as part of a bargain, which would see Khadr deported to Canada after one year to serve the remaining seven years there. In a letter to the U. S. Omar Khadr remained in Guantanamo Bay, Khadr was transferred to the Canadian prison system in September 2012, and was freed on bail by a judge in the province of Alberta in May 2015. He is appealing his American conviction as a war criminal, in March 2012 Thomas Lubanga Dyilo was convicted by the International Criminal Court for military use of children. P. W. Singer of the Brookings Institution estimated in January 2003 that child soldiers participate in three quarters of all the ongoing conflicts in the world
16.
Convention on the Rights of the Child
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The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child is a human rights treaty which sets out the civil, political, economic, social, health and cultural rights of children. The Convention defines a child as any human being under the age of eighteen, Nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law. Compliance is monitored by the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child and their reports and the committees written views and concerns are available on the committees website. The UN General Assembly adopted the Convention and opened it for signature on 20 November 1989 and it came into force on 2 September 1990, after it was ratified by the required number of nations. Currently,196 countries are party to it, including member of the United Nations except the United States. Two optional protocols were adopted on 25 May 2000, the First Optional Protocol restricts the involvement of children in military conflicts, and the Second Optional Protocol prohibits the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography. Both protocols have been ratified by more than 160 states, a third optional protocol relating to communication of complaints was adopted in December 2011 and opened for signature on 28 February 2012. It came into effect on 14 April 2014, the Convention deals with the child-specific needs and rights. It requires that the nations that ratify this convention are bound to it by international law, ratifying states must act in the best interests of the child. The Convention obliges states to allow parents to exercise their parental responsibilities, the Convention forbids capital punishment for children. The European Court of Human Rights has referred to the Convention when interpreting the European Convention on Human Rights, global human rights standards were challenged at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna when a number of governments raised serious objections to the idea of universal human rights. Some scholars link slavery and slavery-like practices for many child marriages, Child marriage as slavery is not directly addressed by the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Currently 196 countries are parties to the treaty and this includes every member of the United Nations, plus the Cook Islands, Niue, the State of Palestine, and the Holy See. The United States has not ratified it, somalias domestic ratification finished in January 2015 and the instrument was deposited with the United Nations in October 2015. All successor states of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia made declarations of succession to the treaty, the convention does not apply in the territories of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, Gibraltar, Guernsey and Tokelau. Canada became a signatory to the Convention on 28 May 1990, Youth criminal laws in Canada underwent major changes resulting in the Youth Criminal Justice Act which went into effect on 1 April 2003. The Act specifically references Canadas different commitments under the Convention, the convention was influential in the administrative Law decision of Baker v Canada. India ratified UNCRC on 11 December 1992, agreeing in principles all articles except with certain reservations on issues relating to child labor
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Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
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The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court is the treaty that established the International Criminal Court. It was adopted at a conference in Rome on 17 July 1998. As of March 2016,124 states are party to the statute, among other things, the statute establishes the courts functions, jurisdiction and structure. The Rome Statute established four core international crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and those crimes shall not be subject to any statute of limitations. Under the Rome Statute, the ICC can only investigate and prosecute the four core international crimes in situations where states are unable or unwilling to do so themselves. The Rome Statute established four core international crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, on 17 July 1998, the Rome Statute was adopted by a vote of 120 to 7, with 21 countries abstaining. Because the way each delegation voted was officially unrecorded, there is dispute over the identity of the seven countries that voted against the treaty. The treaty entered force on 1 July 2002, the ICC can only prosecute crimes committed on or after that date. The statute was modified in 2010 after the Review Conference in Kampala, Uganda, the Rome Statute is the result of multiple attempts for the creation of a supranational and international tribunal. At the end of 19th century, the community took the first steps towards the institution of permanent courts with supranational jurisdiction. With the Hague International Peace Conferences, representatives of the most powerful nations made an attempt to harmonize laws of war, the Nuremberg trials marked a crucial moment in legal history, and after that, some treaties that led to the drafting of the Rome Statute were signed. In the resolution there was a hope for an effort from the Legal UN commission in that direction, the General Assembly, after the considerations expressed from the commission, established a committee to draft a statute and study the related legal issues. The geopolitical tensions of the Cold War also contributed to the delays, trinidad and Tobago asked the General Assembly in December 1989 to re-open the talks for the establishment of an international criminal court and in 1994 presented a draft Statute. The General Assembly created an ad hoc committee for the International Criminal Court and, after hearing the conclusions, a Preparatory Committee that worked for two years on the draft. As of March 2016,124 states are parties to the Statute of the Court, including all the countries of South America, nearly all of Europe, most of Oceania, a further 31 countries have signed but not ratified the Rome Statute. The law of treaties obliges these states to refrain from acts which would defeat the object,41 United Nations member states have neither signed nor acceded to the Rome Statute. Some of them, including China and India, are critical of the Court, ukraine, a non-ratifying signatory, has accepted the Courts jurisdiction for a period starting in 2013. A state party which has not ratified such an amendment may withdraw with immediate effect, any amendment to the list of crimes within the jurisdiction of the court will only apply to those states parties that have ratified it
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Child Soldiers International
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Child Soldiers International envisions a world where all children grow up realising their full potential and enjoying all their human rights. For this to be possible, Child Soldiers International is working to prevent armed forces, the treaty was adopted in 2000 and entered into force on 12 February 2002. Child Soldiers International continues to promote adherence to the Optional Protocol, since then, Child Soldiers International has continued to promote the adoption and implementation of international legal standards protecting children from military recruitment or use in hostilities. Child Soldiers International has a London headquarters and conducts research, advocacy, recent programmes have included, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Afghanistan, India, Myanmar, Thailand, and United Kingdom. Child Soldiers International and UNICEF published the Guide to the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child in December 2003, the guide summarizes the process of the treatys adoption, its fundamental provisions, and recommends that certain activities be undertaken to ensure its full enforcement. It is a tool written to aid other NGOs, humanitarian groups. In 2001,2004 and 2008, Child Soldiers International published ‘Child Soldiers Global Reports’ which provide a snapshot of the child soldier situation in every country worldwide, in 2016, Child Soldiers International published A law unto themselves. Confronting the recruitment of children by armed groups and this provides a legal analysis of progress made so far in engaging with armed groups about child recruitment and use. Child Soldiers International continues to publish research, analysis and recommendations to support its advocacy goals. These seek to inform policy and action by building understanding of the causes of child recruitment and use. Child Soldiers International is a UK registered charity, with section 501 public charity status in the USA, direct donations are welcomed from individuals, and provide an essential source of support. Annual audited financial statements are filed with the UK Charity Commission, Companies House, for the 2015-16 financial year Child Soldiers International had an annual income of £623,588 and expenditure of £604,832. In 2015-16, 94% of expenditure supported programme activities, Child Soldiers International operates with a small staff team, bringing in specialist consultancy support where needed. Programmatic work is delivered in collaboration with local and national organisations in target countries. Job vacancies are advertised on the organisational website, the organisation is governed by a board of trustees. Military use of children Red Hand Day http, //www. child-soldiers. org/ Interview, Children Abducted for Terrorsim in Sri Lanka
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Secretary-General of the United Nations
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The Secretary-General of the United Nations is the head of the United Nations Secretariat, one of the principal organs of the United Nations. The Secretary-General serves as the administrative officer of the United Nations. The role of the United Nations Secretariat, and of the Secretary-General in particular, is out by Chapter XV of the United Nations Charter. As of 2017, the Secretary-General is António Guterres, appointed by the General Assembly on 13 October 2016, according to the UN website, their roles are further defined as diplomat and advocate, civil servant, and CEO. Nevertheless, this more abstract description has not prevented the office holders from speaking out, responsibilities of the Secretary-General are further outlined in Articles 98 through 100. They are also responsible for making a report to the General Assembly. According to Article 99, they may notify the Security Council on matters which in their opinion may threaten the maintenance of international peace, other than these few guidelines, little else is dictated by the Charter. Interpretation of the Charter has varied between Secretaries-General, with some being more active than others. The Secretary-General is highly dependent upon the support of the states of the UN. The personal skills of the Secretary-General and their staff are crucial to their function, the central position of the UN headquarters in the international diplomatic network is also an important asset. The Secretary-General has the right to place any dispute on the agenda of the Security Council. However, they work mostly behind the scenes if the members of the council are unwilling to discuss a dispute. Most of their time is spent on good offices missions and mediation, sometimes at the request of deliberative organs of the UN and their function may be replaced or supplemented by mediation efforts by the major powers. UN peacekeeping missions are often linked to mediation. The recent improvement in relations between the permanent members of the Security Council has strengthened the role of the Secretary-General as the worlds most reputable intermediary, in the early 1960s, Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev led an effort to abolish the Secretary-General position. Khrushchev proposed to replace the Secretary-General with a three-person leading council, one member from the West, one from the Eastern Bloc and this idea failed because the neutral powers failed to back the Soviet proposal. Article 97 of the United Nations Charter determines that the Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council, as the recommendation must come from the Security Council, any of the five permanent members of the Council can veto a nomination. Most Secretaries-General are compromise candidates from middle powers and have little prior fame, unofficial qualifications for the job have been set by precedent in previous selections
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Economic inequality
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Economic inequality is the difference found in various measures of economic well-being among individuals in a group, among groups in a population, or among countries. Economic inequality is sometimes called income inequality, wealth inequality, or the wealth gap, economists generally focus on economic disparity in three metrics, wealth, income, and consumption. The issue of inequality is relevant to notions of equity, equality of outcome. Economic inequality varies between societies, historical periods, economic structures and systems, the term can refer to cross-sectional distribution of income or wealth at any particular period, or to changes of income and wealth over longer periods of time. There are various numerical indices for measuring economic inequality, a widely used index is the Gini coefficient, but there are also many other methods. Some studies say economic inequality is a problem, for example too much inequality can be destructive. However, too much income equality is also destructive since it decreases the incentive for productivity, the first set of income distribution statistics for the United States covering the period from was published in 1952 by Simon Kuznets, Shares of Upper Income Groups in Income and Savings. It relied on US federal income tax returns and Kuznets’s own estimates of US national income, National Income, economists generally consider three metrics of economic dispersion, wealth, income, and consumption. A skilled professional may have low wealth and low income as student, low wealth and high earnings in the beginning of the career, peoples preferences determine whether they consume earnings immediately or defer consumption to the future. The distinction is important at the level of economy, There are economies with high income inequality. There are economies with low income inequality and high wealth inequality. There are different ways to measure income inequality and wealth inequality, Different choices lead to different results. g. Annual wages, including wages from part-time work or work during only part of the year, individual earnings inequality among all workers – Includes the self-employed. Individual earnings inequality among the entire working-age population – Includes those who are inactive, e. g. students, unemployed, early pensioners, household earnings inequality – Includes the earnings of all household members. Household market income inequality – Includes incomes from capital, savings, household disposable income inequality – Includes public cash transfers received and direct taxes paid. Household adjusted disposable income inequality – Includes publicly provided services, There are many challenges in comparing data between economies, or in a single economy in different years. Examples of challenges include, Data can be based on joint taxation of couples or individual taxation, the tax authorities generally only collect information on income that is potentially taxable. The precise definition of income varies from country to country
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British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
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Literacy
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Literacy is traditionally understood as the ability to read, write, and use arithmetic. The concept of literacy is expanding in OECD countries to include skills to access knowledge through technology and ability to assess complex contexts. A person who travels and resides in a country but is unable to read or write in the language of the host country would also be regarded by the locals as being illiterate. The key to literacy is reading development, a progression of skills that begins with the ability to understand words and decode written words. The inability to do so is called illiteracy or analphabetism, Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society. Literacy is thought to have first emerged with the development of numeracy, script developed independently at least four times in human history in Mesopotamia, Egypt, lowland Mesoamerica, and China. The earliest forms of written communication originated in Sumer, located in southern Mesopotamia about 3500-3000 BCE, writing systems in Mesopotamia first emerged from a recording system in which people used impressed token markings to manage trade and agricultural production. The token system served as a precursor to early cuneiform writing once people began recording information on clay tablets, proto-cuneiform texts exhibit not only numerical signs, but also ideograms depicting objects being counted. Egyptian hieroglyphs emerged from 3300-3100 BCE and depicted royal iconography that emphasized power amongst other elites, the Egyptian hieroglyphic writing system was the first notation system to have phonetic values. Writing in lowland Mesoamerica was first put into practice by the Olmec and Zapotec civilizations in 900-400 BCE and these civilizations used glyphic writing and bar-and-dot numerical notation systems for purposes related to royal iconography and calendar systems. The earliest written notations in China date back to the Shang Dynasty in 1200 BCE and these systematic notations were found inscribed on bones and recorded sacrifices made, tributes received, and animals hunted, which were activities of the elite. These oracle-bone inscriptions were the ancestors of modern Chinese script and contained logosyllabic script. According to social anthropologist Jack Goody, there are two interpretations that regard the origin of the alphabet, many classical scholars, such as historian Ignace Gelb, credit the Ancient Greeks for creating the first alphabetic system that used distinctive signs for consonants and vowels. Thus, many argue that the ancient Semitic-speaking peoples of northern Canaan invented the consonantal alphabet as early as 1500 BCE. Much of this development is credited to English archeologist Flinders Petrie. Ten years later, English Egyptologist Alan Gardiner reasoned that these contain an alphabet. In 1948, William F. Albright deciphered the text using additional evidence that had been discovered subsequent to Goodys findings and this included a series of inscriptions from Ugarit, discovered in 1929 by French archaeologist Claude F. A. Schaeffer. Some of these inscriptions were mythological texts that consisted of a 32-letter cuneiform consonantal alphabet, another significant discovery was made in 1953 when three arrowheads were uncovered, each containing identical Canaanite inscriptions from twelfth century BCE
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Officer (armed forces)
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An officer is a member of an armed force or uniformed service who holds a position of authority. In this sense, officers are not enlisted, but hold appointments from their government that typically remain in force indefinitely unless resigned, the proportion of officers varies greatly. Officers typically make up between an eighth and a fifth of modern armed forces personnel, in 2013, officers were the senior 17% of the British armed forces, and the senior 13. 7% of the French armed forces. In 2012, officers made up about 18% of the German armed forces, historically, however, armed forces have generally had much lower proportions of officers. During the First World War, fewer than 5% of British soldiers were officers, in the early twentieth century, the Spanish army had the highest proportion of officers of any European army, at 12. 5%. Within a nations armed forces, armies tend to have a proportion of officers. For example,13. 9% of British army personnel and 22. 2% of the RAF personnel were officers in 2013, having officers is one requirement for combatant status under the laws of war, though these officers need not have obtained an official commission or warrant. Commissioned officers are typically the only persons, in an armed forces environment, a superior officer is an officer with a higher rank than another officer, who is a subordinate officer relative to the superior. Non-commissioned officers in positions of authority can be said to have control or charge rather than command per se, many advanced militaries require university degrees as a prerequisite for commissioning, even from the enlisted ranks. In the Israel Defense Forces, a university degree is a requirement for an officer to advance to the rank of lieutenant colonel, the IDF often sponsors the studies for its majors, while aircrew and naval officers obtain academic degrees as a part of their training programmes. In the United Kingdom, there are three routes of entry for British Armed Forces officers, the first, and primary route are those who receive their commission directly into the officer grades following completion at their relevant military academy. The third route is similar to the second, in that they convert from an enlisted to a commission, but these are taken from the highest ranks of SNCOs. LE officers, whilst holding the same Queens Commission, generally work in different roles from the DE officers, in the infantry, a number of Warrant Officer Class 1s are commissioned as LE officers. For Royal Navy and Royal Air Force officer candidates, a 30-week period at Britannia Royal Naval College or a 30-week period at RAF College Cranwell, Royal Marines officers receive their training in the Command Wing of the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines during a grueling 15-month course. The courses consist of not only tactical and combat training, but also leadership, management, etiquette, until the Cardwell Reforms of 1871, commissions in the British Army were purchased by officers. The Royal Navy, however, operated on a more meritocratic, or at least socially mobile, AOCS also also included the embedded Aviation Reserve Officer Candidate and Naval Aviation Cadet programs. NAVCADs were personnel who held associates degrees, but lacked bachelors degrees, nAVCADs would complete the entire AOCS program, but would not be commissioned until completion of flight training and receiving their wings. After their initial tour, they would be assigned to a college or university full-time for no more than two years in order to complete their bachelors degree
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Social mobility
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Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between social strata in a society. It is a change in social status relative to others social location within a given society, Social mobility is defined as the movement of individuals, families, households, or other categories of people within or between layers or tiers in an open system of social stratification. Open stratification systems are those in which at least some value is given to achieved status characteristics in a society, the movement can be in a downward or upward direction. Absolute social mobility refers to the numbers of people who end up in a different layer of stratification from that of their parents. The availability of at least some social mobility can be important in providing pathways to greater equality in societies with high social inequality, Mobility is most often quantitatively measured in terms of change in economic mobility such as changes in income or wealth. Occupation is another used in researching mobility, which usually involves both quantitative and qualitative analysis of data, but other studies may concentrate on social class. Mobility may be intragenerational, within the generation, or intergenerational. Intragenerational mobility is less frequent, representing rags to riches cases in terms of upward mobility, Intergenerational upward mobility is more common, where children or grandchildren are in economic circumstances better than those of their parents or grandparents. In the US, this type of mobility is described as a feature of the American Dream even though there is less such mobility than almost all other OECD countries. Social mobility is dependent on the overall structure of social statuses. The extent of differing social positions and the manner in which they fit together or overlap provides the social structure of such positions. Such dimensions within a society can be seen as independent variables that can explain differences in social mobility at different times and places in different stratification systems. These include sex or gender, race or ethnicity, and age, in other words, social class and a familys socioeconomic status directly affect a childs chances for obtaining a quality education and succeeding in life. By age five, there are significant developmental differences between low, middle, and upper class childrens cognitive and noncognitive skills, among older children, evidence suggests that the gap between high- and low-income primary- and secondary-school students has increased by almost 40 percent over the past thirty years. These differences persist and widen into young adulthood and beyond, just as the gap in K–12 test scores between high- and low-income students is growing, the difference in college graduation rates between the rich and the poor is also growing. Average family income, and social status, have seen a decrease for the bottom third of all children between 1975-2011. The 5th percentile of children and their families have seen up to a 60% decrease in family income. The wealth gap between the rich and the poor, the upper and lower class, continues to increase as more people get poorer
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Bundeswehr
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The Bundeswehr is the unified armed forces of Germany and their civil administration and procurement authorities. The States of Germany are not allowed to maintain armed forces of their own, the Bundeswehr is divided into a military part and a civil part with the armed forces administration. The military part of the defense force consists of the Heer, Marine, Luftwaffe, Streitkräftebasis, Zentraler Sanitätsdienst. In addition the Bundeswehr has approximately 27,600 reserve personnel. 2%, the Bundeswehr are in the process of integrating smaller NATO members Brigades into divisions of the German army. The Bundeswehr is to play a role as anchor army for smaller NATO states. 2 of 3 Royal Netherlands Army Brigades are now under German Command, in 2014 the 11th Airmobile Brigade, was integrated into the German Division of fast forces. Also the Dutch 43rd Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into the 1st Panzer Division of the German army, with the integration starting at the beginning of 2016, and the unit becoming operational at the end of 2019. The Dutch-German military cooperation are seen as an example for setting up a European defense union, also the Czech Republics 4th Rapid Deployment Brigade, and Romania’s 81st Mechanized Brigade, will be integrated into Germany’s 10 Armoured Division and Rapid Response Forces Division. The name Bundeswehr was first proposed by the former Wehrmacht general and Liberal politician Hasso von Manteuffel, the Iron Cross is its official emblem. It is a symbol that has an association with the military of Germany. The Schwarzes Kreuz is derived from the black cross insignia of the medieval Teutonic knights, when the Bundeswehr was established in 1955, its founding principles were based on developing a completely new military force for the defence of West Germany. In this respect the Bundeswehr did not consider itself to be a successor to either the Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic or Hitlers Wehrmacht, neither does it adhere to the traditions of any former German military organization. One of the most visible traditions of the modern Bundeswehr is the Großer Zapfenstreich, the FRG reinstated this formal military ceremony in 1952, three years before the foundation of the Bundeswehr. Today it is performed by a band with 4 fanfare trumpeters and timpani. The Zapfenstreich is only performed during national celebrations or solemn public commemorations and it can honour distinguished persons present such as the German federal president or provide the conclusion to large military exercises. Another important tradition in the modern German armed forces is the Gelöbnis, there are two kinds of oath, for conscripts/recruits it is a pledge but its a solemn vow for full-time personnel. The pledge is made annually on 20 July, the date on which a group of Wehrmacht officers attempted to assassinate Adolf Hitler in 1944, recruits from the Bundeswehrs Wachbataillon make their vow at the Bendlerblock in Berlin. This was the headquarters of the resistance but also where the officers were executed following its failure
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Parachuting
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Parachuting, or skydiving, is a method of transiting from a high point to Earth with the aid of gravity, involving the control of speed during the descent with the use of a parachute. It may involve more or less free-fall, a time during which the parachute has not been deployed, the first parachute jump in history was made by Andre-Jacques Garnerin, the inventor of the parachute, on October 22nd,1797. Garnerin tested his contraption by leaping from a hydrogen balloon 3,200 feet above Paris, garnerins parachute bore little resemblance to todays parachutes however as it was not packed into any sort of container and did not feature a ripcord. The first intentional freefall jump with a deployment was not made until over a century later by Leslie Irvin in 1919. While Georgia Broadwick made an earlier freefall in 1914 when her static line became entangled with her jump aircrafts tail assembly, Broadwick cut her static line and deployed her parachute manually, only as a means of freeing her self from the aircraft to which she had become entangled. The military developed parachuting technology as a way to save aircrews from emergencies aboard balloons and aircraft in flight, early competitions date back to the 1930s, and it became an international sport in 1952. Parachuting is performed as recreational activity, and a sport which is widely considered an extreme sport due to the risks involved. Manually exiting an aircraft and parachuting to safety has been used by aviators. While this method of escape is relatively rare in modern times, it was used in World War I by military aviators. In modern times, the most common means of escape from an aircraft in distress is via an ejection seat, said system is usually operated by the pilot, aircrew member, or passenger, by engaging an activation device manually. In most designs, this lead to the seat being propelled out of and away from the aircraft carrying the occupant with it. Once clear of the aircraft, the seat will deploy a parachute. Despite the perception of danger, fatalities are rare, about 21 skydivers are confirmed killed each year in the US, roughly one death for every 150,000 jumps. In the US and in most of the world, skydivers are required to carry two parachutes. The reserve parachute must be inspected and re-packed by a certified parachute rigger. Many skydivers use an automatic device that opens the reserve parachute at a pre-determined altitude if it detects that the skydiver is still in free fall. Depending on the country, AADs are often mandatory for new jumpers, most skydivers wear a visual altimeter, and an increasing number also use audible altimeters fitted to their helmets. One of the most common sources of injury is a low turn under a high-performance canopy, swooping is the advanced discipline of gliding at high-speed parallel to the ground during landing
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Air show
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An air show, is a public event at which aviators display their flying skills and the capabilities of their aircraft to spectators, usually by means of aerobatics. Air shows without aerobatic displays, having only aircraft displayed parked on the ground, are called static air shows, in the United States, some of the larger airshows are headlined by military jet demonstration teams including the U. S. Navy Blue Angels and USAF Thunderbirds. The Canadian Forces Snowbirds will headline many airshows in Canada and the United States, some air shows are held as a business venture or as a trade event where aircraft, avionics and other services are promoted to potential customers. Many air shows are held in support of local, national or military charities, military air firms often organise air shows at military airfields as a public relations exercise to thank the local community, promote military careers and raise the profile of the military. Air show seasons vary around the world, the United States enjoys a long season that generally runs from March to November, covering the spring, summer, and fall seasons. Other countries often have much shorter seasons, in Japan air shows are generally events held at Japan Self-Defense Forces bases regularly throughout the year. The European season usually starts in late April or Early May and is usually over by mid October, the Middle East, Australia and New Zealand hold their events between January and March. However, for acts, the off-season does not mean a period of inactivity, pilots. The type of displays seen at an event are constrained by a number of factors, including the weather, most aviation authorities now publish rules and guidance on minimum display heights and criteria for differing conditions. In addition to the weather, pilots and organizers must also consider local airspace restrictions, most exhibitors will plan full, rolling and flat display for varying weather and airspace conditions. The types of shows vary greatly, Air Displays can be held during day or night with the latter becoming increasingly popular. Shows dont always take place over airfields, some have held over the grounds of stately homes or castles. Before the Second World War, air shows were associated with long distance air races, often lasting many days, while the Reno Air Races keep this tradition alive, most air shows today primarily feature a series of aerial demos of short duration. Specialist aerobatic aircraft have piston engines, light weight and big control surfaces, making them capable of very high roll rates. A skilled pilot will be able to climb vertically, perform very tight turns, tumble his aircraft end-over-end, solo military jet demos, also known as tactical demo, feature one aircraft, usually a strike fighter or an advanced trainer. The demonstration focuses on the capabilities of aircraft used in combat operations. Manoeuvres include aileron rolls, barrel rolls, hesitation rolls, Cuban-8s, tight turns, high-alpha flight, a pass, double Immelmans. Tactical demos may include simulated bomb drops, sometimes with pyrotechnics on the ground for effect
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Action film
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Action film is a film genre in which the protagonist or protagonists end up in a series of challenges that typically include violence, extended fighting, physical feats, and frantic chases. Advancements in CGI have made it cheaper and easier to create action sequences, while action has long been a recurring component in films, the action film genre began to develop in the 1970s along with the increase of stunts and special effects. The genre is associated with the thriller and adventure film genres. Some historians consider The Great Train Robbery to be the first action film, during the 1920s and 1930s, action-based films were often swashbuckling adventure films in which actors, such as Douglas Fairbanks, wielded swords in period pieces or Westerns. The 1940s and 1950s saw action in a new form through war, the film, along with a war-adventure called The Guns of Navarone, inspired producers Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman to invest in their own spy-adventure, based on the novels of Ian Fleming. The long-running success of the James Bond films or series introduced a staple of the action film. Such larger-than-life characters were a veritable “one-man army”, able to dispatch villainous masterminds after cutting through their disposable henchmen in increasingly creative ways, such heroes are ready with one-liners, puns, and dry quips. The Bond films also used fast cutting, car chases, fist fights, a variety of weapons and gadgets, Dirty Harry essentially lifted its star, Clint Eastwood, out of his cowboy typecasting, and framed him as the archetypal hero of the urban action film. In many countries, restrictions on language, adult content, and violence had loosened up, in the 1970s, martial-arts films from Hong Kong became popular with Western audiences and inspired big budget films such as Bruce Lees Enter the Dragon. Chuck Norris blended martial arts with cops and robbers in films such as Good Guys Wear Black, from Japan, Sonny Chiba starred in his first martial arts movie in 1973 called the Karate Kiba. His breakthrough international hit was The Street Fighter series, which established him as the reigning Japanese martial arts actor in international cinema and he also played the role of Mas Oyama in Champion of Death, Karate Bearfighter, and Karate for Life. Chibas action films were not only bounded by martial arts, but also action thriller, jidaigeki, in the 1980s Hollywood produced many big budget action blockbusters with actors such as Sylvester Stallone, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Lorenzo Lamas, Michael Dudikoff, Charles Bronson and Bruce Willis. Steven Spielberg and George Lucas paid their homage to the Bond-inspired style with Raiders of the Lost Ark, in 1982, veteran actor Nick Nolte and rising comedian Eddie Murphy broke box office records with the action-comedy 48 Hrs. credited as the first buddy-cop movie. That same year, Sylvester Stallone starred in First Blood, the first installment in the Rambo film series made the character John Rambo a pop culture icon. 1984 saw the beginning of the Terminator starring Linda Hamilton and Arnold Schwarzenegger and this story provides one of the grittiest roles for a woman in action and Hamilton was required to put in extensive effort to develop a strong physique. The 1988 film, Die Hard, was influential on the development of the action genre. In the film, Bruce Willis plays a New York police detective who becomes embroiled in a terrorist take-over of a Los Angeles office building high-rise. The film set a pattern for a host of imitators, like Under Siege and Sudden Death, by the end of the 1980s, the influence of the successful action film could be felt in almost every genre
29.
Video game
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A video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device such as a TV screen or computer monitor. The word video in video game referred to a raster display device. Some theorists categorize video games as an art form, but this designation is controversial, the electronic systems used to play video games are known as platforms, examples of these are personal computers and video game consoles. These platforms range from large mainframe computers to small handheld computing devices, the input device used for games, the game controller, varies across platforms. Common controllers include gamepads, joysticks, mouse devices, keyboards, the touchscreens of mobile devices, and buttons, or even, with the Kinect sensor, a persons hands and body. Players typically view the game on a screen or television or computer monitor, or sometimes on virtual reality head-mounted display goggles. There are often game sound effects, music and, in the 2010s, some games in the 2000s include haptic, vibration-creating effects, force feedback peripherals and virtual reality headsets. In the 2010s, the game industry is of increasing commercial importance, with growth driven particularly by the emerging Asian markets and mobile games. As of 2015, video games generated sales of USD74 billion annually worldwide, early games used interactive electronic devices with various display formats. The earliest example is from 1947—a Cathode ray tube Amusement Device was filed for a patent on 25 January 1947, by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and Estle Ray Mann, and issued on 14 December 1948, as U. S. Written by MIT students Martin Graetz, Steve Russell, and Wayne Wiitanens on a DEC PDP-1 computer in 1961, and the hit ping pong-style Pong, used the DEC PDP-1s vector display to have two spaceships battle each other. In 1971, Computer Space, created by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, was the first commercially sold and it used a black-and-white television for its display, and the computer system was made of 74 series TTL chips. The game was featured in the 1973 science fiction film Soylent Green, Computer Space was followed in 1972 by the Magnavox Odyssey, the first home console. Modeled after a late 1960s prototype console developed by Ralph H. Baer called the Brown Box and these were followed by two versions of Ataris Pong, an arcade version in 1972 and a home version in 1975 that dramatically increased video game popularity. The commercial success of Pong led numerous other companies to develop Pong clones and their own systems, the game inspired arcade machines to become prevalent in mainstream locations such as shopping malls, traditional storefronts, restaurants, and convenience stores. The game also became the subject of articles and stories on television and in newspapers and magazines. Space Invaders was soon licensed for the Atari VCS, becoming the first killer app, the term platform refers to the specific combination of electronic components or computer hardware which, in conjunction with software, allows a video game to operate. The term system is commonly used
30.
Behind Enemy Lines (2001 film)
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Behind Enemy Lines is a 2001 American action war film directed by John Moore in his directorial debut, and starring Owen Wilson and Gene Hackman. The film tells the story of Lieutenant Chris Burnett, an American naval flight officer who is shot down over Bosnia, meanwhile, his commanding officer is struggling to gain approval to launch a search and rescue mission to save Burnett. The plot is based on the 1995 Mrkonjić Grad incident that occurred during the war. Released on November 30,2001, Behind Enemy Lines received generally negative reviews critics, with criticism aimed at the films action scenes. However, it was a box office success, taking in nearly $92 million worldwide against a $40 million budget. None of these feature the cast and crew of the original. The mission goes smoothly until they spot suspicious activity in the zone where NATO aircraft. Burnett persuades Stackhouse to fly their F/A-18 Hornet off-course to get a close look and they are unaware that they photographed mass graves, and Serb soldiers see the jet. The local Bosnian Serb paramilitary commander, General Miroslav Lokar, is conducting a secret genocidal campaign against the local Bosniak population, not wanting the mass graves to be discovered, Lokar orders the jet be shot down. Despite trying to outmaneuver the missiles fired at them, their jet is hit, shortly after touching ground, a Serb patrol finds an injured Stackhouse and interrogate him. Stackhouse is then executed by Sasha, one of Lokars right-hand men, Burnett, who was observing the Serbs interrogation of Stackhouse from a hill, flees the area, but exposes his location. Wanting Burnett dead as well, Lokar orders both his deputy, Colonel Bazda, and Sasha to find him, after Burnett contacts Admiral Reigart for help, he orders Burnett to move to a certain location in order to be extracted. When Burnett reaches the point, Reigart informs him that he must move to another location miles outside of the demilitarized zone in order to be rescued. Immediately after being informed, Burnett sees a Serb patrol, led by Bazda, running from them, he falls into the mass grave that he and Stackhouse had photographed and hides under a dead body. When the patrol is out of sight, he continues to run, on his way to the new extraction point, Burnett encounters a group of Bosniak guerrillas in a pickup truck who offer him a ride. The guerrillas inform Burnett that they are heading to Hač, which is supposedly a safe haven, during the battle, Serb troops believe that they have found Burnetts body, but Sasha realizes that Burnett had switched uniforms with a dead Serb soldier and escaped Hač. The Serbs turn the situation to their advantage, presenting the corpse wearing Burnetts uniform to the media, the ruse works and a mission to rescue Burnett is aborted. However, Burnett notices a statue near where his ejection seat landed
31.
X-Men: First Class
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X-Men, First Class is a 2011 American superhero film, based on the X-Men characters appearing in Marvel Comics. It is the installment in the X-Men film series. A prequel to the franchise, the film was directed by Matthew Vaughn, the film co-stars Rose Byrne, January Jones and Oliver Platt. Singer, who had directed both X-Men and X2, became involved with the project in 2009, but he could only produce and co-write First Class due to other projects. Matthew Vaughn, who was attached to both X-Men, The Last Stand and Thor, became the director, and also wrote the final script with his writing partner Jane Goldman. First Class overtook a planned Magneto prequel that entered development hell, the tight schedule proved a challenge to the six companies responsible for the extensive visual effects, which included computer-generated sets and digital doubles for the actors. Locations included Oxford, the Mojave desert and Georgia, with work done in both Pinewood Studios and the 20th Century Fox stages in Los Angeles. The depiction of the 1960s drew inspiration from the James Bond films of the period. A sequel titled X-Men, Days of Future Past, also serving as a resolution to the original storyline, was released in May 2014, with Singer returning as director. Another sequel, X-Men, Apocalypse, was released on May 27,2016, in 1944, in a Polish death camp, Nazi scientist Dr. Klaus Schmidt witnesses a young Erik Lehnsherr bend a metal gate with his mind when the child is separated from his mother. In his office, Schmidt orders Lehnsherr to move a coin on his desk, in grief and anger, Lehnsherrs magnetic power manifests, killing two guards and destroying the room. Meanwhile, at a mansion in Westchester County, New York, child telepath Charles Xavier meets young shapeshifter Raven, whose form is blue-skinned. Overjoyed to meet someone else different, he invites her to live with his family as his foster sister, in 1962, Lehnsherr is tracking down Schmidt, while Xavier graduates from the University of Oxford. Threatened by Shaw and teleported by Azazel to the Joint War Room, Shaw, an energy-absorbing mutant whose powers have de-aged him, later kills Hendry. MacTaggert, seeking Xaviers advice on mutation, takes him and Raven to the CIA, another CIA officer sponsors the mutants and invites them to the secret Division X facility. MacTaggert and Xavier find Shaw as Lehnsherr is attacking him, and rescue Lehnsherr from drowning, Xavier brings Lehnsherr to Division X, where they meet young scientist Hank McCoy, a mutant with prehensile feet, who believes Ravens DNA may provide a cure for their appearance. Xavier uses McCoys mutant-locating device Cerebro to seek recruits against Shaw, Xavier and Lehnsherr recruit stripper Angel Salvadore, cabbie Armando Muñoz, Army prisoner Alex Summers, and runaway Sean Cassidy. They all create nicknames, and Raven dubs herself Mystique, Azazel, Riptide and Shaw attack Division X, killing everyone but the mutants, whom Shaw invites to join him
32.
Army Cadet Force
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The Army Cadet Force is a national youth organisation sponsored by the United Kingdoms Ministry of Defence and the British Army. Along with the Sea Cadet Corps and the Air Training Corps and it is a separate organisation from the Combined Cadet Force which provides similar training within principally independent private schools. Although sponsored by the Ministry of Defence, the ACF is not part of the British Army or Army Reserve, and as such cadets are not subject to military call up. Some cadets do, however, go on to enlist in the forces in later life. The Army Cadet Force Association is a charity that acts in an advisory role to the Ministry of Defence. The Army Cadet Force is also a member of The National Council for Voluntary Youth Services, as an organisation with a voluntary, as of 1 April 2015 there are 50,540 Cadets and Cadet Force Adult Volunteers. In 1859 local Militia units, were organised into a nationwide Volunteer Reserve Force because of the threat of French invasion, the first unit of the ACF to be formed was the Robin Hood Rifles formed by Mrs Octavia Hill on Frimley Park in 1859. These new Volunteer units formed Cadet Companies and eight public schools formed independent cadet units. The late Victorian period was when the time of change began to take hold in Britain. The formation of Cadet units also spread to the colonies and its cadets wore the cap badge of the Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps, to which the Bermuda Cadet Corps was attached. In 1914 all independent Cadet units were taken under control by the War Office, during the war, the War Office extended the earning of Certificate A, which with Certificate B, had been used by the OTCs, to the Cadets. This became the goal for most cadets until the APC tests were introduced, the tests covered many aspects of infantry training, including drill, map reading, weapon training and shooting, fieldcraft, fitness, and command instruction. The award of the certificate permitted the holder to have a star on the lower sleeve The star was red with khaki edgings. A technical certificate was developed, in 1943, covering engineering knowledge. The award of this gave another four-pointed star, but with the centre in blue, the holder of a Certificate T was assured the entry into one of the technical corps on being called-up. The Certificate A holder was given a training period. In 1923 as a result of Defence cutbacks all Governmental and Military support for the ACF was withdrawn, from 1939 the Cadet Forces supported the Home Guard at a time when the threat of German invasion was very real, because of this in 1942 the ACF was re-formed. Following a Government review of the Armed Forces in 1957 the ACF assumed its role of a youth organisation sponsored by the Ministry of Defence
33.
Merchandising
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In the broadest sense, merchandising is any practice which contributes to the sale of products to a retail consumer. In retail commerce, visual display merchandising means merchandise sales using product design, selection, packaging, pricing and this includes disciplines and discounting, physical presentation of products and displays, and the decisions about which products should be presented to which customers at what time. Merchandising helps to understand the ordinary dating notation for the terms of payment of an invoice, codified discounting solves pricing problems including markups and markdowns. It helps to find the net price of an item after single or multiple trade discounts, further, it helps to calculate the amount of cash discount for which a payment qualifies. Events such as Chinese festivals and Japanese festivals are incorporated in a cycle of shop decorations. In the United States, the retail cycle begins in early January with merchandise for Valentines Day. Presidents Day sales are held shortly thereafter, following this, Easter is the major holiday, while springtime clothing and garden-related merchandise is already arriving at stores, often as early as mid-winter. Mothers Day and Fathers Day are next, with gifts often being marketed as dads and grads in June. Summer merchandise is next, including patriotic-themed products with the American flag, by July, back-to-school is on the shelves and autumn merchandise is already arriving, and at some arts and crafts stores, Christmas decorations. The back-to-school market is promoted heavily in August, when there are no holidays to promote, by September, particularly after Labor Day, summer merchandise is on final closeout and overstock of school supplies is marked-down some as well, and Halloween merchandise is appearing. Coastal-area stores might carry water skiing equipment, while ones near mountain ranges would likely have snow skiing and snowboarding gear if there are ski areas nearby, a merchandiser is someone who is continuously involved in business promotion by buying and selling of goods. In Asian countries, such as India, this term is synonymous with activities right from sampling. It is a job description that involves leading and working with different departments within the organization, suppliers and buyers to deal with timely deadlines, in the supply chain, merchandising is the practice of making products in retail outlets available to consumers, primarily by stocking shelves and displays. In the United Kingdom there are a number of organizations that supply merchandising services to retail outlets with general stock replenishment. By doing this, retail stores have been able to reduce the number of employees needed to run the store. While stocking shelves and building displays is often done when the product is delivered, product categories where this is common are Beverage, packaged baked goods, magazines and books, and health and beauty products. For major food manufacturers in the beverage and baked goods industries, for nationwide branded goods manufacturers such as The Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo, their respective merchandiser work forces number in the thousands. In marketing, one of the definitions of merchandising is the practice in which the brand or image from one product or service is used to sell another
34.
Amusement park
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An amusement park or theme park is a group of entertainment attractions, rides, and other events in a location for the enjoyment of large numbers of people. Theme parks, a type of amusement park, are usually much more intricately themed to a certain subject or group of subjects than normal amusement parks. Amusement parks evolved from European fairs and pleasure gardens, which were created for peoples recreation, Worlds fairs and expositions were another influence on the development of the amusement park industry. In common language, the theme park and amusement park are often synonymous. However, a park can be regarded as a distinct style of amusement park. A theme park has landscaping, buildings, and attractions that are based on one or more specific themes or stories. The amusement park evolved from three earlier traditions, the oldest being the periodic fair of the Middle Ages - one of the earliest was the Bartholomew Fair in England, the worlds oldest amusement park appeared in the Continent. Bakken at Klampenborg, north of Copenhagen, Denmark, opened in 1583, a wave of innovation in the 1860s and 1870s created mechanical rides, such as the steam-powered carousel, and its derivatives. This inaugurated the era of the modern funfair ride, as the classes were increasingly able to spend their surplus wages on entertainment. The second influence was the pleasure garden, one of the earliest gardens was the Vauxhall Gardens, founded in 1661 in London. By the late 18th century, the site had a fee for its many attractions. It regularly drew crowds, with its paths being noted for romantic assignations, tightrope walkers, hot air balloon ascents, concerts. Although the gardens were designed for the elites, they soon became places of great social diversity. Public firework displays were put on at Marylebone Gardens, and Cremorne Gardens offered music, dancing, prater in Vienna, Austria, was opened in 1766. The concept of a park for amusement was further developed with the beginning of the worlds fairs. The first World fair began in 1851 with the construction of the landmark Crystal Palace in London, the purpose of the exposition was to celebrate the industrial achievement of the nations of the world and it was designed to educate and entertain the visitors. American cities and business saw the worlds fair as a way of demonstrating economic. The Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago, Illinois was an precursor to the modern amusement park
35.
Belgian National Day
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Belgian National Day is the national holiday of Belgium celebrated on 21 July each year. It is one of ten public holidays in Belgium, the kings vow marked the start of the independent state of Belgium under a constitutional monarchy and parliament. After some fighting in August-September 1830, the Dutch were forced out of much of the region, a National Congress was created to write a Constitution for the new state. The Congress called upon Leopold of Saxe-Cobourg-Gotha, a German nobleman, accepting the invitation, Leopold travelled from England to Brussels. Originally, Belgian National Day was celebrated on 27 September as the commemoration of the Dutch militarys final withdrawal from Brussels after several days of fighting in mid-September, in 1890, the date of the festival was changed to 21 July to commemorate Leopold Is accession to the throne. In 1991, the 27 September was selected as the observance of the French Community of Belgium. The day typically starts with a Catholic Te Deum service in Cathedral of Brussels attended by the King, in the afternoon, the Belgian Army and police are reviewed by the King, and parade past the Royal Palace and around the Parc de Bruxelles. There is a flypast by the airforce, many notable buildings in Brussels that are usually closed are also open to the public on National Day. A variety of entertainment is presented in venues around the city. In the evening, a fireworks display occurs in the Parc de Bruxelles. Smaller events occur in towns and cities across Belgium and in Belgian émigré communities abroad, on National Day 2013, King Albert II officially resigned his position as King of the Belgians and his son, Philippe, ascended to the throne. De Belgische Natie Viert, De Belgische Nationale Feesten, 1830-1914, fête nationale, les festivités se poursuivent à Bruxelles
36.
Military parade
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A military parade is a formation of soldiers whose movement is restricted by close-order manoeuvring known as drilling or marching. The military parade is now almost entirely ceremonial, though soldiers from time immemorial up until the late 19th century fought in formation, massed parades may also hold a role for propaganda purposes, being used to exhibit the apparent military strength of ones nation. The terminology comes from the tradition of close order formation combat, formation combat was used as an alternative to mêlée combat, and required strict discipline in the ranks and competent officers. As long as their formations could be maintained, regular troops could maintain a significant advantage over less organised opponents, roughly synonymous are drill and march. The English word drill is of Middle Dutch origin, dating from the 16th century drill of the Dutch army of prince Maurice of Orange, in ancient times, drilling increased in importance when men stopped fighting as individuals and began to fight together as units. Military drilling later was used by the Roman Army to maximise efficiency, massed military drilling was used mostly by only the foremost armies and nations, such as the Normans. The U. S. drill is based on the contributions of Baron von Steuben, during the winter quarters in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, von Steuben taught a model company of 100 soldiers musket drill. These soldiers, in turn, taught the remainder of the Continental Army, a military drill is memorizing certain actions through repetition until the action is instinctive to the soldiers being drilled. Complex actions are broken down into simpler ones which can be practised in isolation so when the whole is put together the results are achieved. Such is necessary for a force to perform at maximum efficiency in all manner of situations. However, depending on the army and the drills it adopts, drilling may destroy flexibility and initiative in exchange for predictability, recruits in most modern militaries are taught drill to teach them how to work and move as a team. In addition, formations are used in riot control, where mêlée combat is still the norm. When these are not present, the direction of the commander is the advance. There is only one person in charge of a parade at a time, changing this person is very ceremonious. This is to make it obvious to the soldiers who is currently in command, during parades, unless explicitly told otherwise, soldiers have restricted movement, meaning they can move only exactly when they are told, and then doing only exactly what they are told to do. American usage allows the member to be at four states of alert, Attention, standing straight, eyes forward, chest out, knees straight but not locked. Stand At Ease, Same as Parade Rest, but the soldier may look at the speaker, at Ease, The service member is allowed to move around all but the right foot, but must remain silent. Rest, Service member may talk, smoke and may move as long as their right pivot foot remains grounded, a formation must be brought to the position of attention before it can go to a higher state of alert
37.
Masculinity
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Masculinity is a set of attributes, behaviors and roles generally associated with boys and men. Masculinity is made up of both socially-defined and biologically-created factors, distinct from the definition of the biological sex. Both males and females can exhibit masculine traits and behavior and those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification. Masculine traits include courage, independence and assertiveness and these traits vary by location and context, and are influenced by social and cultural factors. An overemphasis on masculinity and power, often associated with a disregard for consequences, masculine qualities, characteristics or roles are considered typical of, or appropriate for, a boy or man. They have degrees of comparison, more masculine and most masculine, the concept of masculinity varies historically and culturally, although the dandy was seen as a 19th-century ideal of masculinity, he is considered effeminate by modern standards. Masculine norms, as described in Ronald F and these norms reinforce gender roles by associating attributes and characteristics with one gender. The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s and this has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with other axes of social discrimination and concepts from other fields, such as the social construction of gender difference. In many cultures, displaying characteristics not typical of ones gender may be a social problem, in sociology, this labeling is known as gender assumptions and is part of socialization to meet the mores of a society. Non-standard behavior may be considered indicative of homosexuality, despite the fact that expression, gender identity. When sexuality is defined in terms of choice, male homosexuality is interpreted as effeminacy. Social disapproval of excessive masculinity may be expressed as machismo or by such as testosterone poisoning. The relative importance of socialization and genetics in the development of masculinity is debated, the historical development of gender roles is addressed by behavioural genetics, evolutionary psychology, human ecology, anthropology and sociology. All human cultures seem to encourage gender roles in literature, costume and song, examples may include the epics of Homer, the Hengist and Horsa tales, more specialized treatments of masculinity may be found in the Bhagavad Gita and the bushidō of Hagakure. The extent to which masculinity is inborn or conditioned is debated, genome research has yielded information about the development of masculine characteristics and the process of sexual differentiation specific to the human reproductive system. The testis determining factor on the Y chromosome, critical for male sexual development, the activation of SRY halts the process of creating a female, beginning a chain of events leading to testicle formation, androgen production and a number of pre- and post-natal hormonal effects. How a child develops gender identity is also debated, some believe that masculinity is linked to the male body, in this view, masculinity is associated with male genitalia. Others have suggested that although masculinity may be influenced by biology, proponents of this view argue that women can become men hormonally and physically, and many aspects of masculinity assumed to be natural are linguistically and culturally driven
38.
Warrior
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A warrior is a person specializing in combat or warfare, especially within the context of a tribal or clan-based warrior culture society that recognizes a separate warrior class or caste. In tribal societies engaging in warfare, warriors often form a caste or class of their own. In feudalism, the vassals essentially form a military or warrior class, even if in actual warfare, in some societies, warfare may be so central that the entire people may be considered warriors, for example in the Iron Age Germanic tribes and Indian clans like the Rajputs. While the warrior class in tribal societies is typically all-male, there are some exceptions on record where women formed part of the warrior class, a purported group of fighting women is the legendary Amazons, recorded in Classical Greek mythology. Similarly, the Valkyrie are depicted in Norse mythology, particularly the Icelandic Etta, many women not only fought on the field but led entire hosts of men within Pictish, Briton, and Irish Tribes in Pre Christian culture. Boudicca of the Iceni is an example of a female leader of warriors. Tomoe Gozen is celebrated in Japanese history as a woman samurai General in the 12th Century, joan of Arc, nicknamed The Maid of Orléans is considered a heroine of France for her role during the Lancastrian phase of the Hundred Years War. The military caste in a society is evolved from—but not identical with—the warrior class in a tribal society. Many pre-modern states had castes, estates or social groups dedicated to warfare, common features include valuing honor in the forms of faith, loyalty and courage. Examples include the following, Ethical codes of the early Germanic Peoples, chhetris of Nepal, warrior and Kings caste of Nepal, original true Gurkhas. Xiá in China, French Foreign Legion Code dHonneur, still in use today, Spanish Legion Credo legionario, still in use today, Warriors honor is dependent on following the code. Common virtues in warrior codes are mercy, courage, and loyalty, with the end of the Middle Ages and the professional standing armies of Early Modern warfare, the concept of a warrior class or military caste became an anachronism. The term warrior is sometimes used, anachronistically, to refer to professional soldiers or mercenaries. Due to the connotations of the term warrior, this metaphor is especially popular in publications advocating or recruiting for a countrys military. The warrior metaphor in sports is particularly popular in sport, as evident from brand names such as Warrior-1 MMA, Cage Warriors, Supreme Warrior Championship. A spiritual warrior is a person who battles with the enemy, self-ignorance. The term is applied in religious and metaphysical writing, the spiritual warrior can be described as an archetype character on a journey for self-discovery. Deadliest Warrior Head-Hunting Roman Cavalry Roman centurions Roman Warrior Culture Late Roman warrior culture Warrior culture in the Scottish Highlands
39.
Cold War
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The Cold War was a state of geopolitical tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc. Historians do not fully agree on the dates, but a common timeframe is the period between 1947, the year the Truman Doctrine was announced, and 1991, the year the Soviet Union collapsed. The term cold is used there was no large-scale fighting directly between the two sides, although there were major regional wars, known as proxy wars, supported by the two sides. The Cold War split the temporary alliance against Nazi Germany, leaving the Soviet Union. The USSR was a Marxist–Leninist state ruled by its Communist Party and secret police, the Party controlled the press, the military, the economy and all organizations. In opposition stood the West, dominantly democratic and capitalist with a free press, a small neutral bloc arose with the Non-Aligned Movement, it sought good relations with both sides. The two superpowers never engaged directly in full-scale armed combat, but they were armed in preparation for a possible all-out nuclear world war. The first phase of the Cold War began in the first two years after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the Berlin Blockade was the first major crisis of the Cold War. With the victory of the communist side in the Chinese Civil War and the outbreak of the Korean War, the USSR and USA competed for influence in Latin America, and the decolonizing states of Africa and Asia. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was stopped by the Soviets, the expansion and escalation sparked more crises, such as the Suez Crisis, the Berlin Crisis of 1961, and the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The USSR crushed the 1968 Prague Spring liberalization program in Czechoslovakia, détente collapsed at the end of the decade with the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War in 1979. The early 1980s were another period of elevated tension, with the Soviet downing of Korean Air Lines Flight 007, the United States increased diplomatic, military, and economic pressures on the Soviet Union, at a time when the communist state was already suffering from economic stagnation. In the mid-1980s, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the reforms of perestroika and glasnost. Pressures for national independence grew stronger in Eastern Europe, especially Poland, Gorbachev meanwhile refused to use Soviet troops to bolster the faltering Warsaw Pact regimes as had occurred in the past. The result in 1989 was a wave of revolutions that peacefully overthrew all of the communist regimes of Central, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union itself lost control and was banned following an abortive coup attempt in August 1991. This in turn led to the dissolution of the USSR in December 1991. The United States remained as the only superpower. The Cold War and its events have left a significant legacy and it is often referred to in popular culture, especially in media featuring themes of espionage and the threat of nuclear warfare
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