1.
Liverpool
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Liverpool is a major city and metropolitan borough in North West England.24 million people in 2011. Liverpool historically lay within the ancient hundred of West Derby in the south west of the county of Lancashire and it became a borough from 1207 and a city from 1880. In 1889 it became a county borough independent of Lancashire, Liverpool sits on the eastern side of the Mersey Estuary and its growth as a major port is paralleled by the expansion of the city throughout the Industrial Revolution. Along with general cargo, freight, raw materials such as coal and cotton, the city was also directly involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Liverpool was home to both the Cunard and White Star Line, and was the port of registry of the ocean liner RMS Titanic and others such as the RMS Lusitania, Queen Mary, and Olympic. The city celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2007, and it held the European Capital of Culture title together with Stavanger, Norway, several areas of Liverpool city centre were granted World Heritage Site status by UNESCO in 2004. The Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City includes the Pier Head, Albert Dock, tourism forms a significant part of the citys economy. Liverpool is also the home of two Premier League football clubs, Liverpool and Everton, matches between the two being known as the Merseyside derby, the world-famous Grand National horse race takes place annually at Aintree Racecourse on the outskirts of the city. The city is home to the oldest Black African community in the country. Natives of Liverpool are referred to as Liverpudlians and colloquially as Scousers, a reference to scouse, the word Scouse has also become synonymous with the Liverpool accent and dialect. Pool is a place name element in England from the Brythonic word for a pond, inlet, or pit, cognate with the modern Welsh. The derivation of the first element remains uncertain, with the Welsh word Llif as the most plausible relative and this etymology is supported by its similarity to that of the archaic Welsh name for Liverpool Llynlleifiad. Other origins of the name have suggested, including elverpool. The name appeared in 1190 as Liuerpul, and it may be that the place appearing as Leyrpole, in a record of 1418. King Johns letters patent of 1207 announced the foundation of the borough of Liverpool, the original street plan of Liverpool is said to have been designed by King John near the same time it was granted a royal charter, making it a borough. The original seven streets were laid out in an H shape, Bank Street, Castle Street, Chapel Street, Dale Street, Juggler Street, Moor Street, in the 17th century there was slow progress in trade and population growth. Battles for the town were waged during the English Civil War, in 1699 Liverpool was made a parish by Act of Parliament, that same year its first slave ship, Liverpool Merchant, set sail for Africa. Since Roman times, the city of Chester on the River Dee had been the regions principal port on the Irish Sea
2.
Montreal
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Montreal, officially Montréal, is the most populous municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec and the 2nd-most populous in Canada as a whole. Originally called Ville-Marie, or City of Mary, it is believed to be named after Mount Royal, the city has a distinct four-season continental climate, with warm-to-hot summers and cold, snowy winters. In 2016, Montreal had a population of 1,704,694, Montreals metropolitan area had a population of 4,098,927 and a population of 1,958,257 in the urban agglomeration, with all of the municipalities on the Island of Montreal included. Legally a French-speaking city,60. 5% of Montrealers speak French at home,21. 2% speak English and 19. 8% speak neither, Montreal is one of the most bilingual cities in Quebec and Canada, with 56% of the population able to speak both official languages. Montreal is the second-largest primarily French-speaking city in the world after Paris, historically the commercial capital of Canada, it was surpassed in population and economic strength by Toronto in the 1970s. It remains an important centre of commerce, aerospace, finance, pharmaceuticals, technology, design, education, culture, tourism, gaming, film, Montreal was also named a UNESCO City of Design. In 2009, Montreal was named North Americas leading host city for international events, according to the 2009 preliminary rankings of the International Congress. According to the 2015 Global Liveability Ranking by the Economist Intelligence Unit, in the 2017 edition of their Best Student Cities ranking, Quacquarelli Symonds ranked Montreal as the worlds best city to study abroad. Also, Montreal has 11 universities with 170,000 students enrolled, the Greater Montréal region has the highest number of university students per capita among all metropolitan areas in North America. It is the only Canadian city to have held the Summer Olympics, currently, the city hosts the Canadian Grand Prix of Formula One, the Montreal International Jazz Festival and the Just for Laughs festival. In 2012, Montreal was ranked as a Beta+ world city, in Kanien’kéha, or Mohawk language, the island is called Tiohtià, ke Tsi or Ka-wé-no-te. In Anishinaabemowin, or Ojibwe language, the land is called Mooniyaang, though the city was first named by French colonizers Ville Marie, or City of Mary, its current name comes from Mount Royal, the triple-peaked hill in the heart of the city. The most popular theory is that the name derives from Mont Réal, Cartiers 1535 diary entry, naming the mountain, according to the Commission de toponymie du Québec and the Geographical Names Board of Canada, Canadian place names have only one official form. Thus, Montreal is officially spelled with an accent over the e in both English and French. In practice, this is limited to governmental uses. English-speaking Montrealers, including English-language media, regularly omit the accent when writing in English, archaeological evidence demonstrates that First Nations native people occupied the island of Montreal as early as 4,000 years ago. By the year AD1000, they had started to cultivate maize, within a few hundred years, they had built fortified villages. Archeologists have found evidence of their habitation there and at locations in the valley since at least the 14th century
3.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
4.
Float (horse-drawn)
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A float is a form of two-wheeled horse-drawn cart with a dropped axle to give an especially low loadbed. They were intended for carrying heavy or unstable items such as milk churns, the name survives today in that of the milkfloat. The axle passes beneath the loadbed of the cart but was cranked upwards at each side and this allows the load to be carried low, for stability and ease of loading with heavy objects such as churns or barrels. The high position of the stub axles allow large wheels, giving a smooth ride, the box body is open at the rear, with no more than a chain across for safety. Rather than a seat or box, they are driven from a standing position. Floats were drawn by a horse or, especially in Ireland
5.
Dropped axle
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A dropped axle is the axle of a vehicle that is bent upwards towards the ends, i. e. the centre is dropped. Dropped axles were first used for carts, light two-wheeled horse-drawn vehicles and their introduction represents one of the safety improvements from the high and unstable dog cart or jaunting car to the lower and more stable governess cart. Their ultimate development was in the float or milk float, where a dropped axle was used to give a low load bed for easy loading of churns or similar unstable liquid cargo, dropped axles were made of forged wrought iron. Although wood was used for axles, owing to its lightness. Shaping such an axle by sawing or cutting would place an area of cross-grain across the upright part, rear axles were also beam axles, but needed to remain straight as they contained the halfshafts. Axles were made of drop-forged H girder sections, so forging their upswept ends was a simple addition, to avoid creating stress risers, the drop was formed as smooth curves, not as sharp corners. Bugatti famously used a bar for their axles, with the spring passing through holes within it. Portal axle, geared hubs, used for the effect to a dropped axle
6.
Dairy Crest
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Dairy Crest Group plc is a leading British dairy products company. Its brands include Cathedral City Cheddar cheese, Country Life butter, Utterly Butterly, Vitalite and it is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE250 Index. Until December 2015, the used to process and sell milk - in wholesale and via doorstep deliveries -. These were sold to Germanys Müller for £80 million, Dairy Crest was established in 1981 as the milk processing arm of the Milk Marketing Board. In 1983 the company launched Clover, its dairy spread, in 1995 it bought the Cathedral City brand of cheese from Mendip Foods Ltd. The business was privatised in August 1996 and Dairy Crest was listed on the London Stock Exchange. In July 2000 it acquired the dairy and cheese products division of Unigate in London, in September 2004 it went on to acquire the Country Life butter brand from the English Butter Marketing Company. In July 2006 it acquired Express Dairies from Arla Foods for £33m, in October 2006, it sold the majority of its own label cheese business to First Milk, its Scottish equivalent, along with the creameries and factory that produce most of the products concerned. On 6 November 2014, Dairy Crest announced a big slump in profits, the sale was approved by the Competition and Markets Authority on 19 October 2015, and the sale was completed on 26 December 2015. The sale included the Frijj brand, and four dairies, the company supplies cheese, spreads and drinks. Cheese brands include Cathedral City, Davidstow Cheddar and Wexford, spread brands include Clover, Country Life, St. Hubert, Utterly Butterly, Vitalite and Willow. Drink brands include Country Life Milk, spread production is consolidated at Kirkby
7.
Ford Transit
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The Ford Transit is a range of light commercial vehicles produced by Ford since 1965. Sold primarily as a van, the Transit is also built as a passenger van, minibus, cutaway van chassis. Over eight million Transit have been sold, making it the third best-selling van of all time and have been produced across four basic platform generations, while initially designed for European consumption, the Transit is now produced in Asia, North America, and Europe for worldwide buyers. As of 2016, the Transit is the van in the United States. The Transit drives Fords 57 percent share of the van market in the US. Unlike the British-built Transit family, the first production Ford to wear the Transit badge was a van built in Fords Köln plant in Germany and it was introduced in 1953 as FK1000 with a 1. 3-litre inline-four engine from the contemporary Taunus. In 1955 the engine capacity was enlarged to 1.5 litres, from 1961, this vehicle was called the Ford Taunus Transit. Production of this model ceased in 1965, the German vehicle was not widely exported, and the Mark 1 tag has commonly been applied, retrospectively, to the 1965 to 1978 British model. Fords own historical look back at Transit production, published for the launch of the 1994 model and this article attempts to make mention of all the common naming systems. Transits have also produced in Fords Genk factory in Belgium. Transits were produced in Amsterdam for the market from the mid-1970s until the end of 1981. This factory had ample capacity, since the Ford Transcontinental produced there had little success, although the Transit sold well in the Netherlands, it was not enough to save the factory, which closed in December 1981. In a UK market segment then dominated by the Bedford CA, Fords Thames competitor, because of its restricted load area, Ford switched to a front-engined configuration, as did the 1950s by Bedford with their well-regarded CA series vans. Most of the Transits mechanical components were adapted from Fords car range of the time, another key to the Transits success was the sheer number of different body styles, panel vans in long and short wheelbase forms, pick-up truck, minibuses, crew-cabs to name but a few. The engines used in the UK were the Essex V4 for the version in 1.7 L and 2.0 L capacities. By using relatively short V-4 engines Ford were able to minimise the additional length necessitated to place the engine ahead of the driver. Another popular development under the bonnet was the equipping of the van with an alternator at time when the UK market competitors expected buyers to be content with a dynamo, a 43 bhp diesel engine sourced from Perkins was also offered. As this engine was too long to fit under the Transits stubby nose, the underpowered Perkins proved unpopular, and was replaced by Fords own York unit in 1974
8.
Uniq plc
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Uniq plc was a British food manufacturer. Listed on the London Stock Exchange and once a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, it was taken over by Irish foods conglomerate Greencore in 2011. The company was formed in 1959 by the merger of the UKs largest dairy products company United Dairies, with Cow & Gate, earlier known as the West Surrey Central Dairy Company, forming Unigate. On merger, aside from its extensive milk home delivery network, its range of products included Cow & Gate baby foods. It also developed St Ivel cheese spreads and Utterly Butterly, in 1963 Unigate acquired Midland Counties Dairies, but as milk consumption levelled and then started to decline in the 1960s, it began diversifying into non-dairy businesses. It began by buying up grocery stores and restaurants, and by the 1970s bought supermarket chain Kibbys, Quids-In clothing shops, Uni-Wash laundrettes, and some Kentucky Fried Chicken franchises. In 1973 it acquired Scot Bowyers, a company, in 1975 United States-based Italian cheese manufacturer Frigo. In 1977, dairyman John Clement became CEO and chairman, to stop the decline in the dairy business, he sold 75% of its dairy manufacturing businesses to the nationalised company the Milk Marketing Board for £87 million. After paying off debt, Unigate acquired,1981, moving company Giltspur, Turners Turkeys, US-based Mexican food chain Casa Bonita 1984, poultry processor, J. P. By the end of the decade, despite Unigate remaining the UKs biggest milk supplier, with losses mounting and debt rising, Clement was replaced in both board positions by the end of 1991. In the following decade, Unigate focused on food and distribution, selling off non-core and unprofitable businesses, half of this came through the £332 million sale of its share in Nutricia, the holding company that owned the Cow & Gate brand. The company also bought brands to supplement its new direction, spending £400 million on French firms Prodipal, a maker of yogurts and desserts, and Vedial, a maker of spreads. In September 1996 Unigate paid £77.25 million for the UK and Italian margarine and spreads business of Kraft Foods International, in May 1998 the company attempted an unsuccessful £1.59 billion takeover of diversified conglomerate Hillsdown Holdings. In February 1999 the company did acquire Fisher Quality Foods, a UK supplier of sauces, dressings, in the meantime, Hillsdown under shareholder pressure had begun a break-up, spinning off its chilled convenience food subsidiary as Terranova. In March 1999 Unigate initiated a hostile £228.5 million takeover bid for Terranova, but by the late 1990s, the decline in doorstep deliveries and price pressure from supermarkets led to mounting losses, and in 2000 the milk and cheese division was sold to Dairy Crest. On completion of the sale, the changed its name to Uniq in July 2000. In 2001, it demerged Wincanton, its logistics subsidiary, by way of a public offering. It sold its business in 2002 to raise money to concentrate on the convenience foods market
9.
Wales & Edwards
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Wales & Edwards was a British manufacturer of milk floats based in Harlescott, Shrewsbury. They were particularly known for their three wheelers. It was one of the oldest milk float manufacturers lasting from the early 1940s to the early 1990s, in 1989, the company was acquired by Smith Electric Vehicles. Major customers included United Dairies and in the years, Express Dairies. The basic design evolved throughout W&Es existence before finally ending its days as the Rangemaster, the company began life as a garage which acted as an agency for Morris and Wolseley cars. In the early 1940s, they serviced cars and sold petrol and they also worked on parts for Spitfire aircraft, and the workforce was swelled by a number of Italian prisoners of war during this period. The company diversified once hostilities had ceased, and Mervyn Morris produced designs for an electric vehicle. Staples such as bread and milk were delivered in parts of the country by horse and cart. Roddington Dairy was the first to order a vehicle, which was delivered to them in early 1951, in 1951, United Dairies circulated a specification for a milk delivery vehicle to a number of potential manufacturers, who were asked to produce prototypes. W&E were assisted in this by Mickleover Transport, a subsidiary of United Dairies, the prototype was tested, and two significant changes were made before production started. The transmission was replaced with a design, for which Mickleover obtained a patent. By 1953, some 700 were in service, and W&E were able to make available to other customers. United Dairies placed an order for a further 1,250 vehicles in mid-1953, the vehicle was a 3-wheeled design, with a single wheel at the front, steered by a tiller, and two powered wheels at the back. The turning circle was just 18 feet, and the motor had a drive to a bevel shaft. This gave good starting performance, even there was snow or ice on the road surface. Batteries were located beneath the seat, and the 29-volt motor was controlled by a Sharp contactor. According to The Transport Museum, Wythall, which has amassed a collection of milk floats. Despite its limited protection for the driver, it was an immediate success, the 3-wheeled design was the mainstay of W&Es production, with United Dairies eventually ordering over 3,000 more
10.
Vehicle
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A vehicle is a mobile machine that transports people or cargo. Typical vehicles include wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles, railed vehicles, Land vehicles are classified broadly by what is used to apply steering and drive forces against the ground, wheeled, tracked, railed or skied. ISO 3833-1977 is the standard, also used in legislation, for road vehicles types, terms. Boats were used between 4000 BC-3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean, there is evidence of camel pulled wheeled vehicles about 3000–4000 BC. Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, in 200 CE, Ma Jun built a south-pointing chariot, a vehicle with an early form of guidance system. Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages, the earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau dating from around 1350. In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, the line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope and was operated by human or animal power, through a treadwheel. 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in 1769. In Russia, in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern features such as a flywheel, brake, gear box and bearings, however and it was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817. 1903 Wright brothers flew the first controlled, powered aircraft 1907 First helicopters Gyroplane no.1, there are over 1 billion bicycles in use worldwide. In 2002 there were an estimated 590 million cars and 205 million motorcycles in service in the world, at least 500 million Chinese Flying Pigeon bicycles have been made, more than an other single model of vehicle. The most-produced model of vehicle is the Honda Super Cub motorcycle. The most-produced car model is the Toyota Corolla, with at least 35 million made by 2010, by far, most vehicles use wheels which employ the principle of rolling to enable displacement with very little rolling friction. It is essential that a vehicle have a source of energy to drive it, energy can be extracted from the surrounding environment, as in the case of a sailboat, a solar-powered car or a streetcar. Energy can also be stored, in any form, provided it can be converted on demand, the most common type of energy source is fuel. Batteries also facilitate the use of motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures. Like fuel, batteries store energy and can cause burns
11.
Delivery (commerce)
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Delivery is the process of transporting goods from a source location to a predefined destination. Cargo are primarily delivered via roads and railroads on land, shipping lanes on the sea, the general process of delivering goods is known as distribution. The study of processes for delivery and disposition of goods. Postal, courier, and relocation services also deliver goods for commercial, there are many variations on this model for specific types of goods and modes of sale. Products sold via catalogue or the Internet may be delivered directly from the manufacturer or warehouse to the consumers home, small manufacturers may deliver their products directly to retail stores without warehousing. Some manufacturers maintain factory outlets which serve as both warehouse and retail store, selling directly to consumers at wholesale prices. Building, construction, landscaping and like materials are delivered to the consumer by a contractor as part of another service. Some highly perishable or hazardous goods, such as used in medical imaging, are delivered directly from manufacturer to consumer. Home delivery is available for fast food and other convenience products. Sometimes home delivery of goods is possible. A milk float is a battery electric vehicle, specifically designed for the delivery of fresh milk. A new form of delivery is emerging on the horizon of the internet age, in this concept an individual not necessarily contracted by the vendor performs the delivery of goods to the destination. Sometimes, private companies will also deliver consumer goods on a regular basis for companies like E-commerce businesses. The consumer demand for Supermarkets to deliver to their door created the need for a temperature controlled vehicle on 3. 5T chassis. Vehicles are often specialized to different types of goods. Armored cars, dump trucks and concrete mixers are examples of vehicles specialized for delivery of specific types of goods, on the sea, merchant ships come in various forms, such as cargo ships, oil tankers and fishing boats. Freight aircraft are used to deliver cargo, often, passenger vehicles are used for delivery of goods. These include buses, vans, pick-ups, cars, motorcycles and bicycles, a significant amount of freight is carried in the cargo holds of passenger ships and aircraft
12.
Milk
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Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
13.
Battery electric vehicle
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A battery electric vehicle, battery-only electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines for propulsion and they derive all power from battery packs and thus have no internal combustion engine, fuel cell, or fuel tank. BEVs include bicycles, scooters, skateboards, rail cars, watercraft, forklifts, buses, trucks, cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric vehicles passed the one million unit milestone in September 2016. PHEVs with a series powertrain are also called range-extended electric vehicles, such as the Chevrolet Volt, in China, plug-in electric vehicles, together with hybrid electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles. The concept of electric vehicles is to use charged batteries on board vehicles for propulsion. Battery electric cars are becoming more and more attractive with the advancement of new technology that have higher power and energy density. BEVs include automobiles, light trucks, and neighborhood electric vehicles, two of these buses were used for the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. A similar bus was operated in Napa Valley, California for 14 months ending in April,2004, the 2008 Beijing Olympics used a fleet of 50 electric buses, which have a range of 130 km with the air conditioning on. They use Lithium-ion batteries, and consume about 1 kW·h/mi, the buses were designed by the Beijing Institute of Technology and built by the Jinghua Coach Co. Ltd. The batteries are replaced with fully charged ones at the station to allow 24-hour operation of the buses. In France, the bus electric phenomenon is in development, PVI, a medium company located in the Paris region, is one of the leader of the market with its brand Gepebus. In the United States, the first battery-electric, fast-charge bus has been in operation in Pomona, the Proterra EcoRide BE35 uses lithium-titanate batteries and is able to fast-charge in less than 10 minutes. In 2014, the first production model all-electric school bus was delivered to the Kings Canyon Unified School District in California’s San Joaquin Valley, the bus was one of four the district ordered. This battery electric bus, which has 4 sodium nickel batteries, is the first modern electric school bus approved for student transportation by any state. The same technology is used to power the Mountain View Community Shuttles and this technology was supported by the California Energy Commission, and the shuttle program is being supported by Google. The buses will also be built in the United States and Finland, Tindo is an all-electric bus from Adelaide, Australia. The Tindo is made by Designline International in New Zealand and gets its electricity from a solar PV system on Adelaides central bus station, rides are zero-fare as part of Adelaides public transport system. Proterras EcoRide BE35 transit bus, called the Ecoliner by Foothill Transit in West Covina, California, is a duty, fast charge
14.
Wagon
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A wagon is a heavy four-wheeled vehicle pulled by draught animals or on occasion by humans, used for transporting goods, commodities, agricultural materials, supplies and sometimes people. Wagons are immediately distinguished from carts and from lighter four-wheeled vehicles primarily for carrying people, wagons are usually pulled by animals such as horses, mules or oxen. They may be pulled by one animal or by several, often in pairs or teams, however, there are examples of human-propelled wagons, such as mining corfs. A wagon was called a wain and one who builds or repairs wagons is a wainwright. More specifically, a wain is a type of horse- or oxen-drawn, load-carrying vehicle, however, a two-wheeled haywain would be a hay cart, as opposed to a carriage. Wain is also a term for a chariot. Wain can also be a verb, to carry or deliver, a person who drives wagons is called a wagoner, a teamster, a bullocky, a muleskinner, or simply a driver. The exact name and terminology used is dependent on the design or shape of the wagon. If low and sideless may be called a dray, trolley or float, when traveling over long distances and periods, wagons may be covered with cloth to protect their contents from the elements, these are covered wagons. If it has a permanent top enclosing it, it may be called a van, many earlier designs required a very large turning radius, however, shrinking the width of the bed means decreasing the size of the load. As this is a problem that carts do not face, this factor, combined with their lighter weight, the general solutions to this problem involved several modifications to the front-axle assembly. The front axle assembly of a wagon consists of an axle, a pair of wheels, a round plate with a hole in its centre is located on the underside of the wagon. The plate on the wagon, in turn, sits on the plate on the axle between the wheels and this arrangement allows the axle and wheels to turn horizontally. The pin and hole arrangement could be reversed, the horse harness is attached to this assembly. This technique eventually led to further designs well-adapted to narrow areas, wagons have served numerous purposes, with numerous corresponding designs. As with motorized vehicles, some are designed to serve as functions as possible, while others are highly specialized. This section will discuss a broad overview of the classes of wagons, for details on specific types of wagons. Farm wagons are built for general usage in an agricultural or rural setting
15.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
16.
Dairy
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A dairy is a business enterprise established for the harvesting or processing of animal milk – mostly from cows or goats, but also from buffaloes, sheep, horses, or camels – for human consumption. A dairy is located on a dedicated dairy farm or in a section of a multi-purpose farm that is concerned with the harvesting of milk. For example, in the United States, the dairy farm is commonly called a dairy. The building or farm area where milk is harvested from the cow is called a milking parlor or parlor. The farm area where milk is stored in tanks is known as the farms milk house. Milk is then hauled to a plant, also referred to as a dairy. In New Zealand, farm areas for milk harvesting are also called milking parlours, as in the United States, sometimes milking sheds are referred to by their type, such as herring bone shed or pit parlour. Parlour design has evolved from simple barns or sheds to large structures in which the workflow is very efficiently handled. This on-site processing is a method of producing specialist milk products. In New Zealand English the singular use of the word dairy almost exclusively refers to a corner shop and this usage is historical as such shops were a common place for the public to buy milk products. As an attributive, the word refers to milk-based products, derivatives and processes. A dairy farm produces milk and a dairy factory processes it into a variety of dairy products and these establishments constitute the global dairy industry, a component of the food industry. Milk producing animals have been domesticated for thousands of years, initially, they were part of the subsistence farming that nomads engaged in. As the community moved about the country, their animals accompanied them, protecting and feeding the animals were a big part of the symbiotic relationship between the animals and the herders. In the more recent past, people in agricultural societies owned dairy animals that they milked for domestic and local consumption, the animals might serve multiple purposes. In this case the animals were normally milked by hand and the size was quite small. These tasks were performed by a dairymaid or dairyman, the word dairy harkens back to Middle English dayerie, deyerie, from deye and further back to Old English dæge. With industrialisation and urbanisation, the supply of milk became an industry, with specialised breeds of cattle being developed for dairy
17.
Supermarket
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A supermarket, a large form of the traditional grocery store, is a self-service shop offering a wide variety of food and household products, organized into aisles. It is larger and has a wider selection than a grocery store. The traditional supermarket occupies a large amount of space, usually on a single level. It is usually situated near an area in order to be convenient to consumers. The basic appeal is the availability of a selection of goods under a single roof. Other advantages include ease of parking and frequently the convenience of shopping hours that extend into the evening or even 24 hours of day, Supermarkets usually allocate large budgets to advertising, typically through newspapers. They also present elaborate in-shop displays of products, the shops are usually part of corporate chains that own or control other supermarkets located nearby—even transnationally—thus increasing opportunities for economies of scale. Supermarkets typically are supplied by the centres of their parent companies. Supermarkets usually offer products at low prices by using their buying power to buy goods from manufacturers at lower prices than smaller stores can. They also minimise financing costs by paying for goods at least 30 days after receipt, certain products are very occasionally sold as loss leaders, that is, with negative profit margins so as to attract shoppers to their store. There is some debate as to the effectiveness of this tactic, to maintain a profit, supermarkets make up for the lower margins by a higher overall volume of sales, and with the sale of higher-margin items bought by the intended higher volume of shoppers. Customers usually shop by placing their selected merchandise into shopping carts or baskets, a larger full-service supermarket combined with a department store is sometimes known as a hypermarket. If the eatery in a supermarket is substantial enough, the facility may be called a grocerant, also, most foods and merchandise did not come in individually wrapped consumer-sized packages, so an assistant had to measure out and wrap the precise amount desired by the consumer. This also offered opportunities for interaction, many regarded this style of shopping as a social occasion. These practices were by nature very labor-intensive and therefore also quite expensive, the shopping process was slow, as the number of customers who could be attended to at one time was limited by the number of staff employed in the store. The concept of a food market relying on large economies of scale was developed by Vincent Astor. The expectation was that customers would come from great distances, but in the end even attracting people from ten blocks away was difficult, the concept of a self-service grocery store was developed by entrepreneur Clarence Saunders and his Piggly Wiggly stores. His first store opened in 1916, Saunders was awarded a number of patents for the ideas he incorporated into his stores
18.
Grocery store
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A grocery store is a retail store that primarily sells food. A grocer is a seller of food. Grocery stores often offer non-perishable food that is packaged in cans, bottles and boxes, with also having fresh produce, butchers, delis. Large grocery stores that stock significant amounts of products, such as clothing. Some large supermarkets also include a pharmacy, and customer service, redemption, in the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom, supermarkets and convenience stores are sometimes described as grocery businesses, or simply grocers. Some grocery stores form the centerpiece of a complex that includes other facilities, such as gas stations. This setup is especially common in the United Kingdom, with chains such as Tesco. Some groceries specialize in the foods of a nationality or culture, such as Italian, Polish. These stores are known as ethnic markets and may serve as gathering places for immigrants. In many cases, the range of products carried by larger supermarkets has reduced the need for such speciality stores. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the growing season. Beginning as early as the 14th century, a grocer was a dealer in dry goods such as spices, peppers, sugar. These items were bought in bulk, hence the term grocer from the French grossier meaning wholesaler, as increasing numbers of staple foodstuffs became available in cans and other less-perishable packaging, the trade expanded its province. Today, grocers deal in a range of staple food-stuffs including such perishables as meats, produce. These trading posts evolved into larger retail businesses known as general stores and these facilities generally dealt only in dry goods such as flour, dry beans, baking soda, and canned foods. Many rural areas still contain general stores that sell goods ranging from cigars to imported napkins, traditionally, general stores have offered credit to their customers, a system of payment that works on trust rather than modern credit cards. This allowed farm families to buy staples until their harvest could be sold, the first self-service grocery store, Piggly Wiggly, was opened in 1916 in Memphis, Tennessee by Clarence Saunders, an inventor and entrepreneur. The early supermarkets began as chains of grocers shops, a small grocery store may also compete by locating in a mixed commercial-residential area close to, and convenient for, its customers
19.
Filling station
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A filling station is a facility that sells fuel and engine lubricants for motor vehicles. The most common fuels sold in the 2010s are gasoline and diesel fuel, Fuel dispensers are also known as bowsers, petrol pumps or gas pumps. Also, many filling stations incorporate a convenience store, which like most other buildings generally have electricity sockets, the convenience stores found in filling stations typically sell candy, soda/pop, snacks and, in some cases, a small selection of grocery items. Some also sell propane or butane and have added shops to their primary business, conversely, some chain stores, such as supermarkets, discount superstores, warehouse clubs, or traditional convenience stores, have provided filling stations on the premises. The term gas station is used in the United States, Canada and the English-speaking Caribbean. In some regions of Canada, the term gas bar is used, elsewhere in the English-speaking world, mainly in the Commonwealth, the fuel is known as petrol, and the term petrol station or petrol pump is used. In the United Kingdom and South Africa garage is still commonly used, similarly, in Australia, the term service station describes any petrol station. In Japanese English, it is called a gasoline stand, in Indian English, it is called a petrol pump or a petrol bunk. In some regions of America and Australia, many filling stations have a mechanic on duty, latest figures show there are now 8,455 petrol stations in the UK down from about 18,000 in 1992 and a peak of around 40,000 in the mid-1960s. The USA had 114,474 filling stations in 2012, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, in Canada, the number is on the decline. As of December 2008,12,684 were in operation, significantly down from about 20,000 stations recorded in 1989 In Japan, in Germany, the number dropped down to 14,300 in 2011. In China, according to different reports, the number is about 95,000 to 97,000. India –43,000 Russia - there were about 25,000 gas stations in the Russian Federation In Argentina, as of 2014, the first places that sold gasoline were pharmacies, as a side business. The first filling station was the city pharmacy in Wiesloch, Germany, since 2008 the Bertha Benz Memorial Route commemorates this event. The increase in automobile ownership after Henry Ford started to sell automobiles that the class could afford resulted in an increased demand for filling stations. The worlds first purpose built gas station was constructed in St. Louis, the second gas station was constructed in 1907 by Standard Oil of California in Seattle, Washington at what is now Pier 32. Reighards Gas Station in Altoona, Pennsylvania claims that it dates from 1909 and is the oldest existing gas station in the United States, early on, they were known to motorists as filling stations. The first drive-in filling station, Gulf Refining Company, opened to the public in Pittsburgh on December 1,1913 at Baum Blvd & St Clairs Street
20.
Convenience store
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In some jurisdictions, corner stores are licensed to sell alcohol, typically beer and wine. Such stores may also offer money order and wire transfer services and they differ from general stores and village shops in that they are not in a rural location and are used as a convenient supplement to larger stores. A convenience store may be part of a station, so customers can purchase goods conveniently while filling their vehicle with fuel. It may be located alongside a road, in an urban area, near a railway or railroad station. In some countries, convenience stores have long shopping hours, some remaining open 24 hours, however, convenience stores make up for this loss by having longer open hours, serving more locations, and having shorter cashier lines. A convenience store may also be called a c-store, Cold Store, party store, small store, bodega, mini-market, mini-mart. Various types exist, for example, liquor stores, mini-markets, typically junk food, lottery tickets, newspapers and magazines are sold although merchandise varies widely from store to store. Unless the outlet is a store, the range of alcohol beverages is likely to be limited or non-existent. Most stores carry cigarettes and other tobacco products, varying degrees of food and grocery supplies are usually available, from household products, to prepackaged foods like sandwiches and frozen burritos. Automobile-related items such as oil, maps and car kits may be sold. Often toiletries and other products are stocked, as well as feminine hygiene. Stores may carry apparel, home furnishings, and CDs and DVDs, some of these stores also offer money orders and wire transfer services. Convenience stores that are near fishing destinations may carry live fishing bait as well as fishing equipment, Convenience stores may also carry small appliances as well as other household items such as coolers and back packs. Convenience stores have also known to carry candles, stationery, artwork. Many convenience stores offer food ready to eat, such as breakfast sandwiches, throughout Europe convenience stores now sell fresh French bread. A process of freezing parbaked bread allows easy shipment and baking in-store, some stores have a delicatessen counter, offering custom-made sandwiches and baguettes. Others have racks offering fresh delivered or baked doughnuts from local doughnut shops, some stores have a self-service microwave oven for heating purchased food. In the United States, some fast food chains offer a counter in convenience stores, instead of cooking food in the store, these counters offer a limited menu of items delivered several times a day from a local branch of the restaurant
21.
Press release
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Typically, they are mailed, faxed, or e-mailed to assignment editors and journalists at newspapers, magazines, radio stations, online media, television stations or television networks. The first modern press releases were created by Ivy Lee, lees agency was working with the Pennsylvania Railroad at the time of the 1906 Atlantic City train wreck. Ivy Lee and the company collaborated to issue the first press release directly to journalists, before other versions of the story, or suppositions, could be spread among them and reported. He used a release, in addition to inviting journalists. Public relations pioneer Edward Bernays later refined the creation and use of press releases, technically, anything deliberately sent to a reporter or media source is considered a press release, it is information released by the act of being sent to the media. However, public relations professionals often follow a format that they believe is efficient. The format is supposed to help journalists separate press releases from other PR communication methods, generally, a PR body consists of 4 to 5 paragraphs with word limit ranging from 400 to 500. However, press releases can be anywhere from 300 to 800 words As the internet has gained prevalence the way journalists like to be approached has also changed. Kristen also recommends pitching writers directly over pitching editors saying, I’d recommend pitching the writer first, with an angle specific to their beat. If a case needs to be made to the editor, it can fare better coming from the writer, as an editor, I’m more likely to prioritize emails coming from those I have personal relationships with. These have been built over the years from the days when I was the writer presenting to my editors, starting a new relationship with me as an editor, the most successful pitches have been those offering high profile interviews or highly specific content, like an original guest contribution. Some of these structural elements include, Headline – used to grab the attention of journalists. Dateline – contains the date and usually the originating city of the press release. If the date listed is after the date that the information was sent to the media, then the sender is requesting a news embargo. Introduction – first paragraph in a release, that generally gives basic answers to the questions of who, what, when. Body – further explanation, statistics, background, or other details relevant to the news, boilerplate – generally a short about section, providing independent background on the issuing company, organization, or individual. Close – in North America, traditionally the symbol -30- appears after the boilerplate or body and before the contact information. A more modern equivalent has been the ### symbol, in other countries, other means of indicating the end of the release may be used, such as the text ends
22.
Petrol
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Gasoline or petrol, is a transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the distillation of petroleum. On average, a 42-gallon barrel of oil yields about 19 US gallons of gasoline when processed in an oil refinery. The characteristic of a gasoline blend to resist igniting too early is measured by its octane rating. Gasoline is produced in several grades of octane rating, sometimes, gasoline also contains ethanol as an alternative fuel, for economic or environmental reasons. Gasoline, as used worldwide in the vast number of combustion engines used in transport and industry, has a significant impact on the environment. Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted, as liquid and as vapors, from leakage and handling during production, transport and delivery, from tanks, from spills. As an example of efforts to control leakage, many storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect. Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens, Gasoline inhalation can produce an intense high, however the practice is thought to cause severe organ damage, including mental retardation. The first automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th century in Germany, the fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. With a boiling point near 85 °C, it was suited for early carburetors. The development of a spray nozzle carburetor enabled the use of less volatile fuels, further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early attempts were blocked by knocking. In the 1920s, antiknock compounds were introduced by Thomas Midgley Jr. and Boyd and this innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasoline. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, the 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems, Gasoline is the term that is used in North America to refer to the most popular automobile fuel. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first use to 1863, when it was spelled gasolene and it was never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as Cazeline and Gazeline. Variant spellings of gasoline had been used to refer to raw petroleum since the 16th century, Petrol is the preferred term in most Commonwealth countries
23.
Diesel fuel
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Diesel engines have found broad use as a result of higher thermodynamic efficiency and thus fuel efficiency. This is particularly noted where diesel engines are run at part-load, as their air supply is not throttled as in a petrol engine, to distinguish these types, petroleum-derived diesel is increasingly called petrodiesel. Ultra-low-sulfur diesel is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur contents, as of 2016, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in UK, Europe and North America is of a ULSD type. In the UK, diesel fuel for use is commonly abbreviated DERV, standing for diesel-engined road vehicle. In Australia diesel fuel is known as distillate, and in Indonesia, it is known as Solar. Diesel fuel originated from experiments conducted by German scientist and inventor Rudolf Diesel for his engine he invented in 1892. Diesel fuel is produced from various sources, the most common being petroleum, other sources include biomass, animal fat, biogas, natural gas, and coal liquefaction. Petroleum diesel, also called petrodiesel, or fossil diesel is the most common type of diesel fuel, synthetic diesel can be produced from any carbonaceous material, including biomass, biogas, natural gas, coal and many others. The raw material is gasified into synthesis gas, which after purification is converted by the Fischer–Tropsch process to a synthetic diesel, the process is typically referred to as biomass-to-liquid, gas-to-liquid or coal-to-liquid, depending on the raw material used. Paraffinic synthetic diesel generally has a content of sulfur and very low aromatics content, reducing unregulated emissions of toxic hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides. Fatty-acid methyl ester, more known as biodiesel, is obtained from vegetable oil or animal fats which have been transesterified with methanol. It can be produced from many types of oils, the most common being rapeseed oil in Europe, methanol can also be replaced with ethanol for the transesterification process, which results in the production of ethyl esters. FAME can be used pure in engines where the manufacturer approves such use, FAME as a fuel is specified in DIN EN14214 and ASTM D6751. Pure biodiesel has an energy content about 5–10% lower than petroleum diesel, the loss in power when using pure biodiesel is 5–7%. As FAME contains low levels of sulfur, the emissions of oxides and sulfates. Use of biodiesel also results in reductions of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, CO emissions using biodiesel are substantially reduced, on the order of 50% compared to most petrodiesel fuels. The exhaust emissions of particulate matter from biodiesel have been found to be 30% lower than overall particulate matter emissions from petrodiesel, the exhaust emissions of total hydrocarbons are up to 93% lower for biodiesel than diesel fuel. Biodiesel also may reduce risks associated with petroleum diesel
24.
Brush Traction
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In 1865, Henry Hughes, who was a timber merchant engineer, began building horse-drawn tramcars and railway rolling stock at the Falcon Works in Loughborough. His first company was known as the Hughess Locomotive & Tramway Engine Works Ltd, records are very sparse, but it seems that he began producing steam locomotives about 1867 for the Paris Exhibition. His main business, however, was tram engines, lightweight steam engines which drew passenger cars, among these was The Pioneer for the Swansea and Mumbles Railway. These were distinct from those tramcars where the boiler and mechanism was integral with the passenger car, amongst the first steam locomotives built there was Belmont, which ran on the Snailbeach District Railways, and three 2 ft 3 in gauge 0-4-0STs for the Corris Railway supplied in 1878. The Corris locomotives are said to have been works numbers 322,323 and 324, implying that the tram vehicles, in 1881 Hughes built two 3 ft gauge 0-4-0STs for the Liverpool Corporation Water Committee for use in the construction of the waterworks at Lake Vyrnwy in Wales. In 1881 the company ran into problems and in 1882 it was in receivership. Hughes departed, soon after, for New Zealand, where in collaboration with local engineer E. W Mills, late in 1882 the company reformed as the Falcon Engine & Car Works Ltd. and supplied three more locomotives of the same design for the railways at Vyrnwy. Again there are few records, but the factory remained busy with railway and tramway locomotives and rolling stock. Among these were tank locomotives for Ireland, Spain and the Azores, some were subcontracts from other firms, such as Kerr Stuart, at that time in Glasgow. In 1889 the assets were taken over by the Anglo-American Brush Electric Light Corporation and it then became known as the Brush Electrical Engineering Company. Between 1901 and 1905 the Brushmobile electric car was developed using a Vauxhall Motors engine, one of these six featured in the film Carry on Screaming. Nearly 100 buses, plus some lorries were built using French engines until 1907, in all, about 250 steam locomotives were built in addition to the tram engines. Production finished after World War I and the company concentrated on transport-related electrical equipment, including tramcars, trolleybuses, in World War II Brush Coachworks diversified into aircraft production, building 335 de Havilland Dominies for the Royal Air Force and Fleet Air Arm. Wing sections were built for Lancaster bombers and Hampden fuselages were overhauled, in 1952 the coachworks was closed and the goodwill and patents were bought by neighbouring Willowbrook. Close to Derby and its workshops, it retained its contacts with the railway. Acquired by Heenan & Froude in 1947, it was merged with W. G. Bagnall to produce diesel locomotives, in 1951, the company Brush Bagnall Traction Limited was formed. When British Railways began to replace its fleet of steam engines, in 1957 it and Brush Electrical Machines were bought up by Hawker Siddeley to become the Brush Electrical Engineering Company Limited. As part of Hawker Siddeley Electric Power Group it then passed to BTR plc and it is now part of FKI Energy Technologies
25.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
26.
Wolverhampton
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Wolverhampton is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands, England. At the 2011 census, it had a population of 249,470, the demonym for people from the city is Wulfrunian. Historically part of Staffordshire, the city is named after Wulfrun, prior to the Norman Conquest, the areas name appears only as variants of Heantune or Hamtun, the prefix Wulfrun or similar appearing in 1070 and thereafter. Alternatively, the city may have earned its name from Wulfereēantūn after the Mercian King. The variation Wolveren Hampton is seen in records, e. g. in 1381. The city grew initially as a market town specialising in the woollen trade, in the Industrial Revolution, it became a major centre for coal mining, steel production, lock making and the manufacture of cars and motorcycles. The economy of the city is based on engineering, including a large aerospace industry. A local tradition states that King Wulfhere of Mercia founded an abbey of St Mary at Wolverhampton in 659, the Mercians and West Saxons claimed a decisive victory and the field of Woden is recognised by numerous place names in Wednesfield. In 985, King Ethelred the Unready granted lands at a place referred to as Heantun to Lady Wulfrun by royal charter and this became the site for the current St. Peters Church. A statue of Lady Wulfrun, sculpted by Sir Charles Wheeler, Wolverhampton is recorded in the Domesday Book in 1086 as being in the Hundred of Seisdon and the county of Staffordshire. The lords of the manor are listed as the canons of St Mary, with the tenant-in-chief being Samson, Wolverhampton at this date is a large settlement of fifty households. In 1179, there is mention of a market held in the town and this charter for a weekly market held on a Wednesday was eventually granted on 4 February 1258 by Henry III. From the 16th century onwards, Wolverhampton became home to a number of industries including lock and key making and iron. Wolverhampton suffered two Great Fires, the first in April 1590, and the second in September 1696, both fires started in todays Salop Street. The first fire lasted for five days and left nearly 700 people homeless and this second fire led to the purchase of the first fire engine within the city in September 1703. There is also evidence that Wolverhampton may have been the location of the first working Newcomen Steam Engine in 1712. In Victorian times, Wolverhampton grew to be a town mainly due to the huge amount of industry that occurred as a result of the abundance of coal. The remains of this wealth can be seen in houses such as Wightwick Manor and The Mount
27.
AJS
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AJS was the name used for cars and motorcycles made by the Wolverhampton, England, company A. J. Stevens & Co. Ltd, from 1909 to 1931, by then holding 117 motorcycle world records, Joe Stevens, father of Harry, George, Albert John, and Joe Stevens Junior, was an engineer who owned the Stevens Screw Company Ltd, in Wednesfield, near Wolverhampton. Stevens had a reputation for quality engineering before the company built its first motorcycle in 1897, using a Mitchell single-cylinder four-stroke imported from the USA. A new company, A J Stevens & Co, was founded, with premises in Retreat Street, Wolverhampton, to manufacture motorcycles, Jack Stevens came 16th on AJSs official entry, one place behind private owner J. D. Corke on an identical machine. Albert John Stevens lent his initials to the company, but it was a family concern, in 1922 for example, Harry Stevens acted as managing director, George Stevens as commercial manager, Joe Stevens Junior managing the experimental section and Jack Stevens as production manager. AJS did not contest the 1912 TT as it was busy satisfying the demand for its products, with the Junior limit raised to 350 cc for 1914, the AJS motorcycle had grown to 349 cc, with four-speed gears and chain final drive. AJS won first, second, third, fourth and sixth place in the Junior 1914 Isle of Man TT race that year, the old Screw Company’s facilities could not cope with the demand and with the company reconstituted as A. J. The 349 cc machine was most in demand but the company produced an 800 cc V-twin. This kept AJS busy until Ministry of Munitions restrictions were lifted in January 1919, when production of the 350 resumed in 1920, it was much improved. The side-valve engine was replaced by a new design that produced 10 bhp. It also had internal expanding brakes and chain primary drive, cyril Williams won the first post war 1920 Isle of Man TT Junior race on his 350, even though he had to push the motorcycle home for almost four miles after a breakdown. AJS took the first four places in the 1921 Isle of Man TT and this was the first time a 350 had won the 500 cc Senior TT race. In 1922 Manxman Tom Sheard won the Junior on an AJS, with G Grinton, also on an AJS, the 1922 machine was a classic design that would become famous as the ‘Big Port’ on account of its large-diameter exhaust port and pipe. The OHV350 would be the mainstay of the racing efforts until 1927. At this time, the company produced a range of other models ranging from 250 to 1,000 cc. These were generally given a number, plus letter to denote the year of manufacture. Several of these were intended to one of the 12 AJS sidecars also on offer, including sports, touring. Jimmy Simpson rode a 350 to third place in the Junior TT and won races in Europe, in 1929 there were again two machines with an overhead cam, this time the 349 cc M7 and the 498 cc M10
28.
Liquidation
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In United Kingdom and United States law and business, liquidation is the process by which a company is brought to an end, and the assets and property of the company are redistributed. Liquidation is also referred to as winding-up or dissolution, although dissolution technically refers to the last stage of liquidation. Liquidation may either be compulsory or voluntary, an order will not generally be made if the purpose of the application is to enforce payment of a debt which is bona fide disputed. A just and equitable winding-up enables the grounds to subject the strict legal rights of the shareholders to equitable considerations, an order might be made where the majority shareholders deprive the minority of their right to appoint and remove their own director. Once liquidation commences, dispositions of the property are generally void. Upon hearing the application, the court may dismiss the petition. The court may dismiss the application if the petitioner unreasonably refrains from a course of action. The court may appoint a receiver, and one or more liquidators. Separate meetings of creditors and contributories may decide to nominate a person for the appointment of liquidator, voluntary liquidation occurs when the members of a company resolve to voluntarily wind up its affairs and dissolve. Voluntary liquidation begins when the company passes the resolution, and the company will cease to carry on business at that time. A creditors’ voluntary liquidation is a designed to allow an insolvent company to close voluntarily. The decision to liquidate is made by a resolution. If a limited company’s liabilities outweigh its assets, or the company cannot pay its bills when they fall due, if the company is solvent, and the members have made a statutory declaration of solvency, the liquidation will proceed as a members voluntary winding-up. In that case the general meeting will appoint the liquidator, if not, the liquidation will proceed as a creditors voluntary winding-up, and a meeting of creditors will be called, to which the directors must report on the companys affairs. Where a voluntary liquidation proceeds as a voluntary liquidation, a liquidation committee may be appointed. In addition, the term liquidation is sometimes used when a company wants to divest itself of some of its assets and this is used, for instance, when a retail establishment wants to close stores. They will sell to a company specializes in store liquidation instead of attempting to run a store closure sale themselves. The liquidator will normally have a duty to ascertain whether any misconduct has been conducted by those in control of the company which has caused prejudice to the body of creditors
29.
Hanley, Staffordshire
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Hanley, in Staffordshire, England, is one of the six major towns that joined together to form the city of Stoke-on-Trent in 1910. Hanley was the one of the six towns to be a county borough before the merger. Hanley was incorporated as a borough in 1857 and became a county borough with the passage of the Local Government Act 1888. It is now the main shopping centre, the Potteries Shopping Centre containing many high street chain stores. The name Hanley comes from haer lea, meaning high meadow”, at one time, there were many coal mines in North Staffordshire. Hanley Deep Pit was opened in 1854 and it was the deepest pit in the North Staffordshire coalfield, reaching a depth of 1500 feet. At its peak in the 1930s it employed some 2000 men, the pit was closed in 1962 but much of the headgear and spoilheaps were left in situ. Then, in the 1980s, the site was cleared, landscaped and converted into Hanley Forest Park. Coal miners in the Hanley and Longton area ignited the 1842 General Strike, the 1986 Stoke-on-Trent Garden Festival led to the reclamation of large areas of land west of the city centre area – including the former Shelton steelworks, which had been derelict since 1978. Ironically, when the Garden Festival closed, the land remained derelict for some time, before being re-developed partly into public parkland and partly for retail, in 2013, a brand new and modern bus station opened in Hanley. This replaced the bus station, on Lichfield Street. The new bus station is the first stage in the project which will see the previous bus station demolished, and replaced with a new centre consisting of shops, restaurants. The new bus station is smaller than its predecessor, and has various routes in. Access to the station is controlled by doors, at both the pedestrian entrance and coach bays. The new bus station links Hanley with towns in North Staffordshire, as well as Buxton, Crewe, most services are run by First Potteries, though there are a number of smaller independent operators, such as Wardle Transport, BakerBus, and Arriva Midlands. In addition, National Express Coaches connect Hanley with destinations including London, Birmingham, Liverpool and Manchester, the station survived for 100 years – it was closed in 1964, as part of the Beeching Axe, and the land is now a car park. Hanley is also connected to the network, it meets the Trent and Mersey Canal at Festival Park. On 1 April 1910, the town was federated into the county borough of Stoke-on-Trent, by 1925 the area was granted city status
30.
Stoke-on-Trent
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Stoke-on-Trent is a city and unitary authority area in Staffordshire, England, with an area of 36 square miles. Together with the boroughs of Newcastle-under-Lyme and Staffordshire Moorlands, it is part of North Staffordshire. Stoke is polycentric, having formed by a federation of six towns in the early 20th century. It took its name from Stoke-upon-Trent, where the town hall, Hanley is the primary commercial centre. The four other towns are Burslem, Tunstall, Longton and Fenton, Stoke-on-Trent is the home of the pottery industry in England and is commonly known as the Potteries. Formerly a primarily industrial conurbation, it is now a centre for service industries, the name Stoke is taken from the town of Stoke-upon-Trent, the original ancient parish, with other settlements being chapelries. Stoke derives from the Old English stoc, a word that at first meant little more than place and these variant meanings included dairy farm, secondary or dependent place or farm, summer pasture, crossing place, meeting place and place of worship. It is not known which of these was intended here, because Stoke was such a common name for a settlement, some kind of distinguishing affix was usually added later, in this case the name of the river. The motto of Stoke-on-Trent is Vis Unita Fortior which can be translated as, United Strength is Stronger, or Strength United is the More Powerful and it was not until 1 April 1910 that the Six Towns were brought together. The county borough of Hanley, the boroughs of Burslem, Longton. The combined borough took the town of Stoke. In 1919, the borough proposed to further and annex the neighbouring borough of Newcastle-under-Lyme. This never took place, due to objections from Newcastle Corporation. A further attempt was made in 1930, with the promotion of the Stoke-on-Trent Extension Bill, ultimately, Wolstanton was instead added to Newcastle-under-Lyme in 1932. The borough was granted city status in 1925, with a Lord Mayor from 1928. The decision was overturned, however, when an approach was made to King George V. The public announcement of the elevation to city status was made by the King during a visit to Stoke on 4 June 1925, the county borough was abolished in 1974, and Stoke became a non-metropolitan district of Staffordshire. Its status as a unitary authority was restored on 1 April 1997, for Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS3 region
31.
Metropolitan-Vickers
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Metropolitan-Vickers, Metrovick, or Metrovicks, was a British heavy electrical engineering company of the early-to-mid 20th century formerly known as British Westinghouse. Metrovick holds a place in history as the builders of the first commercial transistor computer, the Metrovick 950, and the first British axial-flow jet engine, the Metropolitan-Vickers F.2. Their factory in Trafford Park, Manchester, was for most of the 20th century one of the biggest and most important heavy engineering facilities in Britain, in 1917 a holding company was formed to try to find financing to buy the companys properties. On 15 March 1919, Docker agreed terms with Vickers, for Vickers to purchase all the shares of the Metropolitan Carriage, Wagon, on 8 September 1919, Vickers changed the name of the British Westinghouse Electrical and Manufacturing Company to Metropolitan Vickers Electrical Company. The immediate post-war era was marked by low investment and continued labour unrest, sales shot up, and 1927 marked the companys best year to date. On 15 November 1922 the BBC was registered and the BBCs Manchester station, in 1928 Metrovick merged with the rival British Thomson-Houston, a company of similar size and basically the same product lineup. Combined, they would be one of the few able to compete with Marconi or English Electric on an equal footing. In fact the merger was marked by poor communication and intense rivalry, rivalry between Metrovick and BTH continued, and AEI was never able to exert effective control over the two competing subsidiary companies. Problems worsened in 1929 with the start of the great depression, the British government intervened, the engineers were released and trade with Russia was resumed after a brief embargo. During the 1930s Metropolitan Vickers produced two very large diameter three-phase AC traction motors for the Hungarian railways V40 and V60 electric locomotives. The 1640 kW rated power machinery, designed by Kálmán Kandó, was paid for by British government economic aid, in 1935 the company built a 105 MW steam turbogenerator, the largest in Europe at that time, for the Battersea powerstation. In 1936 Metrovick started work with the Air Ministry on automatic systems, eventually branching out to gunlaying systems. In 1938 they reached an agreement with the Ministry to build a design developed at the Royal Aircraft Establishment under the direction of Hayne Constant. It is somewhat ironic that BTH, their partners, were at the same time working with Frank Whittle on his pioneering jet designs. In mid-1938, MVs were given a contract to build Avro Manchester twin-engined heavy bombers under licence from A. V. As this type of work was different from their traditional heavy engineering activities, a new factory was built on the western side of Mosley Road. Despite this the firm went on to complete 43 examples, by the end of the war, MVs had built 1,080 Lancasters. These were followed by 79 Avro Lincoln derivatives before remaining orders were cancelled, in 1940 the turboprop effort was re-engineered as a pure jet engine after the successful run of Whittles designs
32.
Austin Motor Company
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The Austin Motor Company Limited was an English manufacturer of motor vehicles, founded in 1905 by Herbert Austin. In 1952 it was merged with Morris Motors Limited in the new holding company British Motor Corporation Limited, the marque Austin was used until 1987. The trademark is owned by SAIC after being transferred from bankrupt subsidiary Nanjing Automotive which had acquired it with MG Rover Group in July 2005. While running the original Wolseley business, which had a highly cyclical sales pattern, starting in 1895, he built three cars in his free time. They were among Britains first cars, the third car, a four-wheeler, was completed in 1899. In 1905 he fell out with Thomas and Albert Vickers over engine design, leaving his creation, Wolseley, which he had made Britains largest motor vehicle manufacturer, Austin obtained the backing of steel magnate Frank Kayser for his own enterprise. Further assistance came from Dunlop patent holder Harvey du Cros, however, Austins great rival, William Morris, was able to enter the industry proper a little later funding his operation entirely from his own resources. In November 1905 Herbert Austin acquired a printing works which was less than ten years old. It was located seven miles south-west of Birmingham in the village of Longbridge. The following month The Austin Motor Company Limited was incorporated and it was available as a 15/20 hp complete at £500 and a 25/30 hp for £650. The sole concessionaire for sale of the cars was Mr Harvey Du Cros junior, two things were noticeable about Austins new design. He had parted from the Vickers brothers because he had refused to use the more conventional vertical engine in Wolseley cars. His new car had an engine and, in all. A further injection of capital was needed in 1906 and William Harvey Du Cros joined the board of directors, after that Harvey Du Cros junior of the Swift Cycle Co and Austin each held approximately half of the ordinary capital. Herbert Austin remained chairman and managing director, Austins cars, like Wolseleys, were luxury vehicles. The published customer list included Russian Grand Dukes, Princesses, Bishops, high officials of the Spanish government, sources Note, in 1912 Wolseley sold 3,000 cars. In February 1914 Austin-manufactured bodies in tourer, limousine, landaulette, ambulances and commercial vehicles were also provided. Austin became a listed company in 1914 when the capital was increased to £650,000
33.
British Motor Corporation
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The British Motor Corporation Limited was a UK-based vehicle manufacturer, formed in early 1952 to give effect to an agreed merger of the Morris and Austin businesses. BMC acquired the shares in Morris Motors and the Austin Motor Company, Morris Motors, the holding company of the productive businesses of the Nuffield Organisation, owned MG, Riley, and Wolseley. The agreed exchange of shares in Morris or Austin for shares in the new holding company, BMC, in September 1965, BMC took control of its major suppliers, Pressed Steel, acquiring Jaguars body supplier in the process. In September 1966, BMC merged with Jaguar Cars Limited, on 14 December 1966, BMC changed its name to British Motor Holdings Limited or BMH. BMCs headquarters were at the Austin plant at Longbridge, near Birmingham, the use of Morris engine designs was dropped within three years and all new car designs were coded ADO from Amalgamated Drawing Office. Austins management systems, however, especially cost control and marketing, were not as good as Nuffields and as the changed from a shortage of cars to competition. The biggest-selling car, the Mini, was analysed by Ford Motor Company. At the time of the mergers, a well established dealership network was in place for each of the marques, among the car-buying British public was a tendency of loyalty to a particular marque and marques appealed to different market segments. This meant that marques competed against each other in some areas, the Riley and Wolseley models were selling in very small numbers. Styling was also getting distinctly old-fashioned and this caused Leonard Lord, in a move for him. In 1958, BMC hired Battista Farina to redesign its entire car line and this resulted in the creation of three Farina saloons, each of which was badge-engineered to fit the various BMC car lines, The compact Farina model bowed in 1958 with the Austin A40 Farina. A Mark II A40 Farina appeared in 1961 and was produced through 1967 and these small cars used the A-Series engine. The mid-sized Farinas were launched in 1958 with the Wolseley 15/60, other members of the group included the Riley 4/68, Austin A55 Cambridge Mk. III, and Morris Oxford V. Later, the design was licensed in Argentina and produced as the Siam Di Tella 1500, Traveller station wagon, the mid-size cars used the B-Series straight-4 engine. Most of these lasted until 1961, though the Di Tellas remained until 1966. They were replaced with a new Farina body style and most were renamed and these were the Austin A60 Cambridge, MG Magnette Mk. IV, Morris Oxford VI, Riley 4/72, and Wolseley 16/60 and these mostly remained in production until 1968, with no rear-wheel drive replacement produced. Farina also designed a large car, launched in 1959 as the Austin A99 Westminster, Vanden Plas Princess 3-Litre, and Wolseley 6/99, it used the large C-Series straight-6 engine
34.
Leyland Motors
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Leyland Motors Limited was a British vehicle manufacturer of lorries, buses and trolleybuses. It gave its name to the British Leyland Motor Corporation formed when it merged with British Motor Holdings, British Leyland later changed its name to simply BL, then in 1986 to Rover Group. Leyland Motors has a history dating from 1896, when the Sumner and Spurrier families founded the Lancashire Steam Motor Company in the town of Leyland in North West England. Their first products included steam lawn mowers, the companys first vehicle was a 1. 5-ton-capacity steam powered van. This was followed by a number of steam wagons using a vertical fire-tube boiler. By 1905 they had begun to build petrol-engined wagons. The Lancashire Steam Motor Company was renamed Leyland Motors in 1907 when they took over Coulthards of Preston and they also built a second factory in the neighbouring town of Chorley which still remains today as the headquarters of the LEX leasing and parts company. In 1920, Leyland Motors produced the Leyland 8 luxury touring car, parry-Thomas was later killed in an attempt on the land speed record when the car overturned. Rumours that a chain drive broke were found to be incorrect when the car was disinterred late in the 20th century as the chains were intact, at the other extreme, they also produced the Trojan Utility Car in the Kingston upon Thames factory at Ham from 1922 to 1928. Three generations of Spurriers controlled Leyland Motors from its foundation until the retirement of Sir Henry Spurrier in 1964, Sir Henry inherited control of Leyland Motors from his father in 1942, and successfully guided its growth during the postwar years. Whilst the Spurrier family were in control the company enjoyed excellent labour relations—reputedly never losing a days production through industrial action, during the war, Leyland Motors along with most vehicle manufacturers was involved in war production. Leyland built the Cromwell tank at its works from 1943 as well as medium/large trucks such as the Leyland Hippo, after the war, Leyland Motors continued military manufacture with the Centurion tank. In 1946, AEC and Leyland Motors worked to form the British United Traction Ltd, in 1955, through an equity agreement, manufacture of commercial vehicles under licence from Leyland Motors commenced in Madras, India at the new Ashok factory. The products were branded as Ashok Leyland, donald Stokes, previously Sales Director, was appointed managing director of Leyland Motors Limited in September 1962 originally a Leyland student apprentice he had grown up with the company. In 1968 Leyland Motor Corporation Limited merged with British Motor Holdings to form the British Leyland Motor Corporation, BMH brought with it into the new organisation more famous British goods vehicle and bus and coach marques, including Daimler, Guy, BMC, Austin and Morris. The Leyland diesel engines were used in Finnish Sisu and Vanaja lorries and buses in 1960s, the BLMC group was difficult to manage because of the many companies under its control, often making similar products. This, and other reasons, led to difficulties and in December 1974 British Leyland had to receive a guarantee from the British government. This division was split into Leyland Bus and Leyland Trucks in 1981, Leyland Trucks depended on British sales as well as export markets, mainly commonwealth and ex-commonwealth markets
35.
British Leyland
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It was partly nationalised in 1975, when the UK government created a holding company called British Leyland, later BL, in 1978. It incorporated much of the British-owned motor vehicle industry, which constituted 40 percent of the UK car market, despite containing profitable marques such as Jaguar, Rover and Land Rover, as well as the best-selling Mini, British Leyland had a troubled history. In 1986 it was renamed as the Rover Group, later to become MG Rover Group, MG and the Austin, Morris and Wolseley marques became part of Chinas SAIC, with whom MG Rover attempted to merge prior to administration. Certain other related businesses, such as Unipart, continue to operate independently. At the time, LMC was a manufacturer, while BMH was perilously close to collapse. The Government was hopeful LMCs expertise would revive the ailing BMH, the new corporation was arranged into seven divisions under its new chairman, Sir Donald Stokes. After the merger, Lord Stokes was horrified to find that BMH had no plans to replace the elderly designs in its portfolio. Also, BMHs design efforts immediately prior to the merger had focused on niche market models such as the Austin Maxi and the Austin 3 litre. BMH had produced several cars, such as the Mini. While these cars had been advanced at the time of their introduction, the Mini was not highly profitable, immediately, Lord Stokes instigated plans to design and introduce new models quickly. The first result of this programme was the Morris Marina in early 1971. It used parts from various BL models with new bodywork to produce BLs mass-market competitor and it was one of the strongest-selling cars in Britain during the 1970s, although by the end of production in 1980 it was widely regarded as a dismal product that had damaged the companys reputation. The Austin Allegro, launched in 1973, earned a similarly unwanted reputation over its 10-year production life, the company became an infamous monument to the industrial turmoil that plagued Britain in the 1970s. Industrial action instigated by militant shop stewards frequently brought BLs manufacturing capability to its knees, the upshot was that both Ford and Vauxhall ultimately overtook BL to become Britains two best selling marques, a title they hold to the present day. At its peak, BLMC owned almost 40 manufacturing plants across the country, even before the merger BMH had included theoretically competing marques that were in fact selling substantially similar badge engineered cars. The British Motor Corporation had never properly integrated either the dealer networks or the facilities of Austin. The upshot was that plants were producing badge engineered models of otherwise identical cars so that each network would have a product to sell. Rover competed with Jaguar at the end of the market
36.
Hawker Siddeley
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Hawker Siddeley was a group of British manufacturing companies engaged in aircraft production. Hawker Siddeley combined the legacies of several British aircraft manufacturers, emerging through a series of mergers, in 1977, Hawker Siddeley became a founding component of the nationalised British Aerospace. Hawker Siddeley also operated in other markets, such as locomotive building. The Company was once a constituent of the FTSE100 Index, at this time, Hawker Siddeley also acquired A. V. Roe & Company, Gloster Aircraft Company and Air Training Services, the constituent companies continued to produce their own aircraft designs under their own name as well as sharing manufacturing work throughout the group. During this campaign, Hurricanes outnumbered all other British fighters, combined, in 1945, the Hawker Siddeley purchased Victory Aircraft of Malton, Ontario, Canada from the Canadian government, renaming the company A. V. Roe Canada, commonly known as Avro Canada, initially a wholly owned subsidiary of Hawker Siddeley, during its operation, Avro Canada aircraft included the C102 Jetliner, CF-100 Canuck, CF-105 Arrow and VZ-9- AV Avrocar. Only the CF-100 fighter entered full-scale production, other design projects included supersonic transport passenger aircraft, a mach-2 VTOL fighter, hovercraft, a jet engine-powered tank, and the hypersonic Space Threshold Vehicle. After the cancellation of the Arrow, the company began to unravel, roe Canada was dissolved and the remaining assets were transferred to the now defunct Hawker Siddeley Canada. In 1948, the name was changed to Hawker Siddeley Group. The aircraft division would become Hawker Siddeley Aviation and the guided missile, in 1959, the aero engine business, Armstrong Siddeley was merged with that of the Bristol Aero Engines to form Bristol Siddeley. Out of this decision, came the order that all future contracts being offered had to include agreements to merge companies, in 1959, Folland Aircraft was acquired, followed by de Havilland Aircraft Company and Blackburn Aircraft in 1960. In 1963, the names of the constituent companies were dropped, in this period, the company developed the first operational, and, by far, the most successful VTOL jet aircraft, the Harrier family. This aircraft remained in production into the 1990s and remains in service, in 1957, Hawker Siddeley purchased the Brush group of companies that included Brush Electrical Machines, and Brush Traction, which manufactures electromotive equipment and railway locomotives. The Brush prototype locomotives Falcon, and the futuristic but over-weight HS4000 Kestrel, were produced there, other railway engineering assets were acquired, including Westinghouse Brake & Signal and the engine builder Mirrlees Blackstone, which came with the Brush businesses. In the early 1970s Hawker Siddeleys Canada Car and Foundry subsidiary began to build rapid transit vehicles for the North American market, later Hawker Siddeley would sell the same general design to the MBTA in Boston for their Blue and Orange Lines. 7048 cars were delivered to the Blue Line in 1978–80 and 12065 cars were delivered to the Orange Line in 1980–81, Hawker Siddeley also manufactured much of the Toronto subway systems older rolling stock, the H5 and H6 models. The heavy rail manufacturing business, based in Mississauga and Thunder Bay, MBTA also bought a number of commuter rail coaches from the German firm Messerschmitt, thereby teaming Hawker Siddeley with its old World War II rival under the same organisation
37.
Board of Trade (Privy Council)
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The Board of Trade, originally the Lords of Trade and Plantations or Lords of Trade, is a committee of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom. It was first established as a committee of Englands Privy Council to advise on colonial questions in the early 17th century. Between 1696 and 1782 the Board of Trade, in partnership with the secretaries of state over that time, held responsible for colonial affairs. The Home Secretary held colonial responsibility until 1801 when the Secretary of State for War, the committee has been known as the Board of Trade since 1786, but this name was only officially adopted by an act of 1861. The new Boards first functions were consultative like earlier iterations, and its concern with plantations, in such as the approval of colonial laws. This department was merged with the Ministry of Technology in 1970 to form the Department of Trade, the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry was also President of the Board of Trade. The full Board has met only once since the mid-20th century, in 2016, the role of President of the Board of Trade was transferred to the Secretary of State for International Trade. This would be followed by a number of committees and councils to regulate the colonies. The Boards formal title remains The Lords of the Committee of the Privy Council appointed for the consideration of all matters relating to Trade, in 1634, Charles I appointed a new commission for regulating plantations. Soon after however, the English Civil Wars erupted and initiated a period of political instability in England. Between 1643 and 1648 the Long Parliament would establish a parliamentary Commission for Plantations to take the lead in colonial and commercial affairs and this period also saw the first regulation of Royal tonnage and poundage and begin the modernization of customs and excise as growing sources of government revenue. During the Interregnum and Commonwealth three acts of the Rump Parliament in 1650 and 1651 are notable in the development of Englands commercial and colonial programs. These include the first Commission of Trade to be established by an Act of Parliament on 1 August 1650. It was the Lords of Trade who, in 1675, originated the idea of transforming all of the colonies in America into Royal Colonies for the purpose of securing English trade against the French. In 1696, King William III appointed eight paid commissioners to promote trade in the American plantations, the board carried on this work but also had long periods of inactivity, devolving into chaos after 1761 and dissolved in 1782 by an act of Parliament by the Rockingham Whigs. William Pitt the Younger re-established the committee in 1784, and an Order in Council of 23 August 1786 provided the basis that still remains in force. A secretariat was established included the president, vice president. By 1793, the board remained in its old structure
38.
Tredegar
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Tredegar is a town and community situated on the Sirhowy River in the county borough of Blaenau Gwent, in southeast Wales. Located within the boundaries of Monmouthshire, it became an early centre of the Industrial Revolution in South Wales. The historic Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, Virginia, United States was named in honour of the town, deg erw is Welsh for ten acres, tre in newer place names in the industrialised valleys means town, and equates to English names with town or ville. Historically tref / tre was approximately a homestead, farmstead, hamlet, in this respect we can compare the sense development of Old English tūn to modern English town. So tre deg erw is plausible morphologically, but is not the origin of the name Tredegar, another erroneous explanation, which was also around in the 1800s, is that Tredegar is tri deg erw, which means thirty acres. In the case of ten acres and thirty acres there is no indication of what this land area might refer to. In the second case, tri deg erw could not have resulted in Tredegar, in both of the above interpretations it is supposed that erw has been reduced to er through the loss of the final vowel w, and the resulting final syllable er has become final ar. This would be consistent with features of south-eastern Welsh, or Gwentian, south-eastern field names show this reduction – Dwyar, a field name in Penderyn. The resulting form would be Tredegar, but this supposes that this is a form of tri-deg-ar. Tri-deg is thirty, but as a numeral is a recent innovation in Welsh, in addition, tri-deg would hardly change to tre-deg. The company’s buildings appeared on an 1832 Ordnance Survey map as Tredegar Iron Works, the Tredegar in the name of the company and its ironworks referred to the original Tredegar, which is in Coedcernyw by Newport, and is nowadays more usually known in English as Tredegar House. Older forms of the show it to be Tredegyr. Tredegyr is farmstead of Tegyr + soft mutation + Tegyr, a Brythonic form *Tecorix might be supposed, as such a form would have resulted in Welsh Tegyr following normal processes in the development of Welsh from Brythonic. There is a name in Denbighshire – Botegyr, meaning Tegyr’s dwelling. The local form of the name was in fact Tredecar and this feature, typical of south-eastern Welsh, or Gwentian, is known as “provection” and involves the devoicing of stops. In this way “b > p”, “d > t” and “g > c”, the form is to be found in the title of the folk song “Ar Ben Waun Tredecar” by the group Yr Hwntws. There was also a shortened form Decar – the loss of a syllable is not unusual in Welsh. Examples in spoken Welsh are ceffyle > ffyle, afale > fale, ysgubor > sgubor, ystafell > stafell, the first recorded iron works in the Sirhowy Valley was Pont Gwaith Yr Hearn, developed by two Bretons and worked by men from Penydarren, Merthyr Tydfil
39.
Southport
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Southport is a large seaside town in Merseyside, England. At the 2001 census, it had a population of 90,336, Southport lies on the Irish Sea coast and is fringed to the north by the Ribble estuary. The town is 16.7 miles north of Liverpool and 14.8 miles southwest of Preston. Historically part of Lancashire, the town was founded in 1792 when William Sutton, at that time, the area, known as South Hawes, was sparsely populated and dominated by sand dunes. At the turn of the 19th century, the area popular with tourists due to the easy access from the nearby Leeds. The rapid growth of Southport largely coincided with the Industrial Revolution, extensive sand dunes stretch for several miles between Birkdale and Woodvale to the south of the town. The Ainsdale sand dunes have been designated as a nature reserve. Local fauna include the Natterjack toad and the Sand lizard, the town contains examples of Victorian architecture and town planning, on Lord Street and elsewhere. A particular feature of the town is the tree planting. This was one of the conditions required by the Hesketh family when they made available for development in the 19th century. Hesketh Park at the end of the town is named after them. Southport today is one of the most popular seaside resorts in the UK. It hosts various events, including an air show on and over the beach. The town is at the centre of Englands Golf Coast and has hosted the Open Championship at the Royal Birkdale Golf Club, there have been settlements in the area now comprising Southport since the Domesday Book, and some parts of the town have names of Viking origin. Roman coins have found at Halsall Moss and Crossens, although the Romans never settled southwest Lancashire. The first real evidence of a settlement here is in the Domesday Book. The name is derived from Oddrgrimir meaning the son of Grimm and is linked to the Old Norse word melr meaning sandbank, the Domesday Book states that there were 50 huts in Otergimele, housing a population of 200. The alluvium provided fertile land and the river itself stocks of fish
40.
Morris Motors
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Morris Motors Limited was a British motor vehicle manufacturer formed in 1919 to take over the assets of WRM Motors Ltd. which had been put into voluntary liquidation. Though merged into larger organisations, the Morris name remained in use until 1984 when British Leylands Austin Rover Group decided to concentrate on the more popular Austin brand, the trademark is currently owned by the China-based automotive company SAIC after being transferred from bankrupt subsidiary Nanjing Automotive. The company is notable for Morris Minor, Morris Mini a. k. a. Mini Cooper and Morris Oxford series III, which would later be manufactured by Hindustan Motors as Hindustan Ambassador with periodic enhancements in India till 2014. Today, the former Morris manufacturing complex at Cowley, Oxford survives as Plant Oxford, WRM Motors Ltd began in 1912 when bicycle manufacturer William Morris moved on from the sale, hire, and repair of cars to car manufacturing. He planned a new light car assembled from bought-in components, in this way he was able to retain ownership by keeping within the bounds of his own capital resources. A factory was opened in 1913 at former Oxford Military College at Cowley, Oxford, United Kingdom where Morriss first car, nearly all the major components were bought-in. In 1914 a coupé and van were added to the line-up but the Bullnose chassis was too short and the 1018 cc engine too small to make a much-needed 4-seat version of the car. White and Poppe, who made the engine, were unable to supply the volume of units that Morris required, so Morris turned to Continental of Detroit, gearboxes and axles were also sourced in the US. In spite of the outbreak of the First World War the orders were maintained and, from mid-1915 a new larger car, after the war the Continental engine was no longer available so Morris arranged for Hotchkiss of France to make a near-copy in their Coventry factory. This was used to new versions of the basic Cowley. Possessed of a large cash income Morris had a policy of personally buying up suppliers businesses. For example, in 1923 he bought Hotchkisss Coventry business which later became Morris Engines branch, by 1924 the factory was making 2000 units a week with only a small increase in work space and labour force. Cecil Kimber, head of Morriss own original 1909-founded Morris Garage sales hire and repair operation in Oxford and they were so successful a separate MG factory was soon established south of Oxford in Abingdon, Oxfordshire. Pressed Steels factory was located over the road from Morriss factory at Cowley and supplied Morris, Morris withdrew from the venture in mid-1930. Budd sold their share to British interests at the beginning of 1936, the small car market was entered in 1928 with the Leonard Lord-designed Morris Minor using an 847 cc engine from Morriss newly acquired Wolseley Motors. Lord had been sent there to modernise the works and Wolseleys products, the Minor was to provide the base for the MG Midgets. This timely spread into the car market helped Morris through the economic depression of the 1930s
41.
Wolseley Motors
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Wolseley Motors Limited was a British motor vehicle manufacturer founded in early 1901 by the Vickers armaments combine in conjunction with Herbert Austin. It initially made a full range topped by large luxury cars and dominated the market in the Edwardian era but the Vickers brothers died in 1915 and 1919, respectively. In 1921, expanding rapidly, it manufactured 12,000 cars, over-expansion led to receivership in 1927 when it was bought from Vickers by William Morris as a personal investment and years later moved into his Morris Motors empire. Even just before the Second World War its products were badge-engineered and it went with its sister businesses into BMC, BMH and British Leyland where its name lapsed in 1975. Maxim made use of a number of made by Austin in Maxims activities at his works in Crayford. Once the sheep-shearing company had decided they would not pursue their automobile interest an approach was made and agreement quickly reached. The Wolseley Tool and Motor Car Company of Adderley Park Birmingham was incorporated in March 1901 with a capital of £40,000 by Vickers, Sons and Maxim to manufacture motor cars, the managing director was Herbert Austin. The cars and the Wolseley name came from Austins exploratory venture for The Wolseley Sheep Shearing Machine Company Limited, Wolseleys board had decided not to enter the business and Maxim and the Vickers brothers picked it up. After his five-year contract with The Wolseley Tool and Motor Car Company ended Austin founded The Austin Motor Company Limited, Austin had been searching for other products for WSSMC because sale of sheep-shearing machinery was a highly seasonal trade. About 1895–96 he became interested in engines and automobiles, during the winter of 1895–96, working in his own time at nights and weekends, he made his own version of a design by Léon Bollée that he had seen in Paris. Later he found that another British group had bought the rights and he had to come up with a design of his own, in 1897 Austins second Wolseley car, the Wolseley Autocar No.1 was revealed. It was a design featuring independent rear suspension, mid-engine. It was not successful and although advertised for sale, none were sold, the third Wolseley car, the four-wheeled Wolseley Voiturette followed in 1899. A further four-wheeled car was made in 1900, the 1901 Wolseley Gasoline Carriage featured a steering wheel instead of a tiller. When Austins five-year contract officially ended in 1906 they had more than 1,500 cars, Wolseley was the largest British motor manufacturer. The company had formed in March 1901. By 1 May 1901 Austin had issued his first catalogue, there were to be two models,5 hp and 10 hp. They were both available with either a Tonneau or a Phaeton body with either pneumatic or solid tyres, for an additional outlay of thirty shillings the 10 hp model would be fitted with a sprag to prevent it running backwards
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Shrewsbury
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Shrewsbury SHROOZ-bree is the county town of Shropshire, England. It is on the River Severn and has a population of approximately 72,000. and is nicknamed the heart of shropshire. Shrewsbury is a town whose centre has a largely unaltered medieval street plan and over 660 listed buildings. The town has historically been a centre for the wool trade, horticulture remains popular, and the Shrewsbury Flower Show is one of the largest horticultural events in England. The A5 and A49 trunk roads cross near to the town and its later Welsh name Amwythig means fortified place. Over the ages, the important town has been the site of many conflicts. The Angles, under King Offa of Mercia, took possession in 778, nearby is the village of Wroxeter,5 miles to the south-east. This was once the site of Viroconium, the fourth largest cantonal capital in Roman Britain, as Caer Guricon it is a possible alternative for the Dark Age seat of the Kingdom of Powys. The importance of the Shrewsbury area in the Roman era was underlined with the discovery of the Shrewsbury Hoard in 2009, Shrewsburys known history commences in the Early Middle Ages, having been founded c.800 AD. It is believed that Anglo-Saxon Shrewsbury was most probably a settlement fortified through the use of earthworks comprising a ditch and rampart, There is evidence to show that by the beginning of the 900s, Shrewsbury was home to a mint. The Welsh besieged it in 1069, but were repelled by William the Conqueror, Roger de Montgomery was given the town as a gift from William, and built Shrewsbury Castle in 1074, taking the title of Earl. He founded Shrewsbury Abbey as a Benedictine monastery in 1083, the 3rd Earl, Robert of Bellême, was deposed in 1102 and the title forfeited, in consequence of rebelling against Henry I and joining the Duke of Normandys invasion of English in 1101. In 1138, King Stephen successfully besieged the castle held by William FitzAlan for the Empress Maud during the known as the Anarchy. It was in the late Middle Ages when the town was at its height of commercial importance. This was mainly due to the trade, a major industry at the time, with the rest of Britain and Europe, especially with the River Severn. The Shrewsbury Drapers Company dominated the trade in Welsh wool for many years, Shrewsburys monastic gathering was disbanded with the Dissolution of the Monasteries and as such the Abbey was closed in 1540. However, it is believed that Henry VIII thereafter intended to make Shrewsbury a cathedral city after the formation of the Church of England, but the citizens of the town declined the offer. Despite this, Shrewsbury thrived throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, largely due to the towns fortuitous location, as a resultant a number of grand edifices, including the Irelands Mansion and Drapers Hall, were constructed
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