1.
Acacia dealbata
–
Along with other bipinnate wattles, Acacia dealbata is classified in the section Botrycephalae within the subgenus Phyllodineae in the genus Acacia. An analysis of genomic and chloroplast DNA along with morphological characters found that the section is polyphyletic, Acacia dealbata appears to be most closely related to A. mearnsii, A. nanodealbata and A. baileyana. It is a evergreen tree or shrub growing up to 30 m tall. The flowers are produced in large racemose inflorescences made up of numerous smaller globose bright yellow flowerheads of 13–42 individual flowers, the fruit is a flattened pod 2–11.5 cm long and 6–14 mm broad, containing several seeds. Trees generally do not live longer than 30 to 40 years, in moist mountain areas, a white lichen can almost cover the bark, which may contribute to the descriptor silver. There are two subspecies, A. dealbata dealbata, tree to 30 m, leaves mostly 5–12 cm long. A. dealbata subalpina Tindale & Kodela, high altitudes in the Snowy Mountains. Shrub to 5 m tall, leaves mostly 1. 5–8.5 cm long, some authorities consider A. dealbata to be a variant of Acacia decurrens. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit, the timber is useful for furniture and indoor work, but has limited uses, mainly in craft furniture and turning. It has a colour, often with distinctive figures like birdseye. It has a weight, and is similar to its close relative blackwood. The flowers and tip shoots are harvested for use as cut flowers, in Italy, Albania, Russia and Georgia the flowers are also frequently given to women on International Womens Day. The essence of the flowers, called cassie or opopanax, is used in perfumes, the leaves are sometimes used in Indian chutney. In South Africa, the species is a Category 1 weed in the Western Cape, in New Zealand the Department of Conservation class it as an environmental weed. It has been analyzed as containing less than 0. 02% alkaloids and it is known to contain enanthic acid, palmic aldehyde, anisic acid, acetic acid, and phenols
Acacia dealbata
–
Acacia dealbata
Acacia dealbata
–
Kambah Karpet a variety of Acacia dealbata discovered at the
Kambah Village.
2.
Albizia julibrissin
–
This page is about the tree described by Antonio Durazzini. John Gilbert Baker used the scientific name to refer to Prains Albizia kalkora. Albizia julibrissin is a species of tree in the family Fabaceae, the genus is named after the Italian nobleman Filippo degli Albizzi, who introduced it to Europe in the mid-18th century, and it is sometimes incorrectly spelled Albizzia. The specific epithet julibrissin is a corruption of the Persian word gul-i abrisham which means silk flower, Albizia julibrissin is known by a wide variety of common names, such as Persian silk tree or pink siris. It is also called Lenkoran acacia or bastard tamarind, though it is not too closely related to either genus. The species is usually called silk tree or mimosa in the United States, and, although once included in Mimosa, neither is it very close to the Mimoseae. Its leaves slowly close during the night and during periods of rain, in Japan its common names are nemunoki, nemurinoki and nenenoki which all mean sleeping tree. Nemu tree is a translation of nemunoki. A. julibrissin is a deciduous tree growing to 5–16 m tall, with a broad crown of level or arching branches.5 cm long. They have been observed to be attractive to bees, butterflies, the fruit is a flat brown pod 10–20 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad, containing several seeds inside. There are two varieties, A. julibrissin var. julibrissin, differs in the shoots being densely hairy. Original habitats of the tree include regions from Iran and the Republic of Azerbaijan to China, a. julibrissin is widely planted as an ornamental plant in parks and gardens, grown for its leaf texture and flowers. The broad crown of a mature tree makes it useful for providing dappled shade, the flower colour varies from white in A. julibrissin f. alba, to rich red-tipped flowers. Variants with cream or pale yellow flowers are also reported, other cultivars are becoming available, Summer Chocolate has red foliage ageing to dark bronze, with pale pink flowers, Ishii Weeping has a drooping growth habit. There is also a form, A. julibrissin f. rosea which has, in the past and this is a smaller tree, only growing to 5–7 m tall, with the flowers always pink. Native to the northeast of the range in Korea and Northern China, it is more cold-tolerant than the typical form. The selected cultivar A. julibrissin Ernest Wilson is a cold-tolerant tree with pink flower colour. In Japan, A. julibrissin f. rosea is used for non-traditional bonsai
Albizia julibrissin
–
Persian Silk Tree
Albizia julibrissin
–
Closeup of Albizia julibrissin foliage, flowers and immature fruit
Albizia julibrissin
–
Albizia julibrissin: Flowers, parts.
Albizia julibrissin
–
Eurema blanda laying eggs on Albizia julibrissin
3.
Mimosa pudica
–
The species is native to South America and Central America, but is now a pantropical weed. It can also be found in Asia in countries such as Bangladesh, Thailand, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines and it grows mostly in undisturbed shady areas, under trees or shrubs. Mimosa pudica was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753, the species epithet, pudica, is Latin for bashful or shrinking, alluding to its shrinking reaction to contact. The species is known by common names including sensitive plant, humble plant, shameplant. The stem is erect in young plants, but becomes creeping or trailing with age and it can hang very low and become floppy. The stem is slender, branching, and sparsely to densely prickly, the leaves are bipinnately compound, with one or two pinnae pairs, and 10–26 leaflets per pinna. Pedunculate pale pink or purple flower heads arise from the leaf axils in mid summer with more and more flowers as the plant gets older, the globose to ovoid heads are 8–10 mm in diameter. On close examination, it is seen that the petals are red in their upper part. The fruit consists of clusters of 2–8 pods from 1–2 cm long each, the pods break into 2–5 segments and contain pale brown seeds some 2.5 mm long. The flowers are pollinated by the wind and insects, the seeds have hard seed coats which restrict germination. The roots of Mimosa pudica create carbon disulfide, which prevents certain pathogenic and this allows the formation of nodules on the roots of the plant that contain endosymbiotic diazotrophs, which fix atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into a form that is usable by the plant. Mimosa pudica is well known for its rapid plant movement, like a number of other plant species, it undergoes changes in leaf orientation termed sleep or nyctinastic movement. The foliage closes during darkness and reopens in light and this was first studied by the French scientist Jean-Jacques dOrtous de Mairan. The leaflets also close when stimulated in other ways, such as touching, warming, blowing and these types of movements have been termed seismonastic movements. The action potential then passes into the petiole, and finally to the large pulvinus at the end of the petiole, the action potential causes potassium ions to flow out from the vacuoles of cells in the various pulvini. This causes water to flow out from those cells by osmosis through aquaporin channels, making them lose turgor, differences in turgidity in different regions of the leaf and stem results in the closing of the leaflets and the collapse of the leaf petiole. This movement of folding inwards is energetically costly for the plant and this characteristic is quite common within the Mimosoideae subfamily of the legume family, Fabaceae. The stimulus can also be transmitted to neighboring leaves and it is not known exactly why Mimosa pudica evolved this trait, but many scientists think that the plant uses its ability to shrink as a defense from herbivores
Mimosa pudica
–
Mimosa pudica
Mimosa pudica
–
Flower
Mimosa pudica
–
Mimosa pudica seeds
Mimosa pudica
–
Mimosa pudica with mature seed pods on plant
4.
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Taxonomy is the science of defining groups of biological organisms on the basis of shared characteristics and giving names to those groups. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the remains, the conception, naming. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy, the broadest meaning of taxonomy is used here. The word taxonomy was introduced in 1813 by Candolle, in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, the term alpha taxonomy is primarily used today to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a value of acting as permanent stimulants. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a beta taxonomy, turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy, thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined beta taxonomy as the classification of ranks higher than species. This activity is what the term denotes, it is also referred to as beta taxonomy. How species should be defined in a group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the species problem. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy, by extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at higher taxonomic ranks, from subgenus and above only, than species. While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, earlier works were primarily descriptive, and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on criteria, the so-called artificial systems. Later came systems based on a complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as natural systems, such as those of de Jussieu, de Candolle and Bentham. The publication of Charles Darwins Origin of Species led to new ways of thinking about classification based on evolutionary relationships and this was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler and Engler, the advent of molecular genetics and statistical methodology allowed the creation of the modern era of phylogenetic systems based on cladistics, rather than morphology alone. Taxonomy has been called the worlds oldest profession, and naming and classifying our surroundings has likely been taking place as long as mankind has been able to communicate
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Title page of
Systema Naturae, Leiden, 1735
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Evolution of the
vertebrates at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for
Evolutionary taxonomy
Taxonomy (biology)
–
The same relationship, expressed as a
cladogram typical for
cladistics
Taxonomy (biology)
–
Type specimen for
Nepenthes smilesii, a tropical
pitcher plant.
5.
Plant
–
Plants are mainly multicellular, predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. The term is generally limited to the green plants, which form an unranked clade Viridiplantae. This includes the plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts, mosses and the green algae. Green plants have cell walls containing cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis by primary chloroplasts and their chloroplasts contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, although reproduction is also common. There are about 300–315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, green plants provide most of the worlds molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earths ecologies, especially on land. Plants that produce grains, fruits and vegetables form humankinds basic foodstuffs, Plants play many roles in culture. They are used as ornaments and, until recently and in variety, they have served as the source of most medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology, Plants are one of the two groups into which all living things were traditionally divided, the other is animals. The division goes back at least as far as Aristotle, who distinguished between plants, which generally do not move, and animals, which often are mobile to catch their food. Much later, when Linnaeus created the basis of the system of scientific classification. Since then, it has become clear that the plant kingdom as originally defined included several unrelated groups, however, these organisms are still often considered plants, particularly in popular contexts. When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a group of organisms or taxon. The evolutionary history of plants is not yet settled. Those which have been called plants are in bold, the way in which the groups of green algae are combined and named varies considerably between authors. Algae comprise several different groups of organisms which produce energy through photosynthesis, most conspicuous among the algae are the seaweeds, multicellular algae that may roughly resemble land plants, but are classified among the brown, red and green algae. Each of these groups also includes various microscopic and single-celled organisms
Plant
–
Green algae from
Ernst Haeckel 's
Kunstformen der Natur, 1904.
Plant
–
Had'n
Plant
–
Dicksonia antarctica, a species of
tree fern
Plant
–
A petrified log in
Petrified Forest National Park.
6.
Angiosperms
–
The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants, with 416 families, approx. 13,164 known genera and a total of c.295,383 known species, etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure, in other words, a fruiting plant. The term angiosperm comes from the Greek composite word meaning enclosed seeds, the ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms in the Triassic Period, during the range 245 to 202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants are known from 160 mya. They diversified extensively during the Lower Cretaceous, became widespread by 120 mya, angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants, the amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings, in the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium, the soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases, the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species, the function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf, occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. There are two kinds of cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells and are borne in the stamens. The female cells called megaspores, which divide to become the egg cell, are contained in the ovule. The flower may consist only of parts, as in willow. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls, the individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals. The outer series is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, the inner series is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators, attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower
Angiosperms
Angiosperms
–
Bud of a pink
rose
Angiosperms
–
Flowers of
Malus sylvestris (crab apple)
Angiosperms
–
Flowers and leaves of
Oxalis pes-caprae (Bermuda buttercup)
7.
Eudicots
–
The eudicots, Eudicotidae or eudicotyledons are a monophyletic clade of flowering plants that had been called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots by previous authors. The close relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains was initially seen in studies of shared derived characters. These plants have a trait in their pollen grains of exhibiting three colpi or grooves paralleling the polar axis. Later molecular evidence confirmed the basis for the evolutionary relationships among flowering plants with tricolpate pollen grains. The term means true dicotyledons, as it contains the majority of plants that have been considered dicots and have characteristics of the dicots, the term eudicots has subsequently been widely adopted in botany to refer to one of the two largest clades of angiosperms, monocots being the other. The remaining angiosperms are sometimes referred to as basal angiosperms or paleodicots, the other name for the eudicots is tricolpates, a name which refers to the grooved structure of the pollen. Members of the group have tricolpate pollen, or forms derived from it and these pollens have three or more pores set in furrows called colpi. In contrast, most of the seed plants produce monosulcate pollen. The name tricolpates is preferred by some botanists to avoid confusion with the dicots, numerous familiar plants are eudicots, including many common food plants, trees, and ornamentals. Most leafy trees of midlatitudes also belong to eudicots, with exceptions being magnolias and tulip trees which belong to magnoliids, and Ginkgo biloba. The name eudicots is used in the APG system, of 1998 and it is applied to a clade, a monophyletic group, which includes most of the dicots. The eudicots can be divided into two groups, the basal eudicots and the core eudicots, basal eudicot is an informal name for a paraphyletic group. The core eudicots are a monophyletic group, a 2010 study suggested the core eudicots can be divided into two clades, Gunnerales and a clade called Pentapetalae, comprising all the remaining core eudicots
Eudicots
–
Eudicots Temporal range:
Early Cretaceous - recent
Eudicots
–
Arabis pollen has three colpi.
8.
Fabales
–
The Fabales are an order of flowering plants included in the rosid group of the eudicots in the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II classification system. In the APG II circumscription, this includes the families Fabaceae or legumes, Quillajaceae, Polygalaceae or milkworts. Under the Cronquist system and some other plant classification systems, the order Fabales contains only the family Fabaceae, in the classification system of Dahlgren the Fabales were in the superorder Fabiflorae with three families corresponding to the subfamilies of Fabaceae in APG II. The Fabaceae, as the third-largest plant family in the world, contain most of the diversity of the Fabales, research in the order is largely focused on the Fabaceae, due in part to its great biological diversity, and to its importance as food plants. The Fabales are a order of plants, except only the subfamily Papilionoideae of the Fabaceae are well dispersed throughout the northern part of the North Temperate Zone
Fabales
–
Fabales
Fabales
–
Desmodium gangeticum
Fabales
–
Tuberous pea (
Lathyrus tuberosus) of the
Fabaceae
Fabales
–
Soap bark tree (
Quillaja saponaria) of the
Quillajaceae
9.
Fabaceae
–
The Fabaceae, Leguminosae or Papilionaceae, commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean family, are a large and economically important family of flowering plants. It includes trees, shrubs, and perennial or annual herbaceous plants, the five largest of the genera are Astragalus, Acacia, Indigofera, Crotalaria and Mimosa, which constitute about a quarter of all legume species. The ca.19,000 known legume species amount to about 7% of flowering plant species, Fabaceae is the most common family found in tropical rainforests and in dry forests in the Americas and Africa. Recent molecular and morphological evidence supports the fact that the Fabaceae is a monophyletic family. These studies confirm that the Fabaceae are a group that is closely related to the Polygalaceae, Surianaceae and Quillajaceae families. Along with the cereals, some fruits and tropical roots a number of Leguminosae have been a human food for millennia. A number of species are also weedy pests in different parts of the world, including, Cytisus scoparius, Robinia pseudoacacia, Ulex europaeus, Pueraria lobata, the name Fabaceae comes from the defunct genus Faba, now included in Vicia. The term faba comes from Latin, and appears to simply mean bean, Leguminosae is an older name still considered valid, and refers to the fruit of these plants, which are called legumes. Fabaceae range in habit from giant trees to small annual herbs, plants have indeterminate inflorescences, which are sometimes reduced to a single flower. The flowers have a short hypanthium and a single carpel with a short gynophore, the Leguminosae have a wide variety of growth forms including trees, shrubs or herbaceous plants or even vines or lianas. The herbaceous plants can be annuals, biennials or perennials, without basal or terminal leaf aggregations and they are upright plants, epiphytes or vines. The latter support themselves by means of shoots that twist around a support or through cauline or foliar tendrils, plants can be heliophytes, mesophytes or xerophytes. The leaves are alternate and compound. Most often they are even- or odd-pinnately compound, often trifoliate and rarely palmately compound, in the Mimosoideae and they always have stipules, which can be leaf-like, thorn-like or be rather inconspicuous. Leaf margins are entire or, occasionally, serrate, both the leaves and the leaflets often have wrinkled pulvini to permit nastic movements. In some species, leaflets have evolved into tendrils, many species have leaves with structures that attract ants that protect the plant from herbivore insects. Extrafloral nectaries are common among the Mimosoideae and the Caesalpinioideae, and are found in some Faboideae. In some Acacia, the modified hollow stipules are inhabited by ants and are known as domatia, many Fabaceae host bacteria in their roots within structures called root nodules
Fabaceae
–
Fabaceae Temporal range:
Palaeocene –
Recent
Fabaceae
–
The fruit of
Gymnocladus dioicus
Fabaceae
–
A flower of
Wisteria sinensis, Faboideae. Two petals have been removed to show stamens and pistil
Fabaceae
–
Legume of
Vicia angustifolia
10.
Caesalpinioideae
–
Caesalpinioideae is a botanical name at the rank of subfamily, placed in the large family Fabaceae or Leguminosae. Its name is formed from the generic name Caesalpinia and it is known also as the peacock flower family. The Caesalpinioideae are mainly distributed in the moist tropics, but include such temperate species as the honeylocust, Kentucky coffeetree. Their flowers are zygomorphic, but are very variable, nodulation is rare in this subfamily, and where it does occur, nodules have a primitive structure. In some classifications, for example the Cronquist system, the group is recognized at the rank of family, floral formula - % ○+ Kor5 C5 A10 G_ Until recently the Caesalpinioideae were divided into four tribes. However, modern molecular phylogenetics have shown that these groupings were somewhat artificial, the most important finding was that the Papilionoideae and Mimosoideae arose from within the Caesalpinioideae, thus the Caesalpinioideae are paraphyletic. Therefore, they are likely to be split into several subfamilies, Caesalpinioideae, as traditionally circumscribed, is paraphyletic. Several molecular phylogenies have shown that the two subfamilies of Fabaceae are both nested within Caesalpinioideae. Asterisks indicate clades traditionally assigned to Caesalpinioideae, the two subfamilies are underlined
Caesalpinioideae
–
Caesalpinioideae
Caesalpinioideae
–
Sappanwood (Caesalpinia sappan)
Caesalpinioideae
–
Chamaecrista absus
Caesalpinioideae
–
Lysiphyllum hookeri
11.
Mimosoideae
–
The Mimosoideae comprise a subfamily of the flowering plant family Fabaceae characterized by flowers with small petals and numerous prominent stamens. In some classifications, Mimosoideae refers to what was considered the tribe Mimoseae. Some classification systems, for example the Cronquist system, treat the Fabaceae in a narrow sense, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group treats Fabaceae in the broad sense. The Mimosoideae were historically subdivided into four tribes, however, modern molecular phylogenetics have shown that these groupings were artificial. Several informal subgroups have been proposed, but not yet described formally as tribes, additionally, the genus Acacia was recently segregated into five genera. The following fossil wood morphogenera have been described, Modern molecular phylogenetics suggest the following relationships
Mimosoideae
–
Mimosoideae
Mimosoideae
–
The lead tree,
Leucaena leucocephala, is used for fiber and livestock fodder.
12.
Carl Linnaeus
–
Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature. He is known by the father of modern taxonomy. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus, Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his education at Uppsala University. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands and he then returned to Sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, at the time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message, Tell him I know no man on earth. The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote, With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, Swedish author August Strindberg wrote, Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist. Among other compliments, Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum, The Pliny of the North and he is also considered as one of the founders of modern ecology. In botany, the abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species names is L. In older publications, sometimes the abbreviation Linn. is found, Linnæus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus Ingemarsson and Christina Brodersonia and his siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus, and Emerentia Linnæa. One of a line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius, a year after Linnæus birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curates house, even in his early years, Linnæus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus, soon Linnæus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants
Carl Linnaeus
–
Carl von Linné,
Alexander Roslin, 1775. Oil painting in the portrait collection at
Gripsholm Castle
Carl Linnaeus
–
The
coat of arms of Carl von Linné.
Carl Linnaeus
–
Birthplace of Linnæus at
Råshult
Carl Linnaeus
–
Statue of Linnaeus as a University student in
Lund
13.
Synonym (taxonomy)
–
For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies. This name is no longer in use, it is now a synonym of the current scientific name which is Picea abies, unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy a synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have a different status, for any taxon with a particular circumscription, position, and rank, only one scientific name is considered to be the correct one at any given time. A synonym cannot exist in isolation, it is always an alternative to a different scientific name, given that the correct name of a taxon depends on the taxonomic viewpoint used a name that is one taxonomists synonym may be another taxonomists correct name. Synonyms may arise whenever the same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to one, a species is moved to a different genus. To the general user of scientific names, in such as agriculture, horticulture, ecology, general science. A synonym is a name that was used as the correct scientific name but which has been displaced by another scientific name. Thus Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the term as a name which has the same application as another. In handbooks and general texts, it is useful to have mentioned as such after the current scientific name. Synonyms used in this way may not always meet the strict definitions of the synonym in the formal rules of nomenclature which govern scientific names. Changes of scientific name have two causes, they may be taxonomic or nomenclatural, a name change may be caused by changes in the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon, representing a change in taxonomic, scientific insight. A name change may be due to purely nomenclatural reasons, that is, based on the rules of nomenclature, the earliest such name is called the senior synonym, while the later name is the junior synonym. One basic principle of zoological nomenclature is that the earliest correctly published name, synonyms are important because if the earliest name cannot be used, then the next available junior synonym must be used for the taxon. Objective synonyms refer to taxa with the type and same rank. For example, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa in 1855 for a species of pronghorn, however, it is now commonly accepted that his specimen was an unusual individual of the species Antilocapra americana published by George Ord in 1815. Ords name thus takes precedence, with Antilocapra anteflexa being a subjective synonym. Objective synonyms are common at the level of genera, because for various reasons two genera may contain the type species, these are objective synonyms
Synonym (taxonomy)
–
The
Latin Caudata and
Greek Urodela both mean "tailed" and have been used as a scientific name at the rank of order for the
salamanders (as opposed to the tail-less
frogs). Thus they are synonyms.
Synonym (taxonomy)
–
The common dandelion
Taraxacum officinale sensu lato is an extremely widespread group of
apomictic lineages, and some scientists apply the "biological species concept" to divide it into many distinct species; other scientists regard all the names for those independent species as synonyms.
14.
Genus
–
A genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms in biology. In the hierarchy of classification, genus comes above species. In binomial nomenclature, the name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. Felis catus and Felis silvestris are two species within the genus Felis, Felis is a genus within the family Felidae. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist, the standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. Moreover, genera should be composed of units of the same kind as other genera. The term comes from the Latin genus, a noun form cognate with gignere, linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort is considered the founder of the modern concept of genera. The scientific name of a genus may be called the name or generic epithet. It plays a role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms. The rules for the names of organisms are laid down in the Nomenclature Codes. The standard way of scientifically describing species and other lower-ranked taxa is by binomial nomenclature, the generic name forms its first half. For example, the gray wolfs binomial name is Canis lupus, with Canis being the name shared by the wolfs close relatives. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany. Especially with these names, when the generic name is known from context. Because animals are typically only grouped within subspecies, it is written as a trinomen with a third name. Dog breeds, meanwhile, are not scientifically distinguished, there are several divisions of plant species and therefore their infraspecific names generally include contractions explaining the relation. For example, the genus Hibiscus includes hundreds of other species apart from the Rose of Sharon or common garden hibiscus, Rose of Sharon doesnt have subspecies but has cultivars that carry desired traits, such as the bright white H. syriaca Diana. Hawaiian hibiscus, meanwhile, includes several separate species, since not all botanists agree on the divisions or names between species, it is common to specify the source of the name using author abbreviations
Genus
–
Number of reptile genera with a given number of species. Most genera have only one or a few species but a few may have hundreds. Based on data from the
Reptile Database (as of May 2015).
15.
Legume
–
A legume is a plant or its fruit or seed in the family Fabaceae. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for their grain seed called pulse, for forage and silage. Well-known legumes include alfalfa, clover, peas, beans, lentils, lupin bean, mesquite, carob, soybeans, peanuts, Fabaceae is the most common family found in tropical rainforests and in dry forests in the Americas and Africa. A legume fruit is a dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel. A common name for type of fruit is a pod, although the term pod is also applied to a number of other fruit types, such as that of vanilla. Legumes are notable in that most of them have symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in structures called root nodules, for that reason, they play a key role in crop rotation. The term pulse, as used by the United Nations Food and this excludes green beans and green peas, which are considered vegetable crops. Also excluded are seeds that are grown for oil extraction. However, in usage, these distinctions are not always clearly made. Some Fabaceae, such as Scotch broom and other Genisteae, are leguminous but are not called legumes by farmers. Farmed legumes can belong to many classes, including forage, grain, blooms, pharmaceutical/industrial, fallow/green manure. Most commercially farmed species fill two or more roles simultaneously, depending upon their degree of maturity when harvested, grain legumes are cultivated for their seeds. The seeds are used for human and animal consumption or for the production of oils for industrial uses, grain legumes include beans, lentils, lupins, peas, and peanuts. Like other plant-based foods, pulses contain no cholesterol and little fat or sodium, Legumes are also an excellent source of resistant starch which is broken down by bacteria in the large intestine to produce short-chain fatty acids used by intestinal cells for food energy. Preliminary studies in humans include the potential for regular consumption of legumes in a diet to affect metabolic syndrome. There is evidence that a portion of pulses in a diet may lower blood pressure and reduce LDL cholesterol levels. Some, like alfalfa, clover, vetch, stylo, or Arachis, are sown in pasture, other forage legumes such as Leucaena or Albizia are woody shrub or tree species that are either broken down by livestock or regularly cut by humans to provide livestock feed. Legume species grown for their flowers include lupins, which are farmed commercially for their blooms as well as being popular in gardens worldwide, industrially farmed legumes include Indigofera and Acacia species, which are cultivated for dye and natural gum production, respectively
Legume
–
A selection of various legumes
Legume
–
Freshly dug
peanuts (Arachis hypogaea),
indehiscent legume fruits
Legume
–
White
clover, a forage crop
16.
Greek language
–
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
Greek language
–
Idealized portrayal of
Homer
Greek language
–
regions where Greek is the official language
Greek language
–
Greek language road sign, A27 Motorway, Greece
17.
Central America
–
Central America is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. Central America is bordered by Mexico to the north, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the east, Central America consists of seven countries, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. The combined population of Central America is between 41,739,000 and 42,688,190, Central America is a part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, which extends from northern Guatemala through to central Panama. Due to the presence of several active faults and the Central America Volcanic Arc. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur frequently, these disasters have resulted in the loss of many lives. In the Pre-Columbian era, Central America was inhabited by the peoples of Mesoamerica to the north and west. Soon after Christopher Columbuss voyages to the Americas, the Spanish began to colonize the Americas, the seven states finally became independent autonomous states, beginning with Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala, followed by El Salvador, then Panama, and finally Belize. Middle America is usually thought to comprise Mexico to the north of the 7 states of Central America as well as Colombia, usually the whole of the Caribbean to the north-east and sometimes the Guyanas are also included. According to one source, the term Central America was used as a synonym for Middle America as recently as 1962, in Brazil, Central America comprises all countries between Mexico and Colombia, including those in the Caribbean. Mexico, in whole or in part, is included by British people. For the people living in the 5 countries formerly part of the Federal Republic of Central America there is a distinction between the Spanish language terms América Central and Centroamérica, in the Pre-Columbian era, the northern areas of Central America were inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. Most notable among these were the Mayans, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, following Christopher Columbuss voyages to the Americas, the Spanish sent many expeditions to the region, and they began their conquest of Maya territory in 1523. Soon after the conquest of the Aztec Empire, Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado commenced the conquest of northern Central America for the Spanish Empire. Beginning with his arrival in Soconusco in 1523, Alvarados forces systematically conquered and subjugated most of the major Maya kingdoms, including the Kiche, Tzutujil, Pipil, and the Kaqchikel. By 1528, the conquest of Guatemala was nearly complete, with only the Petén Basin remaining outside the Spanish sphere of influence, the last independent Maya kingdoms – the Kowoj and the Itza people – were finally defeated in 1697, as part of the Spanish conquest of Petén. In 1538, Spain established the Real Audiencia of Panama, which had jurisdiction over all land from the Strait of Magellan to the Gulf of Fonseca. This entity was dissolved in 1543, and most of the territory within Central America then fell under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real de Guatemala. This area included the current territories of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Mexican state of Chiapas, the president of the Audiencia, which had its seat in Antigua Guatemala, was the governor of the entire area
Central America
–
Central America, 1798
Central America
–
Central America
Central America
–
El Chorreron in El Salvador
Central America
–
One of the hanging bridges of the skywalk at the
Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve in
Monteverde, Costa Rica disappearing into the clouds
18.
South America
–
South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the used in nations that speak Romance languages. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, North America and it includes twelve sovereign states, a part of France, and a non-sovereign area. In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000, South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population. Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela. In recent decades Brazil has also concentrated half of the regions GDP and has become a first regional power, most of the population lives near the continents western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, the continents cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the majority of South Americans speak Portuguese or Spanish. South America occupies the portion of the Americas. The continent is delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate, South Americas major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies and this is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth, South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a proportion of the Earths species. Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the land area
South America
–
A composite relief image of South America.
South America
–
South America
South America
–
Cuernos del Paine in Chile (left) and
Morro do Chapéu in Brazil (right) serve to illustrate the diversity of landscapes in South America. Click to enlarge.
South America
19.
Houseplant
–
A houseplant is a plant that is grown indoors in places such as residences and offices. Houseplants are commonly grown for decorative purposes, positive psychological effects, plants used in this fashion are most commonly, though not always, tropical or semi-tropical epiphytes, succulents or cacti. Houseplants need the correct moisture, light levels, soil mixture, temperature, as well, houseplants need the proper fertilizer and correct-sized pots. Major factors that should be considered when caring for houseplants are moisture, light, soil mixture, temperature, humidity, fertilizers, potting, the following includes some general guidelines for houseplant care. For specific houseplant needs, the tags that sometimes come with plants are notoriously unhelpful, specific care information may be found widely online and in books. Both under-watering and over-watering can be detrimental to a houseplant, the best way to determine whether a plant needs water is to check the soil moisture. Feeling the soil is most reliable, since moisture meters are often inaccurate, most potted plants must be allowed to reach an appropriate level of dryness in between waterings, though the amount of watering required varies greatly depending on the species. Proper soil moisture can range from slightly moist on the soil surface to very dry to nearly the bottom of the pot. Watering a plant by the calendar is not recommended, if a plant does need to be watered, water should be slowly poured over the surface of the soil until it begins to drain out the bottom of the pot, ensuring complete saturation. If this is the case, it may be necessary to set the plant in a dish of water long enough for it to soak up enough water to moisten the rootball to its center. Repotting should be done only when necessary, since the roots of a plant that is in a large pot may rot. Through the process of photosynthesis, plants convert the energy in sunlight to chemical energy, the two important factors for providing light to a house plant are intensity and duration. Different plants require different light intensities, intensity of light is difficult to measure without a light meter. It is usually measured in units of lux.100 lux or less is considered low intensity or indirect lighting. A bright office has about 400 lux of illumination,1,000 lux or more is usually considered high intensity lighting. Direct outdoor sunlight is in the range 32, 000-100,000 lux, the duration of light exposure is as important as the intensity. Quality exposure of 8 to 16 hours is ideal for most plants, photoperiodism must also be considered, since some plants such as Poinsettia and Schlumbergera are influenced by either decreasing or increasing daylight hours. Windows are the most common sources of light for houseplants, in the Northern Hemisphere, south-facing windows have the most sun exposure, while western, eastern, and north-facing windows have progressively less exposure
Houseplant
–
A variegated cultivar of
Sansevieria trifasciata (namely 'Laurentii'), a common houseplant
Houseplant
–
Succulents, or water-retaining plants, such as this jelly bean plant (
Sedum rubrotinctum), are often grown as houseplants
Houseplant
–
A skylight provides sun to these plants in the dining hall of
Currier House at
Harvard University
Houseplant
–
Some potted plants can grow to very large sizes, such as this tree found in
Auckland Airport.
20.
Weed
–
A weed is a plant considered undesirable in a particular situation, a plant in the wrong place. Examples commonly are plants unwanted in human-controlled settings, such as fields, gardens, lawns. Many plants that people widely regard as weeds also are grown in gardens and other cultivated settings. The term weed also is applied to any plant that grows or reproduces aggressively, Weed control is important in agriculture. Methods include hand cultivation with hoes, powered cultivation with cultivators, smothering with mulch, lethal wilting with high heat, burning, certain classes of weeds share adaptations to ruderal environments. The nature of the habitat and its disturbances will affect or even determine which types of weed communities become dominant. In contrast, perennial weeds often have underground stems that spread under the surface or, like ground ivy, have creeping stems that root. In locations where predation and mutually competitive relationships are absent, weeds have increased resources available for growth and these chemicals may limit the growth of established plants or the germination and growth of seeds and seedlings. A number of native or non-native plants are unwanted in a location for a number of reasons. An important one is that they interfere with food and fiber production in agriculture, other important reasons are that they interfere with other cosmetic, decorative, or recreational goals, such as in lawns, landscape architecture, playing fields, and golf courses. Similarly, they can be of concern for environmental reasons whereby introduced species out-compete for resources or space with desired endemic plants, in weed ecology some authorities speak of the relationship between the three Ps, plant, place, perception. These have been variously defined, but the weed traits listed by H. G. Baker are widely cited. Weeds have long been a concern, perhaps as long as humans have cultivated plants, and the Bible, Cursed is the ground because of you, through painful toil you will eat of it all the days of your life. It will produce thorns and thistles for you, and you eat the plants of the field. By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground, While the term weed generally has a negative connotation, many plants known as weeds can have beneficial properties. A number of weeds, such as the dandelion and lambs quarter, are edible, burdock is common over much of the world, and is sometimes used to make soup and medicine in East Asia. Some weeds attract beneficial insects, which in turn can protect crops from harmful pests, Weeds can also prevent pest insects from finding a crop, because their presence disrupts the incidence of positive cues which pests use to locate their food. Weeds may also act as a mulch, providing ground cover that reduces moisture loss
Weed
–
A
dandelion is a common plant all over the world, especially in Europe, Asia, and the Americas. It is a well-known example of a plant that is considered a weed in some contexts (such as lawns) but not a weed in others (such as when it is used as a
leaf vegetable or
herbal medicine).
Weed
–
700 cattle that were killed overnight by a poisonous weed.
Weed
–
This article is about plants specifically called weeds. For the drug, see
cannabis (drug). For other uses, see
weed (disambiguation).
21.
Invasive species
–
One study pointed out widely divergent perceptions of the criteria for invasive species among researchers and concerns with the subjectivity of the term invasive. Such invasive species may be either plants or animals and may disrupt by dominating a region, wilderness areas, particular habitats and this includes non-native invasive plant species labeled as exotic pest plants and invasive exotics growing in native plant communities. It has been used in this sense by government organizations as well as groups such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The European Union defines Invasive Alien Species as those that are, firstly, outside their natural distribution area and it is also used by land managers, botanists, researchers, horticulturalists, conservationists, and the public for noxious weeds. The kudzu vine, Andean Pampas grass, and yellow starthistle are examples, an alternate usage broadens the term to include indigenous or native species along with non-native species, that have colonized natural areas. Deer are an example, considered to be overpopulating their native zones and adjacent suburban gardens, by some in the Northeastern, sometimes the term is used to describe a non-native or introduced species that has become widespread. However, not every introduced species has adverse effects on the environment, a nonadverse example is the common goldfish, which is found throughout the United States, but rarely achieves high densities. Scientists include species and ecosystem factors among the mechanisms that when combined, while all species compete to survive, invasive species appear to have specific traits or specific combinations of traits that allow them to outcompete native species. In some cases, the competition is about rates of growth, in other cases, species interact with each other more directly. Researchers disagree about the usefulness of traits as invasiveness markers, one study found that of a list of invasive and noninvasive species, 86% of the invasive species could be identified from the traits alone. Another study found invasive species tended to have only a subset of the presumed traits. Repeated patterns of movement, such as ships sailing to and from ports or cars driving up. An introduced species might become if it can outcompete native species for resources such as nutrients, light, physical space, water. If these species evolved under great competition or predation, then the new environment may host fewer able competitors, allowing the invader to proliferate quickly. Ecosystems in which are being used to their fullest capacity by native species can be modeled as zero-sum systems in which any gain for the invader is a loss for the native, however, such unilateral competitive superiority is not the rule. For example, barbed goatgrass was introduced to California on serpentine soils, which have low water-retention, low nutrient levels, a high magnesium/calcium ratio, and possible heavy metal toxicity. Plant populations on these soils tend to low density, but goatgrass can form dense stands on these soils. Some species, like Kalanchoe daigremontana, produce allelopathic compounds, that might have an effect on competing species
Invasive species
–
Beavers from North America constitute an invasive species in
Tierra del Fuego, where they have a substantial impact on landscape and local ecology through
their dams.
Invasive species
–
Kudzu, a Japanese vine species invasive in the southeast United States, growing in
Atlanta,
Georgia
Invasive species
–
Lantana growing in abandoned
citrus plantation;
Moshav Sdei Hemed,
Israel
Invasive species
–
The
brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis)
22.
Hawaii
–
Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
Hawaii
–
Hawaii from space, January 26, 2014
Hawaii
–
Flag
Hawaii
–
Nā Pali coast, Kaua ʻ i
Hawaii
–
The main islands and undersea terrain of Hawaii
23.
Mimosa tenuiflora
–
It is most often found in lower altitudes, but it can be found as high as 1,000 m. The fern-like branches have leaves that are Mimosa like, finely pinnate, each compound leaf contains 15–33 pairs of bright green leaflets 5–6 mm long. The tree itself grows up to 8 m tall and it can reach 4–5 m tall in less than 5 years, the white, fragrant flowers occur in loosely cylindrical spikes 4–8 long. In the Northern Hemisphere it blossoms and produces fruit from November to June or July, in the Southern Hemisphere it blooms primarily from September to January. The fruit is brittle and averages 2. 5–5 cm long, each pod contains 4–6 seeds that are oval, flat, light brown and 3–4 mm in diameter. There are about 145 seeds/1 g, in the Southern Hemisphere, the fruit ripens from February to April. The trees bark is brown to gray. It splits lengthwise and the inside is reddish brown, the trees wood is dark reddish brown with a yellow center. It is very dense, durable and strong, having a density of about 1.11 g/cm³, Mimosa tenuiflora does very well after a forest fire, or other major ecological disturbance. It is a pioneer plant. It drops its leaves on the ground, continuously forming a layer of mulch. Along with its ability to fix nitrogen, the conditions the soil. A tea made of the leaves and stem has been used to treat tooth pain, for cases of cough and bronchitis, a water extract of Mimosa tenuiflora is drunk. A handful of bark in one liter of water is used by itself or in a syrup, the solution is drunk until the symptoms subside. One preliminary clinical study found Mimosa tenuiflora to be effective in treating venous leg ulcerations, aqueous extracts of Mimosa are widely used for wound healing and burns in Middle and South America. The tree is a source of forage or fodder for animals, providing vital protein. It does well in the dry season and in drought, while providing life saving food for local livestock, cows, goats and sheep eat the pods and leaves. There seems to be evidence that Mimosa tenuiflora forage or fodder cause development defects to pregnant ruminants in Brazil, the tree is an important source of forage for bees, especially during the dry season and in the beginning of the wet season
Mimosa tenuiflora
–
Mimosa tenuiflora
Mimosa tenuiflora
Mimosa tenuiflora
–
Small Mimosa tenuiflora stem and roots
Mimosa tenuiflora
–
Mimosa tenuiflora root bark
24.
Ayahuasca
–
Ayahuasca, or iowaska, or yagé, is an entheogenic brew made out of Banisteriopsis caapi vine and other ingredients. The brew is used as a spiritual medicine in ceremonies among the Indigenous peoples of the Amazon basin. It can be mixed with the leaves of the Psychotria viridis leaf or chagropanga, or mimosa tenuiflora rootbark and it has been reported that some psychoactive effects can be felt from consuming the ayahuasca vine alone. The hallucinogen DMT will be digested in the stomach and remain inactive without the inclusion of a monoamine oxidase inhibitor such as Banisteriopsis caapi, therefore, a combination of both a MAOI-containing plant and DMT-containing substance is necessary for full hallucinogenic effects. The resulting brew is known by a number of different names, ayahuasca is known by many names throughout Northern South America and Brazil. Ayahuasca is the hispanicized spelling of a word in the Quechua languages, which are spoken in the Andean states of Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru. Speakers of Quechua languages or of the Aymara language may prefer the spelling ayawaska and this word refers both to the liana Banisteriopsis caapi, and to the brew prepared from it. In the Quechua languages, aya means spirit, soul, corpse, dead body, the word ayahuasca has been variously translated as liana of the soul, liana of the dead, and spirit liana. In Brazil, the brew and the liana are informally called either caapi or cipó, in the União do Vegetal of Brazil, an organised spiritual tradition in which people drink ayahuasca, the brew is prepared exclusively from B. caapi and P. viridis. Adherents of União do Vegetal call this brew hoasca or vegetal, the Achuar people and Shuar people of Ecuador and Peru call it natem, whereas the Sharanahua peoples of Peru call it shori. In the 16th century, Christian missionaries from Spain and Portugal first encountered indigenous South Americans using ayahuasca, ayahuasca became more widely known when the McKenna brothers published their experience in the Amazon in True Hallucinations. Dennis McKenna later studied the pharmacology, botany, and chemistry of ayahuasca and oo-koo-he, richard Evans Schultes allowed for Claudio Naranjo to make a special journey by canoe up the Amazon River to study yage with the South American Indians. He brought back samples of drug and published the first scientific description of the effects of its active alkaloids. Both Santo Daime and União do Vegetal now have members and churches throughout the world, similarly, the US and Europe have started to see new religious groups develop in relation to increased ayahuasca use. Sections of Banisteriopsis caapi vine are macerated and boiled alone or with leaves from any of a number of other plants, the resulting brew may contain the powerful psychedelic drug DMT and MAO inhibiting harmala alkaloids, which are necessary to make the DMT orally active. The traditional making of ayahuasca follows a process that requires the user to pick the lower chacruna leaf at sunrise then say a prayer. The vine must be cleaned meticulously with wooden spoons and pounded with wooden mallets until its fibre, ayahuasca is used largely as a religious sacrament. While non-native users know of the applications of ayahuasca, a less well-known traditional usage focuses on the medicinal properties of ayahuasca
Ayahuasca
–
Ayahuasca cooking in the
Loreto region of
Peru
Ayahuasca
–
Ayahuasca cooking
Ayahuasca
–
Ayahuasca
Ayahuasca
–
Ayahuasca being prepared in the
Napo region of
Ecuador
25.
Dimethyltryptamine
–
N, N-Dimethyltryptamine is a powerful psychedelic compound of the tryptamine family. It is a analog of serotonin and melatonin and a functional analog of other psychedelic tryptamines such as 4-AcO-DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, 5-HO-DMT, psilocybin. Historically, it has been consumed by indigenous Amazonian cultures in the form of ayahuasca for divinatory and it was first synthesised in 1931, and in 1946, microbiologist Oswaldo Gonçalves de Lima discovered its natural presence in plants. In the 1960s, it was detected in mammalian organisms as well, DMT is known for its relatively short duration of action, intense effects and rapid onset. For that reason, DMT was known as a trip during the 1960s in the United States. DMT can be inhaled, injected, or orally ingested, and its effects depend on the dose, the effects last a short period of time,5 to 15 min. Longer effects can be achieved by oral ingestion, over 3 hours, DMT can produce psychedelic experiences involving euphoria and hallucinations. In most countries, DMT is illegal, the dependence potential of DMT and the risk of sustained psychological disturbance are minimal when used for religious ceremonies. DMT, like most psychedelics, is considered to be neither addictive, growth hormone blood levels rose equally in response to all doses of DMT, and melatonin levels were unaffected. Several scientific experimental studies have tried to measure subjective experiences of altered states of consciousness induced by drugs, here it is important to notice that in scientific studies measurements are conducted in laboratories under highly controlled and safe conditions. It appears that the set and setting have an influence, therefore if the drug is taken in different settings. In the 1990s, Strassman and his colleagues conducted a five year long DMT study at the University of New Mexico, the results provided insight about the quality of subjective psychedelic experiences. In this study received the DMT dosage intravenously via injection. Lower doses produced somaesthetic and emotional responses, but not hallucinogenic experiences, in contrary, higher doses researchers labeled as hallucinogenic that elicited intensely colored, rapidly moving display of visual images, formed, abstract or both. Comparing to other sensory modalities the most affected was visual domain, Strassman also stressed the importance of the context where drug has been taken. He claimed that DMT has no effects of itself, rather the context when. It appears that DMT can produce a hallucinogenic experience and it can induce a state or feeling to a person that she or he is able to communicate with other intelligent-life forms. High doses of DMT produce a state that involves sense of another intelligence that people sometimes describe as super-intelligent
Dimethyltryptamine
–
DMT crystals
Dimethyltryptamine
–
N, N -Dimethyltryptamine
Dimethyltryptamine
–
DMT crystal at 400× magnification
Dimethyltryptamine
–
DMT during various stages of purification
26.
Pinnation
–
Pinnation is the arrangement of feather-like or multi-divided features arising from both sides of a common axis. Pinnation occurs in biological morphology, in crystals, such as forms of ice or metal crystals. The term derives from the Latin word pinna meaning feather, wing, a similar concept is pectination, which is a comb-like arrangement of parts. Pinnation is commonly referred to in contrast to palmation, in which the parts or structures radiate out from a common point. The terms pinnation and pennation are cognate, and although they are used distinctly. Botanically, pinnation is an arrangement of structures arising at multiple points along a common axis. For example, once-divided leaf blades having leaflets arranged on both sides of a rachis are pinnately compound leaves, many palms and most cycads and grevilleas have pinnately divided leaves. Most species of ferns have pinnate or more highly divided fronds, plants with pinnate leaves are sometimes colloquially called feather-leaved. Pinnatisect, cut all the way to the midrib or other axis, pinnate-pinnatifid, pinnate, with the pinnae being pinnatifid. Paripinnate, pinnately compound leaves in which leaflets are born in pairs along the rachis without a terminal leaflet. Imparipinnate, pinnately compound leaves in which there is a terminal leaflet rather than a terminal pair of leaflets. Bipinnate, pinnately compound leaves in which the leaflets are themselves pinnately compound, tripinnate, pinnately compound leaves in which the leaflets are themselves bipinnate, also called thrice-pinnate. Tetrapinnate, pinnately compound leaves in which the leaflets are themselves tripinnate, unipinnate, solitary compound leaf with a row of leaflets arranged along each side of a common rachis. The term pinnula is the Latin diminutive of pinna, either as such or in the Anglicised form, pinnule, some apply it to the leaflets of a pinna, especially the leaflets of bipinnate or tripinnate leaves. Others also or alternatively apply it second or third divisions of a bipinnate or tripinnate leaf. It is the ultimate division of a compound leaf, or a pinnate subdivision of a multipinnate leaf. Pinnation occurs in certain systems in which all major tributary streams enter the main channels by flowing in one direction at an oblique angle
Pinnation
–
A simple pinnate (unipinnate) frond of the fern,
Blechnum appendiculatum.
Pinnation
–
Bipinnate leaves of species of palm in the genus Caryota
27.
Rapid plant movement
–
Rapid plant movement encompasses movement in plant structures occurring over a very short period, usually under one second. For example, the Venus flytrap closes its trap in about 100 milliseconds, the dogwood bunchberrys flower opens its petals and fires pollen in less than 0.5 milliseconds. These rapid plant movements differ from the common, but much slower growth-movements of plants. In 1880 Charles Darwin published The Power of Movement in Plants, have seed pods which explode when touched
Rapid plant movement
–
The
Venus Flytrap is one of a very small group of plants that are capable of rapid movement.
28.
Telegraph plant
–
Codariocalyx motorius, known as the telegraph plant or semaphore plant, is a tropical Asian shrub, one of a few plants capable of rapid movement, others include Mimosa pudica and the venus flytrap. It is widely distributed throughout Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. It can even be found on the Society Islands, a chain of islands in the South Pacific. This plant has small, lateral leaflets which move at speeds rapid enough to be perceivable with the naked eye and this is possibly a strategy to maximise light by tracking the sun. Each leaf is equipped with a hinge that permits it to be moved to more sunlight. To optimise its movement, each leaf has two small leaflets at its base. These move constantly along a path, sampling the intensity of sunlight. Another hypothesis has been offered that the movements are intended to deter potential predators. The plant is described in detail in Charles Darwins 1880 The Power of Movement in Plants, due to its special characteristic that it can ‘dance’, the plant has been used as ornament in gardening, in which some are made as bonsais. Apart from ornamental value, the plant also has value, due to its leaves, stems and roots containing small amounts of tryptamine alkaloids. Trout’s Notes on the Genus Desmodium Chemistry, ethnomedicine, pharmacology, synonyms and miscellany Keyes, WJ, Taylor, JV, Apkarian, RP, Lynn, social controls in parasitic plant development
Telegraph plant
–
Telegraph plant
29.
Aldrovanda
–
Aldrovanda /ældrəˈvændə/ is a genus of carnivorous plants encompassing one extant species and numerous extinct taxa. The genus is named in honor of the Italian naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi, Aldrovanda vesiculosa has been reported from scattered locations in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. The waterwheel is a small, free floating and rootless aquatic plant, with a length of about 1.5 to 20 cm, at every 3 to 4 cm the plant branches, sometimes forming offshoots. An average of 12 to 19 whorls spans the length of the plant, each with about 5 to 9 leaves, the growth is faster than terrestrial carnivorous plants, sometimes growing about 4 to 9 mm a day. In temperate regions the plant goes dormant in the winter, forming turions of about 4–6 mm, in tropical regions, the plant grows all year long without forming turions. The plant flourishes and produces seeds only in warmer regions, with temperatures higher than 25 °C, and produces only one flower, white or light pink. In temperate regions, the plant reproduces mostly via asexual means, the leaf structure is very similar to the Dionaea, the main difference being air chambers present in the stem. The traps, at the end of the leaf, contains up to 6 bristles, analog to the Dionaea teeths, each trap contains additional 60–80 smaller teeth, and circa 30–40 trigger hairs inside. The speed of closing is about 0.01 to 0.02 seconds, the trap mechanism is akin to that present in Dionaea - Darwin even named it the miniature aquatic Dionaea. The mechanism by which the trap snaps shut involves an interaction between elasticity, turgor and growth. In the open, untripped state, the lobes are convex, but in the closed state and it is the rapid flipping of this bistable state that closes the trap, but the mechanism by which this occurs is still poorly understood. When the trigger hairs are stimulated, a potential is generated. The extinct species are only from fossil pollen and seeds, with the exception of A. inopinata. The organ of carnivory in Aldrovanda is the snap trap, snap traps are only found in one other carnivorous plant genus, Dionaea, which comprises the commonly known Venus flytrap. Aldrovanda and Dionaea have been shown to share a most recent common ancestor by analysis of combined nuclear, when sequences of chloroplast DNA of Aldrovanda, Dionaea, and Drosera were analyzed alone, however, Aldrovanda and Drosera were shown to share a most recent common ancestor. Several undescribed species are also known, the distinctions between the various named species have been criticised, although SEM analysis of the seed structures seems to confirm the existence of different species
Aldrovanda
–
Aldrovanda Temporal range:
Paleocene - Recent
30.
Drosera
–
Drosera, commonly known as the sundews, is one of the largest genera of carnivorous plants, with at least 194 species. These members of the family Droseraceae lure, capture, and digest insects using stalked mucilaginous glands covering their leaf surfaces, the insects are used to supplement the poor mineral nutrition of the soil in which the plants grow. Various species, which vary greatly in size and form, are native to every continent except Antarctica, both the botanical name and the English common name refer to the glistening drops of mucilage at the tip of each tentacle that resemble drops of morning dew. Sundews are perennial plants, forming prostrate or upright rosettes between 1 and 100 cm in height, depending on the species. Climbing species form scrambling stems which can reach much longer lengths, sundews have been shown to be able to achieve a lifespan of 50 years. The genus is so specialized for nutrient uptake through its carnivorous behavior, the genus can be divided into several habits, or growth forms, Temperate sundews, These species form a tight cluster of unfurled leaves called a hibernaculum in a winter dormancy period. All of the North American and European species belong to this group, Drosera arcturi from Australia and New Zealand is another temperate species that dies back to a horn-shaped hibernaculum. Subtropical sundews, These species maintain vegetative growth year-round under uniform or nearly uniform climatic conditions and these hairs serve to protect the plants from Australias intense summer sun. Pygmy sundews form the subgenus Bryastrum, tuberous sundews, These nearly 50 Australian species form an underground tuber to survive the extremely dry summers of their habitat, re-emerging in the autumn. These so-called tuberous sundews can be divided into two groups, those that form rosettes and those that form climbing or scrambling stems. Tuberous sundews comprise the subgenus Ergaleium, Petiolaris complex, A group of tropical Australian species, they live in constantly warm but sometimes wet conditions. Several of the 14 species that comprise this group have developed strategies to cope with the alternately drier conditions. Many species, for example, have petioles densely covered in trichomes, the Petiolaris complex comprises the subgenus Lasiocephala. Sundews are characterised by the tentacles, topped with sticky secretions. Small prey, mainly consisting of insects, are attracted by the secretions of the peduncular glands. Upon touching these, the prey become entrapped by sticky mucilage which prevents their progress or escape, eventually, the prey either succumb to death through exhaustion or through asphyxiation as the mucilage envelops them and clogs their spiracles. Death usually occurs within 15 minutes, the plant meanwhile secretes esterase, peroxidase, phosphatase and protease enzymes. These enzymes dissolve the insect and free the nutrients contained within it and this nutrient mixture is then absorbed through the leaf surfaces to be used by the rest of the plant
Drosera
–
Drosera
Drosera
–
A tuber of
D. zonaria, a tuberous sundew, beginning its winter growth
Drosera
–
D. derbyensis, from the petiolaris complex
Drosera
–
Leaf and tentacle movement on
D. capensis
31.
Venus flytrap
–
The Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula, is a carnivorous plant native to subtropical wetlands on the East Coast of the United States in North Carolina and South Carolina. It catches its prey—chiefly insects and arachnids—with a trapping structure formed by the portion of each of the plants leaves. When an insect or spider crawling along the leaves contacts a hair, Dionaea is a monotypic genus closely related to the waterwheel plant and sundews, all of which belong to the family Droseraceae. The Venus flytrap is a plant whose structure can be described as a rosette of four to seven leaves. Each stem reaches a size of about three to ten centimeters, depending on the time of year, longer leaves with robust traps are usually formed after flowering. Flytraps that have more than seven leaves are formed by rosettes that have divided beneath the ground. The leaf blade is divided into two regions, a flat, heart-shaped photosynthesis-capable petiole, and a pair of terminal lobes hinged at the midrib, the upper surface of these lobes contains red anthocyanin pigments and its edges secrete mucilage. The lobes exhibit rapid plant movements, snapping shut when stimulated by prey, the trapping mechanism is tripped when prey contacts one of the three hair-like trichomes that are found on the upper surface of each of the lobes. The edges of the lobes are fringed by stiff hair-like protrusions or cilia and these protrusions, and the trigger hairs are likely homologous with the tentacles found in this plant’s close relatives, the sundews. Scientists have concluded that the snap trap evolved from a trap similar to that of Drosera. The holes in the meshwork allow small prey to escape, presumably because the benefit that would be obtained from them would be less than the cost of digesting them, if the prey is too small and escapes, the trap will usually reopen within 12 hours. If the prey moves around in the trap, it tightens, speed of closing can vary depending on the amount of humidity, light, size of prey, and general growing conditions. The speed with which traps close can be used as an indicator of a general health. Venus flytraps are not as humidity-dependent as are some other plants, such as Nepenthes, Cephalotus, most Heliamphora. The Venus flytrap exhibits variations in shape and length and whether the leaf lies flat on the ground or extends up at an angle of about 40–60 degrees. Except for filiformis, all of these can be stages in leaf production of any plant depending on season, length of photoperiod, the plants common name refers to Venus, the Roman goddess of love. The genus name, Dionaea, refers to the Greek goddess Aphrodite, while the species name, historically, the plant was also known by the slang term tipitiwitchet or tippity twitchet, possibly an oblique reference to the plants resemblance to human female genitalia. Most carnivorous plants selectively feed on specific prey and this selection is due to the available prey and the type of trap used by the organism
Venus flytrap
–
Venus flytrap
Venus flytrap
–
Illustration from
Curtis's Botanical Magazine by
William Curtis (1746–1799)
Venus flytrap
Venus flytrap
32.
Acacia
–
Acacia, commonly known as the wattles or acacias, is a large genus of shrubs, lianas and trees in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea family Fabaceae. Initially it comprised a group of plant species native to Africa and Australia, controversy erupted in the early 2000s when it became evident that the genus as it stood was not monophyletic, and that several divergent lineages needed to be placed in separate genera. It turned out that one lineage comprising over 900 species mainly native to Australia was not closely related to the mainly African lineage that contained A. nilotica—the first and this meant that the Australian lineage would need to be renamed. Botanist Les Pedley named this group Racosperma, which was inconsistently adopted and this was officially adopted, but many botanists from Africa and elsewhere disagreed that this was necessary. A number of species have been introduced to parts of the world. The heterogeneous group varies considerably in habit, from mat-like subshrubs to canopy trees in forest, the genus was first described from Africa by C. F. P. von Martius in 1829. Several hundred combinations in Acacia were published by Pedley in 2003, the genus of 981 species, Acacia s. l. in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea family Fabaceae is monophyletic. All but 10 of its species are native to Australia, where it constitutes the largest plant genus, following a controversial decision to choose a new type for Acacia in 2005, the Australian component of Acacia s. l. now retains the name Acacia. At the 2011 International Botanical Congress held in Melbourne, the decision to use the name Acacia, other Acacia s. l. taxa continue to be called Acacia by those who choose to consider the entire group as one genus. Australian species of the genus Paraserianthes s. l. are deemed its closest relatives, the origin of wattle may be an Old Teutonic word meaning to weave. From around 700 A. D. watul was used in Old English to refer to the branches and sticks which formed fences, walls. Since about 1810 it refers to the Australian legumes that provide these branches, acacias in Australia probably evolved their fire resistance about 20 million years ago when fossilised charcoal deposits show a large increase, indicating that fire was a factor even then. With no major mountain ranges or rivers to prevent their spread and they began to form dry, open forests with species of the genera Casuarina, Eucalyptus and Callitris. The southernmost species in the genus are Acacia dealbata, Acacia longifolia, Acacia mearnsii and they are present in all terrestrial habitats, including alpine settings, rainforests, woodlands, grasslands, coastal dunes and deserts. In drier woodlands or forest they are an important component of the understory, elsewhere they may be dominant, as in the Brigalow Belt, Myall woodlands and the eremaean Mulga woodlands. Several of its species bear vertically oriented phyllodes, which are green, broadened leaf petioles that function like leaf blades, some phyllodinous species have a colourful aril on the seed. A few species have rather than leaves. Aborigines of Australia have traditionally harvested the seeds of species, to be ground into flour
Acacia
–
Acacia
Acacia
33.
Albizia
–
Albizia is a genus of about 150 species of mostly fast-growing subtropical and tropical trees and shrubs in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae. The genus is pantropical, occurring in Asia, Africa, Madagascar, America and Australia, in some locations, some species are considered weeds. They are commonly called silk plants, silk trees, or sirises, the obsolete spelling of the generic name - with double z - is still common, so the plants may be called albizzias. The generic name honors the Italian nobleman Filippo degli Albizzi, who introduced Albizia julibrissin to Europe in the mid-18th century, some species are commonly called mimosa, which more accurately refers to plants of genus Mimosa. Species from southeast Asia used for timber are sometime termed East Indian walnut and they are usually small trees or shrubs with a short lifespan, though the famous Samán del Guère near Maracay in Venezuela is a huge Albizia saman specimen several hundred years old. The leaves are pinnately or bipinnately compound, the small flowers are in bundles, with stamens much longer than the petals. The stamens are usually showy, although in some such as A. canescens the flowers are inconspicuous. Unlike those of Mimosa, Albizia flowers have many more than 10 stamens, Albizia can also be told apart from another large related genus, Acacia, by its stamens, which are joined at the bases instead of separate. Albizias are important forage, timber, and medicinal plants, some species are used as food plants by the larvae of moths in the genus Endoclita, including E. damor, E. malabaricus, and E. sericeus. Numerous species placed in Albizia by early authors were eventually moved to other genera, other genera of Ingeae have also received their share of former Albizia species, as have the Mimoseae Newtonia and Schleinitzia. Some presumed silk trees are in fact misidentified members of the not very closely related genus Erythrophleum from the Caesalpinioideae and Lebeckia from the Faboideae. The delimitation of Falcataria and Pithecellobium, close relatives of Albizia, is notoriously complex and these include Falcataria moluccana, a common shade tree on tea plantations. Other closely related genera like Chloroleucon and Samanea are often merged with Albizia entirely, molucca albizia is considered an invasive species in Hawaii and on many other Pacific Islands. The tree grows rapidly and can quickly colonize disturbed areas in wet environments. It tends to shed large branches, damaging power lines, houses, list of Albizia species Dressler, S. Schmidt, M. & Zizka, G. Albizia. African plants – a Photo Guide
Albizia
–
Albizia
Albizia
–
Albizia procera fruits
34.
Stamen
–
The stamen is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium, a stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filament and an anther which contains microsporangia. Most commonly anthers are two-lobed and are attached to the filament either at the base or in the area of the anther. The sterile tissue between the lobes is called the connective, a pollen grain develops from a microspore in the microsporangium and contains the male gametophyte. The stamens in a flower are called the androecium. The androecium can consist of as few a one-half stamen as in Canna species or as many as 3,482 stamens which have been counted in Carnegiea gigantea, the androecium in various species of plants forms a great variety of patterns, some of them highly complex. It surrounds the gynoecium and is surrounded by the perianth, a few members of the family Triuridaceae, particularly Lacandonia schismatica, are exceptional in that their gynoecia surround their androecia. Stamen is the Latin word meaning thread, depending on the species of plant, some or all of the stamens in a flower may be attached to the petals or to the floral axis. They also may be free-standing or fused to one another in different ways, including fusion of some. The filaments may be fused and the free, or the filaments free. Rather than there being two locules, one locule of a stamen may fail to develop, or alternatively the two locules may merge late in development to give a single locule, a typical anther contains four microsporangia. The microsporangia form sacs or pockets in the anther, the two separate locules on each side of an anther may fuse into a single locule. Each microsporangium is lined with a tissue layer called the tapetum. These undergo meiosis to form haploid spores, the spores may remain attached to each other in a tetrad or separate after meiosis. Each microspore then divides mitotically to form an immature microgametophyte called a pollen grain, the pollen is eventually released when the anther forms openings. These may consist of longitudinal slits, pores, as in the family, or by valves. More commonly, mature pollen grains separate and are dispensed by wind or water, pollinating insects, pollen of angiosperms must be transported to the stigma, the receptive surface of the carpel, of a compatible flower, for successful pollination to occur. After arriving, the pollen grain typically completes its development and it may grow a pollen tube and undergoing mitosis to produce two sperm nuclei
Stamen
–
Stamens of a
Hippeastrum with white filaments and prominent anthers carrying
pollen
Stamen
–
Hippeastrum flowers showing stamens above the style with its terminal stigma
Stamen
–
Cross section of a Lilium stamen, with four locules surrounded by the tapetum
Stamen
–
Stamen with
pollinia and its
anther cap.
Phalaenopsis orchid.
35.
Heptanoic acid
–
Heptanoic acid, also called enanthic acid, is an organic compound composed of a seven-carbon chain terminating in a carboxylic acid. It is a liquid with an unpleasant, rancid odor. It contributes to the odor of some rancid oils and it is slightly soluble in water, but very soluble in ethanol and ether. The methyl ester of ricinoleic acid, obtained from castor oil, is the main commercial precursor to heptanoic acid. It is pyrolyzed to the ester of undecenoic acid and heptanal. Approximately 20,000 tons were consumed in Europe and US in 1980, heptanoic acid is used in the preparation of esters, such as ethyl heptanoate, which are used in fragrances and as artificial flavors. Heptanoic acid is used to esterify steroids in the preparation of such as testosterone enanthate, trenbolone enanthate, drostanolone enanthate. It is also one of many additives in cigarettes
Heptanoic acid
–
Ricinoleic acid is the main precursor to heptanoic acid.
36.
Mimosa diplotricha
–
Mimosa diplotricha is a species of leguminous woody shrub native to the Neotropics. It is a species and now has a pantropical distribution. It is commonly known as the giant sensitive plant, giant false sensitive plant, Mimosa diplotricha is classified under the genus Mimosa in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the legume family, Fabaceae. It was first described by the American botanist Charles Wright in 1869, the specific epithet is derived from Ancient Greek διπλόος and θρίξ. Mimosa diplotricha was also described earlier by the German botanist Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius as Mimosa invisa in 1837, but he had already given the name Mimosa invisa in 1834 to a different species. The name he gave is therefore a heterotypic posterior homonym and thus nomen illegitimum, wrights name becomes the earliest correct name for the species, while the name Mimosa invisa is now accepted as the correct name for Mimosa rhodostachya. However the name Mimosa invisa is still used incorrectly by some authors for Mimosa diplotricha, Mimosa diplotricha includes three varieties, Mimosa diplotricha var. diplotricha C. Wright ex Sauvalle- The nominate variety. Characterized by seed pods that are 10 to 25 mm long, Mimosa diplotricha var. odibilis Barneby - Found only in Mexico, from Sinaloa to Michoacán. Characterized by seed pods that are 40 to 70 mm long, Mimosa diplotricha var. inermis Verdcourt - A thornless variety found in tropical Asia. It appears to be a de novo mutation that first arose in Indonesia, Mimosa diplotricha is known as the giant sensitive plant, giant false sensitive plant, or nila grass in English. In the Americas, it is known dormilona de playa, rabo de iguana, and raspancilla in Spanish and it is also known as sensitiva trepadora in Cuba, and analeira, dormideira, juquiri-rasteiro, malicia-de-mulher, or sensitiva in Brazil. In South Asia and Indochina it is known as anthottawadi or padaincha in India, banla saet in Cambodia, cõ trinh nu móc in Vietnam, Mimosa diplotricha grows as an erect shrub or a scrambling climber, reaching a height of around 3 m. Its leaves are bipinnate and bright green with a feathery appearance and they are arranged alternately along the stems. Each leaf contains around twenty pairs of small sessile lanceolate leaflets arranged opposite each other, each leaflet measures around 6 to 12 mm long and 1.5 mm wide. Like the related Mimosa pudica, the leaves are sensitive to touch, the stems are characteristically very long. They are squarish in cross-section, with four ridges running lengthwise, a dense row of very sharp recurved thorns run along the ridges, each around 3 to 6 mm long. The flowers are pink and looks like a clustered fluffy ball. They are around 12 mm in diameter and arise from short stalks from the leaf joints, the corolla is fused, and there are two stamens for every petal
Mimosa diplotricha
–
Giant false sensitive plant
37.
Kerala
–
Kerala historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions, spread over 38,863 km2, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE, the Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, after independence, Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949. In 1956, Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin, Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India, the production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, the states coastline extends for 595 kilometres, and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the states income. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology, One popular theory derives Kerala from Kera and alam is land, thus land of coconuts, this also happens to be a nickname for the state due to abundance of coconut trees and its use by the locals. The word Kerala is first recorded in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka, the inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra, or son of Chera. This contradicts the theory that Kera is from coconut tree, at that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil, Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for lake, the earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics, the Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam or chera alam, the Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra. According to Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the warrior sage Parasurama. Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached, according to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation, so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land
Kerala
–
A houseboat near
Alappuzha, Kerala
Kerala
–
Parasurama, surrounded by settlers, commanding
Varuna (the
Hindu God of water) to part the seas and reveal Kerala.
Kerala
–
A
dolmen erected by Neolithic people in
Marayur
Kerala
–
Silk Road map. The spice trade was mainly along the water routes (blue).
38.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
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Flag
India
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The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
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Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
39.
Mimosa scabrella
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Mimosa scabrella is a tree in the Fabaceae family. It is very fast-growing and it can reach a height of 15 m tall in only 3 years and its trunk is about 0. 1–0.5 m in diameter. Mimosa scabrella is a tree of the Fabaceae family, sub-family Mimosoideae and it is a cross pollinating, mostly tetraploid plant with 52 chromosomes. M. scabrella is native to the region of Brazil. There it grows naturally in associations called “Bracatingais”, especially the Cerrado zone is a centre of biodiversity, where about one quarter of all Mimosa species are found. It is one of the fastest growing trees in the world, within 14 months Mimosa scabrella grows up to 5 m, in 2 years it reaches 8–9 m and in 3 years it can grow to a height of 15 m. The plant is characterized by growth, with a lean trunk of around 10–50 cm in diameter. Each leaf has several pinna, which again have 15–31 pairs of pinnules, the upper side of the leaves is yellow-green coloured with a paler underneath. The flowers with ovary, narrow and slender pistils are ordered in clusters of 1–3 at the leaf bases and they are coloured in a whitish to yellow colour. Split-open pods are flattened, 2–4 mm wide and 5–9 mm long and they are covered with tiny warts and separated into 2–4 segments. Each segment is 4-angeled and 1-seeded, the seeds are little, brown, beanlike and about 3–6 mm long. The dominant reproductive system is an allogamy system, the reproductive age of M. scabrella is reached after around 3 years. The long fibres can be used for paper production, because of abundant flowering M. scabrella can be used in honey production. Its wood is suitable for firewood and can also be used as lumber, before the advent of the diesel locomotive, M. scabrella wood was grown to fuel railroads in parts of Brazil. In agroforestry M. scabrella shades coffee plants and it is also used in intercropping systems in association with maize and beans. Because M. scabrella is a tree it doesnt need fertilization and with the decomposition of the leaves. Because M. scabrella has beautiful “feather” leaves, it is used as an ornamental tree or live fence. Because of its fast growth it can be used for reforestation, Mimosa scabrella contains tryptamine, N-methyltryptamine, N, N-dimethyltryptamine and N-methyltetrahydrocarboline in its bark
Mimosa scabrella
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Mimosa scabrella
40.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
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Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London
London
London
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The name London may derive from the
River Thames
41.
Mimosa pigra
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Mimosa pigra, commonly known as the giant sensitive tree, is a species of the genus Mimosa, in the family Fabaceae. It is native to the Neotropics, but has been listed as one of the worlds 100 worst invasive species and forms dense, thorny, impenetrable thickets, the genus Mimosa contains 400-450 species, which are mostly native to South America. Mimosa pigra is a woody shrub that originates from tropical America and has now become widespread throughout the tropics. Mimosa pigra was first identified by Linnaeus, who named a separate species Mimosa asperata. Mimosa pigra was described as having an erect prickle between the pinnae and Mimosa asperata as having prickles in opposite pairs between the pinnae. Further research showed that both forms can occur on the same plant, and consequently both species were united under the name Mimosa asperata asperata, and later on, renamed Mimosa pigra. The scientific name remains Mimosa pigra, in Australia, the common name is mimosa or giant sensitive plant. Other common names include, bashful plant, catclaw mimosa, black mimosa, Mimosa pigra is a leguminous shrub, which can reach up to 6m in height. The stem is greenish in young plants but becomes woody as the plant matures and it is armed with broad-based prickles up to 7mm long. The leaves are green and bipinnate, consisting of a central prickly rachis 20 to 25 cm long with up to 16 pairs of pinnae 5 cm long. Leaves are sensitive and fold up when touched and at nightfall, flowers are mauve or pink, in tight, subglobose pedunculate heads 1 cm in diameter, each containing approximately 100 flowers. Each flower head produces a cluster of 10 to 20 seedpods, hairs on the segments allow them to float on water and stick to hair or clothing, hence aiding in dispersal. Ripe seeds are brown to brown or olive green. Seeds can survive at least 23 years on sandy soils, Mimosa pigra can germinate year round if the soil is moist but not flooded. However, most germination takes place at the start and end of the wet season, growth in a seedling is rapid, and flowering occurs between 4 and 12 months after germination. The process from bud to ripe seed takes about five weeks. Mimosa pigra is closely related to Mimosa pudica and it can be distinguished from Mimosa pudica by its large size, large pods and leaves, which have 6 to 16 pairs of pinnae as opposed to 1 to 2 pairs on Mimosa pudica leaves. Mimosa pigra is native to tropical America, where it occurs in a belt extending from Mexico through Central America to Northern Argentina
Mimosa pigra
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Mimosa pigra
Mimosa pigra
42.
Bogor
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Bogor is a city in the West Java province, Indonesia. Located around 60 kilometers south from the capital of Jakarta, Bogor is the 6th largest city of Jabodetabek. Bogor is an important economic, scientific, cultural and tourist center, in the Middle Ages, the city served as the capital of Sunda Kingdom and was called Pakuan Pajajaran or Dayeuh Pakuan. During the Dutch colonial era, it was named Buitenzorg and served as the residence of the Governor-General of Dutch East Indies. With several hundred people living on an area of about 20 km2. The city has a palace and a botanical garden – one of the oldest and largest in the world. It bears the nickname the Rain City, because of frequent rain showers and it nearly always rains even during the dry season. The first mentioning of a settlement at present Bogor dates to the 5th century when the area was part of Tarumanagara and it was named Pakuan Pajajaran, that in old Sundanese means a place between the parallel, and became the predecessor of the modern Bogor. Over the next centuries, Pakuan Pajajaran become one of the largest cities in medieval Indonesia with population reaching 48,000. The name Pajajaran was then used for the kingdom. The chronicles of that time were written in Sanskrit, which was the used for official and religious purposes, using the Pallava writing system. The prasasti found in and around Bogor differ in shape and text style from other Indonesian prasasti and are among the attractions of the city. In the 9–15th centuries, the capital was moving between Pakuan and other cities of the kingdom, and finally returned to Pakuan by King Siliwangi on 3 June 1482 – the day of his coronation, since 1973, this date is celebrated in Bogor as an official city holiday. In 1579, Pakuan was captured and almost completely destroyed by the army of Sultanate of Banten, the city was abandoned and remained uninhabited for decades. The formal transition occurred on 17 April 1684 by signing an agreement between the Crown Prince of Banten and the VOC. The first, and temporal, colonial settlement at Pakuan was a camp of lieutenant Tanoejiwa, in a short time, several agricultural settlements appeared around Pakuan, the largest being Kampung Baru. In 1701, they were combined into a district, Tanoejiwa was chosen as the head of the district and is regarded as the founder of the modern Bogor Regency. The district was developed during the 1703 Dutch mission headed by the Inspector General of the VOC Abraham van Riebeeck
Bogor
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From top, clockwise:
Bogor Palace, Great Mosque of Bogor,
Bogor Botanical Garden,
Kujang Monument
Bogor
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A Dutch map showing the location of the Pakuan Pajajaran relatively to Buitenzorg.
Bogor
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A 1600-year-old stone inscription (prasasti) of the
Tarumanagara kingdom era.
Bogor
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The
Great Post Road passing Buitenzorg in the 19th century
43.
West Java
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West Java is a province of Indonesia. The provinces population is 46.3 million and it is the most populous, all these cities are suburban to Jakarta. The oldest human inhabitant archaeological findings in the region were unearthed in Anyer with evidence of bronze, the prehistoric Buni culture clay pottery were later developed with evidence found in Anyer to Cirebon. Artefacts, such as food and drink containers, were mostly as burial gifts. Records of Tarumanegaras administration lasted until the sixth century, which coincides with the attack of Srivijaya, the Sunda Kingdom subsequently became the ruling power of the region, as recorded on the Kebon Kopi II inscription. An Ulama, Sunan Gunung Jati, settled in Cirebon, with the intention of spreading the word of Islam in the pagan town, in the meantime, the Sultanate of Demak in central Java grew to an immediate threat against the Sunda kingdom. To defend against the threat, Prabu Surawisesa Jayaperkosa signed a treaty with the Portuguese in 1512, in return, the Portuguese were granted an accession to build fortresses and warehouses in the area, as well as form trading agreements with the kingdom. This first international treaty of West Java with the Europeans was commemorated by the placement of the Padrao stone monument at the bank of the Ciliwung River in 1522, although the treaty with the Portuguese had been established, it could not come to realization. Sunda Kalapa harbour fell under the alliance of the Sultanate of Demak, in 1524/1525, their troops under Sunan Gunung Jati also seized the port of Banten and established the Sultanate of Banten which was affiliating with the Sultanate of Demak. The war between the Sunda kingdom with Demak and Cirebon sultanates then continued for five years until a treaty were made in 1531 between King Surawisesa and Sunan Gunung Jati. From 1567 to 1579, under the last king Raja Mulya, alias Prabu Surya Kencana, after 1576, the kingdom could not maintain its capital at Pakuan Pajajaran and gradually the Sultanate of Banten took over the former Sunda kingdoms region. The Mataram Sultanate from central Java also seized the Priangan region, in the sixteenth century, the Dutch and the British trading companies established their trading ships in West Java after the falldown of Sultanate of Banten. For the next three hundred years, West Java fell under the Dutch East Indies administration, West Java was officially declared as a province of Indonesia in 1950, referring to a statement from Staatblad number 378. On October 17,2000, as part of nationwide political decentralization, Banten was separated from West Java, there have been recent proposals to rename the province Pasundan after the historical name for West Java. Since the creation of West Bandung Regency in 2008, the Province of West Java has been subdivided into 9 cities and 17 regencies and these 26 cities and regencies are divided into 620 districts, which comprise 1,576 urban villages and 4,301 rural villages. West Java borders Jakarta and Banten province to the west, to the north is the Java Sea. To the south is the Indian Ocean, unlike most other provinces in Indonesia which have their capitals in coastal areas, the provincial capital, Bandung, is located in the mountainous area in the centre of the province. Banten Province was formerly part of West Java Province but was created a province in 2000
West Java
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The Grand Mosque of
Bandung, capital of West Java.
West Java
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Rice fields terrace in Priangan highland, West Java,
Dutch East Indies. In/before 1926.
West Java
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View of the mount and the
crater of Tangkuban Parahu,
Bandung
West Java
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Tea plantations in
Malabar, southern Bandung. Tea plantations are common sight across mountainous West Java
44.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
Indonesia
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A
Borobudur ship carved on
Borobudur, c. 800 CE. Indonesian outrigger boats may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as early as the 1st century CE.
Indonesia
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Flag
Indonesia
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The
nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's
Banda Islands.
Indonesia
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Tan Malaka, Indonesian philosopher, guerilla, and national hero.
45.
Mimosa aculeaticarpa
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Mimosa aculeaticarpa is a shrub in the Fabaceae family. It is commonly known as the catclaw mimosa or the bush and is endemic to upland regions of Mexico, Arizona, New Mexico. The catclaw mimosa is a thicket forming shrub, usually growing to about one metre tall. The twigs are hairy and armed with backward pointing spines that easily catch in clothing, the alternate leaves are bi-pinnate with a varying number of small oblong leaflets. The flowers are white or pale pink, bunched together in globular heads, the fruits are flat pods up to four centimetres long, flattened between the seeds and splitting open when ripe. There are recurved prickles on the edges of the pods and this species grows in upland areas of central and southern Arizona, southern New Mexico, western and central Texas and northern Mexico. This species occurs as scattered individual plants in oak, oak-pine and it grows on mesas, rocky slopes and gravel deposits. It is commonly found growing in chaparral and is spreading into desert and this may be because the seed pods are eaten by cattle and the seeds are deposited in the dung, giving them a rich environment for germination. The plant is tolerant and sprouts readily after bushfires. In upland areas of west Texas, the redberry juniper acts as a plant for the seedlings. They benefit from the shade and leaf litter associated with the juniper which seems to provide a microclimate for the establishment of the seedlings
Mimosa aculeaticarpa
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Catclaw mimosa
