1.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
2.
Osprey-class minehunter
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The Osprey class are a series of coastal minehunters designed to find, classify, and destroy moored and bottom naval mines from vital waterways. They use sonar and video systems, cable cutters and a detonating device that can be released and detonated by remote control. The Osprey class are the second largest minehunters to be constructed entirely of fiberglass. Their primary mission is reconnaissance, classification, and neutralization of all types of moored and bottom mines in areas, harbors. Twelve minehunter ships were built for the U. S. Navy by Northrop Grumman Ship Systems of New Orleans, the ships were commissioned between 1993 and 1999. The ships of class were named after various types of birds. The 12 ships are 187 feet 10 inches long,34 feet 7 inches wide, when carrying a full load they displace 904 tonnes. They have four decks, and have a complement of five officers, four petty officers. They are armed two.50 caliber machine guns, all of the major equipment is suspended from the main deck in glass-reinforced plastic holders, so that in the event of an undersea explosion, it will not be damaged. They use an AN/SLQ-53 deep sweep mine countermeasures system and it also uses an AN/SQQ-32 Variable Depth Sonar, which is tethered to the front of the bridge, to detects and identifies mines using multiple ping processing. Two AN/UYK-44 computers are used to classify and detect mines. For surface radar purposes, an AN/SPS-649 is used and they also use the AN/SLQ-48 mine neutralization system, which is tethered to the ship by a 1. 07-kilometre long cable. They have two AN/UYQ-31 operator data terminals, which are identical and they use a single bow thruster, which generates 180 shaft horsepower, in order to run silently. They have a max speed of 12 knots, and an operational range of 1,500 nautical miles. All of these ships were decommissioned in 2006–07, the Hellenic Navy received two of the Osprey class from the US Navy, Heron, renamed Calypso and Pelican, renamed Euniki. Two more were transferred to the Egyptian Navy, Cardinal, renamed al Sedeeq and Raven, the sale of Oriole and Falcon to the Republic of China was also authorized. General Services Administration announced in April 2014 that hull numbers MHC-51,54,56,57,58 and this contradicted earlier information announcing the sale of some of these vessels to foreign operators. The minehunting role that was to this class will be transferred to Littoral Combat Ships that are equipped with a Mine Counter-Measure model. S. government publication, is in the public domain, the entry can be found here
3.
German Navy
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The German Navy is the navy of Germany and part of the unified Bundeswehr, the German Armed Forces. The German Navy was originally known as the Bundesmarine from 1956 until 1995 when Deutsche Marine became the name with respect to the 1990 incorporation of the East German Volksmarine. It is deeply integrated into the NATO alliance and its primary mission is protection of Germanys territorial waters and maritime infrastructure as well as sea lines of communication. Apart from this, the German Navy participates in peacekeeping operations and they also participate in Anti-Piracy operations. The German Navy traces its roots back to the Reichsflotte of the era of 1848–52. The Reichsflotte was the first German navy to sail under the black-red-gold flag, in 1956, with West Germanys accession to NATO, the Bundesmarine, as the navy was known colloquially, was formally established. In the same year the East German Volkspolizei See became the Volksmarine, during the Cold war the all of the German Navys combat vessels were assigned to NATOs Allied Forces Baltic Approachess naval command NAVBALTAP. With the accession of East Germany to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1990 the Volksmarine along with the whole National Peoples Army became part of the Bundeswehr. Since 1995 the name German Navy is used in international context, as of 16 December 2016, the strength of the navy is 16,137 men and women. A number of forces have operated in different periods. The German Navy is also engaged in operations against international terrorism such as Operation Enduring Freedom, presently the largest operation the German Navy is participating in is UNIFIL off the coast of Lebanon. The German contribution to this operation is two frigates, four fast attack craft, and two auxiliary vessels, the naval component of UNIFIL has been under German command. The navy is operating a number of development and testing installations as part of an inter-service, among these is the Centre of Excellence for Operations in Confined and Shallow Waters, an affiliated centre of Allied Command Transformation. The COE CSW was established in April 2007 and officially accredited by NATO on 26 May 2009 and it is co-located with the staff of the German Flotilla 1 in Kiel whose Commander is double-hatted as Director, COE CSW. The displacement of the navy is 220,000 tonnes, in addition, the German Navy and the Royal Danish Navy are in cooperation in the Ark Project. This agreement made the Ark Project responsible for the strategic sealift of German armed forces where the charter of three roll-on-roll-off cargo and troop ships are ready for deployments. In addition, these ships are kept available for the use of the other European NATO countries. The three vessels have a displacement of 60,000 tonnes
4.
Naval ship
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A naval ship is a military ship used by a navy. Naval ships are differentiated from civilian ships by construction and purpose, generally, naval ships are damage resilient and armed with weapon systems, though armament on troop transports is light or non-existent. Naval ships designed primarily for naval warfare are termed warships, as opposed to support or shipyard operations, submarine – self-propelled submersible types regardless of whether they are employed as combatant, auxiliary, or research and development vehicles which have at least a residual combat capability. Amphibious warfare – ships having organic capability for amphibious assault and which have characteristics enabling long duration operations on the high seas, combat logistics – ships that have the capability to provide underway replenishment to fleet units. Mine warfare – ships whose primary function is mine warfare on the high seas, coastal defense – ships whose primary function is coastal patrol and interdiction. Sealift – ships that have the capability to provide material support to other deployed units operating far from home base. Support – ships, such as oilers, designed to operate in the ocean in a variety of sea states to provide general support to either combatant forces or shore based establishments. Service type craft – navy-subordinated craft designed to provide support to either combatant forces or shore-based establishments. In rough order of tonnage, modern naval ships are commonly divided into the following different classes. There is also much blurring / gray areas between the classes, depending on their use, history, and interpretation of the class by different navies. Official Website of the United States Navy, heres the Entire U. S. Navy Fleet in One Chart. Official Website of the United States Navy, *United States Naval Recognition Training Slides-Grand Valley State University Archives and Special Collections
5.
Naval mine
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A naval mine is a self-contained explosive device placed in water to damage or destroy surface ships or submarines. Unlike depth charges, mines are deposited and left to wait until they are triggered by the approach of, or contact with, Naval mines can be used offensively—to hamper enemy shipping movements or lock vessels into a harbour, or defensively—to protect friendly vessels and create safe zones. Mines can be laid in many ways, by purpose-built minelayers, refitted ships, submarines and their flexibility and cost-effectiveness make mines attractive to the less powerful belligerent in asymmetric warfare. The cost of producing and laying a mine is usually anywhere from 0. 5% to 10% of the cost of removing it, parts of some World War II naval minefields still exist because they are too extensive and expensive to clear. It is possible for some of these 1940s-era mines to remain dangerous for many years to come, Mines have been employed as offensive or defensive weapons in rivers, lakes, estuaries, seas, and oceans, but they can also be used as tools of psychological warfare. Offensive mines are placed in enemy waters, outside harbours and across important shipping routes with the aim of sinking both merchant and military vessels. Defensive minefields safeguard key stretches of coast from enemy ships and submarines, forcing them into more easily defended areas, minefields designed for psychological effect are usually placed on trade routes and are used to stop shipping from reaching an enemy nation. They are often spread thinly, to create an impression of minefields existing across large areas, a single mine inserted strategically on a shipping route can stop maritime movements for days while the entire area is swept. International law requires nations to declare when they mine an area, the warnings do not have to be specific, for example, during World War II, Britain declared simply that it had mined the English Channel, North Sea, and French coast. Chinese records tell of naval explosives in the 16th century, used to fight against Japanese pirates and this kind of naval mine was loaded in a wooden box, sealed with putty. General Qi Jiguang made several timed, drifting explosives, to harass Japanese pirate ships, although this is the rotating steel wheellocks first use in naval mines, Jiao Yu had described their use for land mines back in the 14th century. The first plan for a sea mine in the West was by Ralph Rabbards, the Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel was employed in the Office of Ordnance by King Charles I of England to make weapons, including a floating petard which proved a failure. Weapons of this type were apparently tried by the English at the Siege of La Rochelle in 1627, American David Bushnell developed the first American naval mine for use against the British in the American War of Independence. It was a watertight keg filled with gunpowder that was floated toward the enemy and it was used on the Delaware River as a drift mine. In 1812 Russian engineer Pavel Shilling exploded a mine using an electrical circuit. Russian naval specialists set more than 1500 naval mines, or infernal machines, designed by Moritz von Jacobi and by Immanuel Nobel, the mining of Vulcan led to the worlds first minesweeping operation. During the next 72 hours,33 mines were swept, the Jacobi mine was designed by German born, Russian engineer Jacobi, in 1853. The mine was tied to the sea bottom by an anchor, a cable connected it to a cell which powered it from the shore
6.
Minesweeper
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A minesweeper is a small naval warship designed to engage in minesweeping. Using various mechanisms intended to counter the threat posed by naval mines, although naval warfare has a long history, the earliest known usage of the naval mine dates to the Ming dynasty. Dedicated minesweepers, however, only appear in the record several centuries later, to the Crimean War. In the Crimean War, minesweepers consisted of British rowboats trailing grapnels to snag the mines, despite the use of mines in the American Civil War, there are no records of effective minesweeping being used. Officials in the Union Army attempted to create the first minesweeper but were plagued by flawed designs, minesweeping technology picked up in the Russo-Japanese War, using aging torpedo boats as minesweepers. In Britain, naval leaders recognized before the outbreak of World War I that the development of sea mines was a threat to the nations shipping, sir Arthur Wilson noted the real threat of the time was blockade aided by mines and not invasion. A Trawler Section of the Royal Navy Reserve became the predecessor of the mine sweeping forces with specially designed ships and these reserve Trawler Section fishermen and their trawlers were activated, supplied with mine gear, rifles, uniforms and pay as the first minesweepers. The dedicated, purpose-built minesweeper first appeared during World War I with the Flower-class minesweeping sloop, by the end of the War, naval mine technology had grown beyond the ability of minesweepers to detect and remove. Minesweeping made significant advancements during World War II, combatant nations quickly adapted ships to the task of minesweeping, including Australias 35 civilian ships that became Auxiliary Minesweepers. Both Allied and Axis countries made heavy use of minesweepers throughout the war, historian Gordon Williamson wrote that Germanys minesweepers alone formed a massive proportion of its total strength, and are very much the unsung heroes of the Kriegsmarine. Naval mines remained a threat even after the war ended, after the Second World War, allied countries worked on new classes of minesweepers ranging from 120-ton designs for clearing estuaries to 735-ton oceangoing vessels. The United States Navy even used specialized Mechanized Landing Craft to sweep shallow harbors in, as of June 2012, the U. S. Navy had four minesweepers deployed to the Persian Gulf to address regional instabilities. Minesweepers are equipped with mechanical or electrical devices, known as sweeps, mechanical sweeps are devices designed to cut the anchoring cables of moored mines, and preferably attach a tag to help the subsequent localization and neutralization. They are towed behind the minesweeper, and use a body to maintain the sweep at the desired depth. Influence sweeps are equipment, often towed, that emulate a particular ship signature, the most common such sweeps are magnetic and acoustic generators. There are two modes of operating an influence sweep, MSM and TSM, MSM sweeping is founded on intelligence on a given type of mine, and produces the output required for detonation of this mine. If such intelligence is unavailable, the TSM sweeping instead reproduces the influence of the ship that is about to transit through the area. TSM sweeping thus clears mines directed at this ship without knowledge of the mines, however, mines directed at other ships might remain
7.
Sonar
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Sonar is a technique that uses sound propagation to navigate, communicate with or detect objects on or under the surface of the water, such as other vessels. Two types of technology share the name sonar, passive sonar is essentially listening for the sound made by vessels, active sonar is emitting pulses of sounds, Sonar may be used as a means of acoustic location and of measurement of the echo characteristics of targets in the water. Acoustic location in air was used before the introduction of radar, Sonar may also be used in air for robot navigation, and SODAR is used for atmospheric investigations. The term sonar is used for the equipment used to generate. The acoustic frequencies used in sonar systems vary from low to extremely high. The study of sound is known as underwater acoustics or hydroacoustics. In the 19th century a bell was used as an ancillary to lighthouses to provide warning of hazards. The use of sound to locate underwater in the same way as bats use sound for aerial navigation seems to have been prompted by the Titanic disaster of 1912. S. Revenue Cutter Miami on the Grand Banks off Newfoundland Canada, in that test, Fessenden demonstrated depth sounding, underwater communications and echo ranging. The so-called Fessenden oscillator, at ca.500 Hz frequency, was unable to determine the bearing of the due to the 3 metre wavelength. The ten Montreal-built British H class submarines launched in 1915 were equipped with a Fessenden oscillator, during World War I the need to detect submarines prompted more research into the use of sound. Although piezoelectric and magnetostrictive transducers later superseded the electrostatic transducers they used, lightweight sound-sensitive plastic film and fibre optics have been used for hydrophones, while Terfenol-D and PMN have been developed for projectors. By 1918, both France and Britain had built prototype active systems, the British tested their ASDIC on HMS Antrim in 1920, and started production in 1922. The 6th Destroyer Flotilla had ASDIC-equipped vessels in 1923, an anti-submarine school, HMS Osprey, and a training flotilla of four vessels were established on Portland in 1924. The US Sonar QB set arrived in 1931, by the outbreak of World War II, the Royal Navy had five sets for different surface ship classes, and others for submarines, incorporated into a complete anti-submarine attack system. The effectiveness of early ASDIC was hamstrung by the use of the charge as an anti-submarine weapon. This required a vessel to pass over a submerged contact before dropping charges over the stern. The hunter was effectively firing blind, during which time a commander could take evasive action
8.
Explosive material
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An explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material, which may be composed of a single ingredient or a combination of two or more. Materials that detonate are said to be high explosives and materials that deflagrate are said to be low explosives, Explosives may also be categorized by their sensitivity. Sensitive materials that can be initiated by a small amount of heat or pressure are primary explosives. A wide variety of chemicals can explode, a number are manufactured specifically for the purpose of being used as explosives. The remainder are too dangerous, sensitive, toxic, expensive, unstable, in contrast, some materials are merely combustible or flammable if they burn without exploding. The distinction, however, is not razor-sharp, though early thermal weapons, such as Greek fire, have existed since ancient times, the first widely used explosive in warfare and mining was black powder, invented in 9th century China. This material was sensitive to water, and it produced copious amounts of dark smoke, the first useful explosive stronger than black powder was nitroglycerin, developed in 1847. Since nitroglycerin is a liquid and highly unstable, it was replaced by nitrocellulose, TNT in 1863, smokeless powder, dynamite in 1867, World War I saw the adoption of TNT trinitrotoluene in artillery shells. World War II saw a use of new explosives. In turn, these have largely replaced by more powerful explosives such as C-4. However, C-4 and PETN react with metal and catch fire easily, yet unlike TNT, C-4 and PETN are waterproof, the largest commercial application of explosives is mining. In Materials Science and Engineering, explosives are used in cladding, a thin plate of some material is placed atop a thick layer of a different material, both layers typically of metal. Atop the thin layer is placed an explosive, at one end of the layer of explosive, the explosion is initiated. The two metallic layers are forced together at high speed and with great force, the explosion spreads from the initiation site throughout the explosive. Ideally, this produces a metallurgical bond between the two layers and it is possible that some fraction of the surface material from either layer eventually gets ejected when the end of material is reached. Hence, the mass of the now welded bilayer, may be less than the sum of the masses of the two initial layers, there are applications where a shock wave, and electrostatics, can result in high velocity projectiles. Thus, explosives are substances that contain an amount of energy stored in chemical bonds. Consequently, most commercial explosives are compounds containing -NO2, -ONO2 and -NHNO2 groups that
9.
Acoustics
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Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician while someone working in the field of technology may be called an acoustical engineer. The application of acoustics is present in almost all aspects of society with the most obvious being the audio. Hearing is one of the most crucial means of survival in the animal world, accordingly, the science of acoustics spreads across many facets of human society—music, medicine, architecture, industrial production, warfare and more. Likewise, animal species such as songbirds and frogs use sound, art, craft, science and technology have provoked one another to advance the whole, as in many other fields of knowledge. Robert Bruce Lindsays Wheel of Acoustics is a well accepted overview of the fields in acoustics. The word acoustic is derived from the Greek word ἀκουστικός, meaning of or for hearing, ready to hear and that from ἀκουστός, heard, audible, which in turn derives from the verb ἀκούω, I hear. The Latin synonym is sonic, after which the term used to be a synonym for acoustics. Frequencies above and below the range are called ultrasonic and infrasonic. If, for example, a string of a length would sound particularly harmonious with a string of twice the length. In modern parlance, if a string sounds the note C when plucked, a string twice as long will sound a C an octave lower. In one system of tuning, the tones in between are then given by 16,9 for D,8,5 for E,3,2 for F,4,3 for G,6,5 for A. Aristotle understood that sound consisted of compressions and rarefactions of air which falls upon, a very good expression of the nature of wave motion. The physical understanding of acoustical processes advanced rapidly during and after the Scientific Revolution, mainly Galileo Galilei but also Marin Mersenne, independently, discovered the complete laws of vibrating strings. Experimental measurements of the speed of sound in air were carried out successfully between 1630 and 1680 by a number of investigators, prominently Mersenne, meanwhile, Newton derived the relationship for wave velocity in solids, a cornerstone of physical acoustics. The eighteenth century saw advances in acoustics as mathematicians applied the new techniques of calculus to elaborate theories of sound wave propagation. Also in the 19th century, Wheatstone, Ohm, and Henry developed the analogy between electricity and acoustics, the twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large body of scientific knowledge that was by then in place. The first such application was Sabine’s groundbreaking work in architectural acoustics, Underwater acoustics was used for detecting submarines in the first World War
10.
Magnetism
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Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena that are mediated by magnetic fields. Electric currents and the moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field. The most familiar effects occur in materials, which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be magnetized to become permanent magnets. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic, the most common ones are iron, nickel and cobalt, the prefix ferro- refers to iron, because permanent magnetism was first observed in lodestone, a form of natural iron ore called magnetite, Fe3O4. The magnetic state of a material depends on temperature and other such as pressure. A material may exhibit more than one form of magnetism as these variables change, magnetism was first discovered in the ancient world, when people noticed that lodestones, naturally magnetized pieces of the mineral magnetite, could attract iron. The word magnet comes from the Greek term for lodestone, magnítis líthos, in ancient Greece, Aristotle attributed the first of what could be called a scientific discussion of magnetism to the philosopher Thales of Miletus, who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC. Around the same time, in ancient India, the Indian surgeon Sushruta was the first to use of the magnet for surgical purposes. In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th-century BC book named after its author, the 2nd-century BC annals, Lüshi Chunqiu, also notes, The lodestone makes iron approach, or it attracts it. The earliest mention of the attraction of a needle is in a 1st-century work Lunheng, by the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for navigation. They sculpted a directional spoon from lodestone in such a way that the handle of the spoon always pointed south, alexander Neckam, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for navigation. In 1269, Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt wrote the Epistola de magnete, in 1282, the properties of magnets and the dry compass were discussed by Al-Ashraf, a Yemeni physicist, astronomer, and geographer. In 1600, William Gilbert published his De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, in this work he describes many of his experiments with his model earth called the terrella. From his experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and this landmark experiment is known as Ørsteds Experiment. James Clerk Maxwell synthesized and expanded these insights into Maxwells equations, unifying electricity, magnetism, in 1905, Einstein used these laws in motivating his theory of special relativity, requiring that the laws held true in all inertial reference frames. Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources, Electric current, Spin magnetic moments of elementary particles. The magnetic moments of the nuclei of atoms are thousands of times smaller than the electrons magnetic moments. Nuclear magnetic moments are very important in other contexts, particularly in nuclear magnetic resonance
11.
Soundproofing
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Soundproofing is any means of reducing the sound pressure with respect to a specified sound source and receptor. Two distinct soundproofing problems may need to be considered when designing acoustic treatments - to improve the sound within a room, acoustic quieting, noise mitigation, and noise control can be used to limit unwanted noise. Soundproofing can suppress unwanted indirect sound waves such as reflections that cause echoes and resonances that cause reverberation, soundproofing can reduce the transmission of unwanted direct sound waves from the source to an involuntary listener through the use of distance and intervening objects in the sound path. The energy density of sound waves decreases as they spread out, in a normal three-dimensional setting, with a point source and point receptor, the intensity of sound waves will be attenuated according to the inverse square of the distance from the source. Damping means to reduce resonance in the room, by absorption or redirection, absorption will reduce the overall sound level, whereas redirection makes unwanted sound harmless or even beneficial by reducing coherence. Damping can reduce the acoustic resonance in the air, or mechanical resonance in the structure of the room itself or things in the room. Absorbing sound spontaneously converts part of the energy to a very small amount of heat in the intervening object. There are several ways in which a material can absorb sound, the choice of sound absorbing material will be determined by the frequency distribution of noise to be absorbed and the acoustic absorption profile required. Porous absorbers, typically open cell rubber foams or melamine sponges, porous open cell foams are highly effective noise absorbers across a broad range of medium-high frequencies. Performance is less impressive at low frequencies, unlike porous absorbers, resonant absorbers are most effective at low-medium frequencies and the absorption of resonant absorbers is always matched to a narrow frequency range. In an outdoor environment such as engineering, embankments or panelling are often used to reflect sound upwards into the sky. If a specular reflection from a flat surface is giving a problematic echo then an acoustic diffuser may be applied to the surface. It will scatter sound in all directions and this is effective to eliminate pockets of noise in a room. A room within a room is one method of isolating sound, most vibration / sound transfer from a room to the outside occurs through mechanical means. The vibration passes directly through the brick, woodwork and other structural elements. When it meets with an element such as a wall, ceiling, floor or window, which acts as a sounding board, a mechanical transmission is much faster, more efficient and may be more readily amplified than an airborne transmission of the same initial strength. The use of foam and other absorbent means is less effective against this transmitted vibration. The user is advised to break the connection between the room contains the noise source and the outside world
12.
Shock absorber
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A shock absorber is a mechanical or hydraulic device designed to absorb and damp shock impulses. It does this by converting the energy of the shock into another form of energy which is then dissipated. Most shock absorbers are a form of dashpot, pneumatic and hydraulic shock absorbers are used in conjunction with cushions and springs. An automobile shock absorber contains spring-loaded check valves and orifices to control the flow of oil through an internal piston, one design consideration, when designing or choosing a shock absorber, is where that energy will go. In most shock absorbers, energy is converted to heat inside the viscous fluid, in hydraulic cylinders, the hydraulic fluid heats up, while in air cylinders, the hot air is usually exhausted to the atmosphere. In other types of shock absorbers, such as electromagnetic types, in general terms, shock absorbers help cushion vehicles on uneven roads. In a vehicle, shock absorbers reduce the effect of traveling over rough ground, leading to improved ride quality, while shock absorbers serve the purpose of limiting excessive suspension movement, their intended sole purpose is to damp spring oscillations. Shock absorbers use valving of oil and gasses to absorb energy from the springs. Spring rates are chosen by the based on the weight of the vehicle. Some people use shocks to modify spring rates but this is not the correct use, along with hysteresis in the tire itself, they damp the energy stored in the motion of the unsprung weight up and down. Effective wheel bounce damping may require tuning shocks to an optimal resistance, spring-based shock absorbers commonly use coil springs or leaf springs, though torsion bars are used in torsional shocks as well. Ideal springs alone, however, are not shock absorbers, as only store. Vehicles typically employ both hydraulic shock absorbers and springs or torsion bars, in this combination, shock absorber refers specifically to the hydraulic piston that absorbs and dissipates vibration. Now, composite suspension system are used mainly in 2 wheelers, in common with carriages and railway locomotives, most early motor vehicles used leaf springs. However the amount of damping provided by leaf spring friction was limited and variable according to the conditions of the springs and it also operated in both directions. Motorcycle front suspension adopted coil sprung Druid forks from about 1906, and similar designs later added rotary friction dampers and these friction disk shock absorbers were also fitted to many cars. One of the problems with motor cars was the variation in sprung weight between lightly loaded and fully loaded, especially for the rear springs. What was called for was damping that operated on the rebound, horock came up with a design in 1901 that had hydraulic damping, it worked in one direction only
13.
Wood
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Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots, Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. In 2005, the stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy, in 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction, a 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick discovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks. Constructions using wood date back ten thousand years, buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has changed by the addition of steel. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the climate at that time. This process is known as growth, it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, if the distinctiveness between seasons is annual, these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent, if the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. It is usually lighter in color than that near the portion of the ring. The outer portion formed later in the season is known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are differences, depending on the kind of wood
14.
Fiberglass
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Fiberglass is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be arranged, flattened into a sheet. The plastic matrix may be a polymer matrix – most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin. The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use and these glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass, glass fibers have to be made very low levels of defects. Fiberglass is a lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as composites based on fiber, it is less brittle. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many metals, other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic, glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFK. Because glass fiber itself is referred to as fiberglass, the composite is also called fiberglass reinforced plastic. This article will adopt the convention that fiberglass refers to the glass fiber reinforced composite material. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933, Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented fibreglas in 1936. Originally, fibreglas was a wool with fibers entrapping a great deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator. A suitable resin for combining the fibreglass with a plastic to produce a material was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamids resin of 1942, peroxide curing systems were used by then. With the combination of fiberglass and resin the gas content of the material was replaced by plastic and this reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time the composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Confusingly, many glass fiber composites continued to be called fiberglass, ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but did not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to have constructed a boat of plastic materials. The first car to have a body was a 1946 prototype of the Stout Scarab
15.
Hull (watercraft)
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The hull is the watertight body of a ship or boat. Above the hull is the superstructure and/or deckhouse, where present, the line where the hull meets the water surface is called the waterline. The structure of the hull varies depending on the vessel type, the uppermost continuous deck may be called the upper deck, weather deck, spar deck, main deck, or simply deck. The particular name given depends on the type of ship or boat. In a typical wooden sailboat, the hull is constructed of wooden planking, supported by transverse frames and bulkheads, often but not always there is a centerline longitudinal member called a keel. In fiberglass or composite hulls, the structure may resemble wooden or steel vessels to some extent, in many cases, composite hulls are built by sandwiching thin fiber-reinforced skins over a lightweight but reasonably rigid core of foam, balsa wood, impregnated paper honeycomb or other material. The shape of the hull is entirely dependent upon the needs of the design, shapes range from a nearly perfect box in the case of scow barges, to a needle-sharp surface of revolution in the case of a racing multihull sailboat. Hulls come in varieties and can have composite shape, but are grouped primarily as follows. Examples are the flat-bottom, v-bottom, and multi-bottom hull and these types have at least one pronounced knuckle throughout all or most of their length. These hull shapes all have smooth curves, examples are the round bilge, semi-round bilge, and s-bottom hull. After this they can be categorized as, Displacement The hull is supported exclusively or predominantly by buoyancy, vessels that have this type of hull travel through the water at a limited rate that is defined by the waterline length. They are often, though not always, heavier than planing types, planing The planing hull form is configured to develop positive dynamic pressure so that its draft decreases with increasing speed. The dynamic lift reduces the surface and therefore also the drag. They are sometimes flat-bottomed, sometimes V-bottomed and more rarely, round-bilged, the most common form is to have at least one chine, which makes for more efficient planing and can throw spray down. Planing hulls are more efficient at speeds, although they still require more energy to achieve these speeds. An effective planing hull must be as light as possible with flat surfaces that are consistent with sea keeping. Sail boats that plane must also sail efficiently in displacement mode in light winds, semi-displacement, or semi-planing The hull form is capable of developing a moderate amount of dynamic lift, however, most of the vessels weight is still supported through buoyancy. At present, the most widely used form is the round bilge hull, in the inverted bell shape of the hull, with a smaller payload the waterline cross-section is less, hence the resistance is less and the speed is higher
16.
Degaussing
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Degaussing is the process of decreasing or eliminating a remnant magnetic field. It is named after the gauss, a unit of magnetism, due to magnetic hysteresis, it is generally not possible to reduce a magnetic field completely to zero, so degaussing typically induces a very small known field referred to as bias. Degaussing was originally applied to reduce ships magnetic signatures during World War II, Degaussing is also used to reduce magnetic fields in cathode ray tube monitors and to destroy data held on magnetic storage. The term was first used by then-Commander Charles F. Goodeve, RCNVR, the mines detected the increase in magnetic field when the steel in a ship concentrated the Earths magnetic field over it. Admiralty scientists, including Goodeve, developed a number of systems to induce a small N-pole up field into the ship to offset this effect, meaning that the net field was the same as background. Since the Germans used the gauss as the unit of the strength of the field in their mines triggers. The term became a common word, the original method of degaussing was to install electromagnetic coils into the ships, known simply as coiling. In addition to being able to bias the ship continually, coiling also allowed the field to be reversed in the southern hemisphere. British ships, notably cruisers and battleships, were protected by about 1943. This procedure simply dragged a large electrical cable along the side of the ship with a pulse of about 2000 amperes flowing through it and this induced the proper field into the ship in the form of a slight bias. It was originally thought that the pounding of the sea and the engines would slowly randomize this field, but in testing. A more serious problem was realized, as a ship travels through Earths magnetic field, it will slowly pick up that field. From then on captains were instructed to change direction as often as possible to avoid this problem, nevertheless, the bias did wear off eventually, and ships had to be degaussed on a schedule. Smaller ships continued to use wiping through the war, after the war, the capabilities of the magnetic fuses were greatly improved, by detecting not the field itself, but changes in it. This meant a degaussed ship with a hot spot would still set off the mine. Additionally, the orientation of the field was also measured, something a simple bias field could not remove. A series of ever-increasingly complex coils were introduced to offset these effects, the US Navy tested, in April 2009, a prototype of its High-Temperature Superconducting Degaussing Coil System, referred to as HTS Degaussing. The system works by encircling the vessel with superconducting ceramic cables whose purpose is to neutralize the ships magnetic signature, the main advantage of the HTS Degaussing Coil system is greatly reduced weight and increased efficiency
17.
Draft (hull)
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Draft determines the minimum depth of water a ship or boat can safely navigate. The draft can also be used to determine the weight of the cargo on board by calculating the displacement of water. A table made by the shows the water displacement for each draft. The density of the water and the content of the bunkers has to be taken into account. The closely related term trim is defined as the difference between the forward and aft drafts, the draft aft is measured in the perpendicular of the stern. The draft forward is measured in the perpendicular of the bow, the scale may use traditional English units or metric units. If the English system is used, the bottom of each marking is the draft in feet, in metric marking schemes, the bottom of each draft mark is the draft in decimeters and each mark is one decimeter high. Larger ships try to maintain a water draft when they are light, in order to make a better sea crossing. In order to achieve this they use sailing ballasts to stabilize the ship, the water draft of a large ship has little direct link with its stability because stability depends solely on the respective positions of the metacenter of the hull and the center of gravity. It is also however, that a light ship has quite high stability which can lead to implying too much rolling of the ship. A fully laden ship can have either a strong or weak stability, the draft of ships can be increased when the ship is in motion in shallow water, a phenomenon known as squat. Draft is a significant factor limiting navigable waterways, especially for large vessels, of course this includes many shallow coastal waters and reefs, but also some major shipping lanes. Panamax class ships—the largest ships able to transit the Panama Canal—do have a limit but are usually limited by beam, or sometimes length overall. However, in the much wider Suez Canal, the factor for Suezmax ships is draft. Some supertankers are able to transit the Suez Canal when unladen or partially laden, canals are not the only draft-limited shipping lanes. A Malaccamax ship has the deepest draft able to transit the very busy, there are only a few ships of this size. A small draft allows pleasure boats to navigate through shallower water and this makes it possible for these boats to access smaller ports, to travel along rivers and even to beach the boat. A large draft ensures a level of stability in strong wind
18.
Channel (geography)
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In physical geography, a channel is a type of landform consisting of the outline of a path of relatively shallow and narrow body of fluid, most commonly the confine of a river, river delta or strait. The word is cognate to canal, and sometimes shows in this form, most examples of this are fjords in the Pacific Northwest, a notable exception is the Casiquiare canal. All likely share borrowing from Spanish, Portuguese or French, channels can be either natural or human-made. A channel is typically outlined in terms of its bed and banks, Channel initiation refers to the site on a mountain slope where water begins to flow between identifiable banks. This site is referred to as the head and it marks an important boundary between hillslope processes and fluvial processes. The channel head is the most upslope part of a network and is defined by flowing water between defined identifiable banks. A channel head forms as overland flow and/or subsurface flow accumulate to a point where shear stress can overcome resistance of the ground surface. Channel heads are associated with colluvium, hollows and landslides. Overland flow is a factor in channel initiation where saturation overland flow deepens to increase shear stress. Overland flows converge in topographical depressions where channel initiation begins, soil composition, vegetation, precipitation, and topography dictate the amount and rate of overland flow. The composition of a soil determines how quickly saturation occurs and cohesive strength retards the entrainment of material from overland flows, vegetation slows infiltration rates during precipitation events and plant roots anchor soil on hillslopes. Subsurface flow destabilizes soil and resurfaces on hillslopes where channel heads are often formed and this often results in abrupt channel heads and landslides. Natural channels are formed by fluvial process and are found across the Earth and these are mostly formed by flowing water from the hydrological cycle, though can also be formed by other fluids such as flowing lava. Channels also describe the course through a reef, sand bar, bay. One example is the Columbia River, a located in the US states of Washington and Oregon. A stream channel is the confine of a stream consisting of a bed. Stream channels exist in a variety of geometries, Stream channel development is controlled by both water and sediment movement. There is a difference between low gradient streams and high gradient streams, a wide variety of stream channel types can be distinguished
19.
Harbor
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A harbor or harbour, or haven, is a body of water where ships, boats and barges seek shelter from stormy weather, or are stored for future use. Ports are often located in harbors, harbors can be natural or artificial. An artificial harbor can have deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea walls, or jettys, or they can be constructed by dredging, in contrast, a natural harbor is surrounded on several sides by prominences of land. Examples of natural harbors include Sydney Harbour, Australia and Trincomalee Harbour in Sri Lanka, artificial harbors are frequently built for use as ports. The oldest artificial harbor known is the Ancient Egyptian site at Wadi al-Jarf, on the Red Sea coast, the largest artificially created harbor is Jebel Ali in Dubai. The Ancient Carthaginians constructed fortified, artificial harbors called cothons, a natural harbor is a landform where a part of a body of water is protected and deep enough to furnish anchorage. Natural harbors have long been of great strategic naval and economic importance, having a protected harbor reduces or eliminates the need for breakwaters as it will result in calmer waves inside the harbor. For harbors near the North and South Poles, being ice-free is an important advantage, the worlds southmost harbor, located at Antarcticas Winter Quarters Bay, is potentially ice-free, depending on the summertime pack ice conditions. Although the worlds busiest port is a hotly contested title, in 2006 the worlds busiest harbor by cargo tonnage was the Port of Shanghai
20.
Cyclorotor
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It uses several blades with a spanwise axis parallel to the axis of rotation and perpendicular to the direction of fluid motion. These blades are cyclically pitched twice per revolution to produce force in any direction normal to the axis of rotation, cyclorotors are used for propulsion, lift, and control on air and water vehicles. An aircraft using cyclorotors as the source of lift, propulsion. Cyclorotors produce thrust by combined action of a rotation of a point of the blades around a centre. The joint action of the advancement produced by the orbital motion, by varying the phase of this pitch motion the force can be shifted sidewise or downward. Before blade stall, increasing the amplitude of the kinematics will magnify thrust. The origin of the propeller are Russian and relates to aeronautic domain. Sverchkovs Samoljot, St-Peterburg,1909, or wheel orthopter has been the first vehicle expressly thought for using this propulsion and its scheme came near to cyclogiro, but its difficult to classify it precisely. It had three flat surfaces and a rudder, rear edge of one of surfaces could be bent, lift and thrust had to be created by paddle wheels consisting of 12 blades, established in pairs under a 120° angle. The blades of a concave shape were changing an angle of incidence by the means of eccentrics, in a bottom of the craft 10 hp engine was arranged. Transmission was ensured by a belt, empty weight was about 200 kg. Otherwise, it could not pass the preliminary tests without flying, in 1914, Russian inventor and scientist A. N. Lodygin has addressed to Russian government with the project of the cyclogiro-like aircraft, the project was not carried out. In 1933, experiments in Germany by Adolf Rohrbach resulted in a paddle-wheel wing arrangement, there appears to be no evidence that this design was ever built, let alone flown. Based on Rohrbach’s paddle-wheel research, however, Platt in the US designed by 1933 his own independent Cyclogyro and his paddle-wheel wing arrangement was awarded a US patent, and underwent extensive wind-tunnel testing at MIT in 1927. Despite this, there is no evidence Platt’s aircraft was ever built, the first operative cycloid propulsion has been developed at Voight. Its origins date to the decision of the Voith company to focus on the business of transmission gear assemblies for turbines, the famous Voight propeller has, based on its fluid-dynamics know-how gained from previous turbine projects. It was invented by Ernst Schneider, and enhanced by Voith and it was launched with name of Voith-Schneider Propeller for commercial vessels
21.
Catamaran
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A catamaran is a multi-hulled watercraft featuring two parallel hulls of equal size. It is a craft, deriving its stability from its wide beam. Being ballast-free and therefore lighter than a monohull, catamarans often have a draft than comparably-sized monohulls. The two hulls combined also often have a smaller hydrodynamic resistance than comparable monohulls, requiring less power from either sails or motors. The catamarans wider stance on the water can reduce both heeling and wave-induced motion, as compared with a monohull, and can give reduced wakes, Catamarans range in size from small to large. The structure connecting a catamarans two hulls ranges from a simple frame strung with webbing to support the crew to a bridging superstructure incorporating extensive cabin and/or cargo space, Catamarans from Polynesia and Maritime Southeast Asia became the inspiration for modern catamarans. Catamaran-type vessels were first developed as early as 1500 BCE by the Polynesian peoples and these early examples were likely related to outrigger canoes and consisted of two canoes bound together with a wooden frame, sometimes accompanied by a sail. Despite their simplicity they were effective, allowing seafaring Polynesians to voyage to distant Pacific islands. Catamarans were seldom constructed in the West before the 19th century, the word catamaran is derived from the Tamil word, kattumaram, which means logs bound together. The 17th-century English adventurer and privateer William Dampier encountered the Tamil people of southeastern India during his first circumnavigation of the globe and he was the first to write in English about the primitive watercraft he observed in use there. In his 1697 account of his trip, A New Voyage Round the World, he wrote and these are but one Log, or two, sometimes of a sort of light Wood. So small, that they carry but one Man, whose legs, however, the unusual design met with skepticism and was not a commercial success. The design remained relatively unused in the West for almost 160 years until the early 19th-century, Crisp described it as a fast sailing fine sea boat, she traded during the monsoon between Rangoon and the Tenasserim Provinces for several years. Later that century, the American Nathanael Herreshoff constructed a sailing boat of his own design. The craft, Amaryllis, raced at her maiden regatta on June 22,1876 and her debut demonstrated the distinct performance advantages afforded to catamarans over the standard monohulls. It was as a result of event, the Centennial Regatta of the New York Yacht Club, that catamarans were barred from regular sailing classes. In 1936 Eric de Bisschop built a Polynesian double canoe in Hawaii, in 1939, he published his experiences in a book, Kaimiloa, which was translated into English in 1940. The Prout Brothers, Roland and Francis, experimented with catamarans in 1949 and converted their 1935 boat factory in Canvey Island, Essex and their Shearwater catamarans won races easily against the monohulls
22.
Fluid dynamics
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In physics and engineering, fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids. It has several subdisciplines, including aerodynamics and hydrodynamics, before the twentieth century, hydrodynamics was synonymous with fluid dynamics. This is still reflected in names of some fluid dynamics topics, like magnetohydrodynamics and hydrodynamic stability, the foundational axioms of fluid dynamics are the conservation laws, specifically, conservation of mass, conservation of linear momentum, and conservation of energy. These are based on mechanics and are modified in quantum mechanics. They are expressed using the Reynolds transport theorem, in addition to the above, fluids are assumed to obey the continuum assumption. Fluids are composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid objects, however, the continuum assumption assumes that fluids are continuous, rather than discrete. The fact that the fluid is made up of molecules is ignored. The unsimplified equations do not have a general solution, so they are primarily of use in Computational Fluid Dynamics. The equations can be simplified in a number of ways, all of which make them easier to solve, some of the simplifications allow some simple fluid dynamics problems to be solved in closed form. Three conservation laws are used to solve fluid dynamics problems, the conservation laws may be applied to a region of the flow called a control volume. A control volume is a volume in space through which fluid is assumed to flow. The integral formulations of the laws are used to describe the change of mass, momentum. Mass continuity, The rate of change of fluid mass inside a control volume must be equal to the net rate of flow into the volume. Mass flow into the system is accounted as positive, and since the vector to the surface is opposite the sense of flow into the system the term is negated. The first term on the right is the net rate at which momentum is convected into the volume, the second term on the right is the force due to pressure on the volumes surfaces. The first two terms on the right are negated since momentum entering the system is accounted as positive, the third term on the right is the net acceleration of the mass within the volume due to any body forces. Surface forces, such as forces, are represented by F surf. The following is the form of the momentum conservation equation
23.
Tripartite-class minehunter
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The Tripartite class is a class of mine warfare vessel used by the navies of Belgium, France and the Netherlands, as well as Pakistan, Indonesia, Latvia, and Bulgaria. A joint venture of the navies of France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, France built the mine-hunting equipment, Belgium provided the electronics, and the Netherlands constructed the propulsion train. France and the Netherlands originally bought 15, with Belgium buying 10, all three countries Tripartite ships contribute at times to NATOs Standing Maritime MCM capability groups. M641 Éridan M642 Cassiopée M643 Andromède M644 Pégase M645 Orion M646 Croix du Sud M647 Aigle M648 Lyre M649 Persée M650 Sagittaire, Sold to Pakistan in 1992, where she serves as Munsif. Another Éridan-class minehunter, built in 1993 and launched in 1995, is now commissioned in the French Navy as Sagittaire, m651 Verseau M652 Céphée M653 Capricorne M650 Sagittaire Replacement for the Sagittaire of 1989 sold to Pakistan. Originally 10 ships were built for the Belgian navy, all remaining Belgian vessels have undergone an extensive upgrade during 2004-2008 involving replacement of the anti-mine warfare equipment. Also called CMT for Chasseur de Mines Tripartite, all are named after flowers and are sometimes called the Flower class in international literature
24.
Lerici-class minehunter
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The Lerici class is a class of minehunters constructed by Intermarine SpA and owned and operated by the Marina Militare, the Italian Navy. The class design has also used as the basis for ships of the Royal Malaysian Navy, the Nigerian Navy, the United States Navy, the Royal Australian Navy. Three updated vessels are under construction for the Finnish Navy, the Republic of Korea Navy operates an unlicensed derivative, known as the Ganggyeong class. Twelve ships were constructed by Intermarine SpA between 1985 and 1996, the first four, referred to as the Lerici subclass) were ordered on 7 January 1978. Six more ships of a design were ordered on 30 April 1988. The four Lerici class ships were launched from September 1982 through to April 1985, Lerici class ships have a displacement of 620 tons full load,50 metres long,9.9 metres wide, and a draught of 2.6 metres. The ships have a speed of 14 knots, provided by a single diesel engine connected to an electric engine with a variable-pitch propellor. This speed is reduced to 6 knots for mine-warfare operations, three active rudders are used to keep the minehunters on station, the ships have a range of 1,500 nautical miles at operational speed. Each ship has a complement of 47, made up of 4 officers,7 clearance divers. Two navigation radars, one GEM Elettronica SPN-754 and one GEM Elettronica SPN-7531 ARPA, the ships are armed with a single Oerlikon 20 mm cannon. Depending on the source, the Gaeta class ships are considered to be either a Lerici subclass, the eight ships of the Second Series Lerici class, more commonly known as the Gaeta class, were all launched in the early 1990s, and were commissioned by May 1996. The Gaetas also used a version of the VDS FIAR SQQ-14 sonar. ROV are Gaymarine Pluto and Gaymarine Pluto GIGAS, navigation radar GEM Elettronica SPN-753 replaced with 9 ARPA version. CMS was evolved version Datamat SSN-7143UL. On board one larger hyperbaric chamber, Gaeta MLU In 2010 Intermarine began MLU, expected to complete in 2018. New sonar is Thales 2093 Mk2, new CMS Selex ES SSN-7144, new containerized and removable hyperbaric chamber, the Lerici class design has been successfully exported to Algeria, Australia, Finland, Malaysia, Nigeria, the United States, Thailand and Taiwan. However, an inflexible export policy and demands by Intermarine that all ships be built in Italy are believed to have prevented wider sales and these restrictions were lessened in the leadup to the deals with the United States and Australia. The Royal Malaysian Navy operates four ships based on the Lerici class design, KDs Mahamiru, Jerai, Ledang, and Kinabalu. The four ships were ordered from Intermarine on 20 February 1981, commissioned into the Royal Malaysian Navy on 11 December 1985, referred to as Malaysian Lericis or as Mahamiru class ships, two each are based in Lumut and Labuan
25.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
26.
Warship
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A warship is a naval ship that is built and primarily intended for naval warfare. Usually they belong to the forces of a state. As well as being armed, warships are designed to damage and are usually faster. Unlike a merchant ship, which carries cargo, a warship typically carries weapons, ammunition. Warships usually belong to a navy, though they have also operated by individuals, cooperatives. In wartime, the distinction between warships and merchant ships is often blurred, in war, merchant ships are often armed and used as auxiliary warships, such as the Q-ships of the First World War and the armed merchant cruisers of the Second World War. Until the 17th century it was common for merchant ships to be pressed into naval service, until the threat of piracy subsided in the 19th century, it was normal practice to arm larger merchant ships such as galleons. Warships have also often used as troop carriers or supply ships. The development of catapults in the 4th century BC and the subsequent refinement of technology enabled the first fleets of artillery-equipped warships by the Hellenistic age. During late antiquity, ramming fell out of use and the galley tactics against other ships used during the Middle Ages until the late 16th century focused on boarding. Naval artillery was redeveloped in the 14th century, but cannon did not become common at sea until the guns were capable of being reloaded quickly enough to be reused in the same battle. The size of a required to carry a large number of cannons made oar-based propulsion impossible. The sailing man-of-war emerged during the 16th century, by the middle of the 17th century, warships were carrying increasing numbers of cannon on their broadsides and tactics evolved to bring each ships firepower to bear in a line of battle. The man-of-war now evolved into the ship of the line, in the 18th century, the frigate and sloop-of-war – too small to stand in the line of battle – evolved to convoy trade, scout for enemy ships and blockade enemy coasts. During the 19th century a revolution took place in the means of propulsion, naval armament. Marine steam engines were introduced, at first as an auxiliary force, the Crimean War gave a great stimulus to the development of guns. The introduction of explosive shells soon led to the introduction of iron, the first ironclad warships, the French Gloire and British Warrior, made wooden vessels obsolete. Metal soon entirely replaced wood as the material for warship construction
27.
Modern history
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Modern history, the modern period or the modern era, is the global historiographical approach to the timeframe after the Post-classical history. It took all of history up to 1804 for the worlds population to reach 1 billion. Contemporary history is the span of historic events from approximately 1945 that are relevant to the present time. Some events, while not without precedent, show a new way of perceiving the world, the concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments. The fundamental difficulty of studying modern history is the fact that a plethora of it has been documented up to the present day and it is imperative to consider the reliability of the information obtained from these records. In the pre-modern era, many peoples sense of self and purpose was expressed via a faith in some form of deity. Pre-modern cultures have not been thought of creating a sense of distinct individuality, religious officials, who often held positions of power, were the spiritual intermediaries to the common person. It was only through intermediaries that the general masses had access to the divine. Tradition was sacred to ancient cultures and was unchanging and the order of ceremony. The term modern was coined in the 16th century to present or recent times. New information about the world was discovered via empirical observation, versus the use of reason. The term Early Modern was introduced in the English language in the 1930s, to distinguish the time between what we call Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment. It is important to note that these terms stem from European history, in the Contemporary era, there were various socio-technological trends. Regarding the 21st century and the modern world, the Information Age and computers were forefront in use, not completely ubiquitous. The development of Eastern powers was of note, with China, in the Eurasian theater, the European Union and Russian Federation were two forces recently developed. A concern for Western world, if not the world, was the late modern form of terrorism. The modern period has been a period of significant development in the fields of science, politics, warfare and it has also been an age of discovery and globalization. During this time, the European powers and later their colonies, began a political, economic, the modern era is closely associated with the development of individualism, capitalism, urbanization and a belief in the possibilities of technological and political progress
28.
Maritime geography
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Maritime geography is often discussed in terms of three loosely defined regions, brown water, green water, and blue water. The elements of maritime geography are loosely defined and their meanings have changed throughout history, the USAs 2010 Naval Operations Concept defines blue water as the open ocean, green water as coastal waters, ports and harbors, and brown water as navigable rivers and their estuaries. Robert Rubel of the US Naval War College includes bays in his definition of brown water, during the Cold War, green water denoted those areas of ocean in which naval forces might encounter land-based aircraft and brown water, land-based artillery. The development of long-range bombers with antiship missiles turned most of the oceans to green, after the Cold War, US amphibious taskforces were sometimes referred to as the green-water navy, in contrast to the blue-water carrier battlegroups. This distinction disappeared as increasing threats in coastal waters forced the ships further offshore, delivering assaults by helicopter. This prompted the development of ships designed to operate in such waters - the Zumwalt class destroyer, under his scheme brown water would be zones in which ocean-going units could not operate at all, including rivers, minefields, straits and other choke points. The brown water environment starts from the shoreline through to the end of the continental shelf, a brown-water navy focuses on coastal operations and primarily takes a defensive role. The green water environment extends from the edge of the brown-water layer past any continental shelves, archipelagos and islands. A green-water navy is capable of defense of its nation in depth and is a significant offensive force within its territory, the blue water environment extends from the outer edge of the green-water zone through to the deep ocean of the world. A blue-water navy can project its nations power throughout the world
29.
Blue-water navy
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A blue-water navy is a maritime force capable of operating globally, essentially across the deep waters of open oceans. A term more used in the United Kingdom to describe such a force is a navy possessing maritime expeditionary capabilities. While definitions of what constitutes such a force vary, there is a requirement for the ability to exercise sea control at wide ranges. The term blue-water navy is a maritime geographical-term in contrast with brown-water navy, the Defense Security Service of the United States has defined the blue-water navy as, a maritime force capable of sustained operation across the deep waters of open oceans. A blue-water navy allows a country to project power far from the home country, smaller blue-water navies are able to dispatch fewer vessels abroad for shorter periods of time. In public discourse, blue-water capability is identified with the operation of capital ships such as battleships. In the end Australia did not buy a new carrier, a blue-water navy implies force protection from sub-surface, surface and airborne threats and a sustainable logistic reach, allowing a persistent presence at range. A hallmark of a true blue-water navy is the ability to conduct replenishment at sea, while a blue-water navy can project sea control power into another nations littoral, it remains susceptible to threats from less capable forces. An example of vulnerability was the October 2000 USS Cole bombing in Aden. The term blue-water navy should not be confused with the capability of an individual ship, for example, vessels of a green-water navy can often operate in blue water for short periods of time. A number of nations have extensive maritime assets but lack the capability to maintain the required sustainable logistic reach, some of them join coalition task groups in blue-water deployments such as anti-piracy patrols off Somalia. According to a definition, blue-water capability refers to an oceangoing fleet able to operate on the high seas far from its nations homeports. In their 2012 publication, Sea Power and the Asia-Pacific, professors Geoffrey Till, bratton outlined what they termed as concise criteria with regard to the definitions of brown, green and blue-water navies. They go on to say that even such a definition and understanding of naval hierarchy. For example, while France and the United States may be considered blue-water navies, he states that the operational capability, another definition states that brown-water refers to the littoral areas within 100 nautical miles of the coastline. Green-water begins from 100 nautical miles out to the major land formation. While blue-water is the ability to force out to aleast 1,500 nautical miles beyond the coast. Traditionally a distinction used to be made between a coastal brown-water navy operating in the zone to 200 nautical miles and an oceangoing blue-water navy
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Brown-water navy
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These mother ships include converted World War II-era LCMs and LSTs, among other vessels. Brown-water navies are contrasted with seaworthy blue-water navies, which can conduct operations in open ocean. After losing its blue-water fleet in the Battle of Copenhagen, the kingdom of Denmark-Norway quickly built a brown-water navy, the partial successes of the resulting Gunboat War were undone by land invasion. The term brown-water navy originated in the American Civil War, of 1861–1865, in the early days of the war, U. S. Army built and crewed these boats, with the naval officers commanding them being the only direct connection to the U. S. Navy. By the autumn of 1862, the boats and their mission were transferred to the Department of the Navy. Because of the rivers murky brown water, the ships participated in these Mississippi campaigns were quickly referred to as the brown-water navy. After the end of the American civil war the next major conflict in the world was the Paraguayan War. In this the Brazilian brown-water navy, which comprised large ironclads as well as monitors, had a crucial role. The natural highway to the Republic of Paraguay was the River Paraguay and it comprised a 6,000 feet line of artillery batteries overlooking a sharp concave bend in the river, at a point where the channel was only 200 yards wide. A chain boom could be raised to block the navigation, the fortress was exceedingly hard to take from the landward side for it was protected by impassible swamp, marsh or lagoons and, where not, by 8 miles of trenches with a garrison of 18,000 men. The river was shallow, uncharted and capable of trapping large vessels if the water level should fall, in that environment the greatest threat to shipping was torpedoes. Six vessels of the Brazilian ironclad squadron eventually succeeded in dashing past Humaitá in an incident known as the Passage of Humaitá, even after Humaitá was captured − which took more than two years – the Paraguayans improvised further strongpoints along the river, further delaying the Allies. Save for a river patrol boat, the United States river ironclad navy was all. Yet the concept of a defense force lived on in countries and regions where rivers enabled the U. S. to project its military presence. The U. S. Navy of that era used the term for protecting U. S. foreign policy, the U. S. Navy, China gunboat, USS Asheville, was sunk, by the Japanese, in March 1942. They have succeeded the river created in 1945, by the request of General Leclerc. The Dinassaut served until the end of the conflict in 1955, ten Dinassauts were created, with five based in Cochinchina and the others in Tonkin. Each one was made of ten vessels and one Commandos Marine unit
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Green-water navy
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It is a relatively new term, and has been created to better distinguish, and add nuance, between two long-standing descriptors, blue-water navy and brown-water navy. It is a naval term used in different ways. It originates with the United States Navy, who use it to refer to the portion of their fleet that specializes in operations in coastal waters. Nowadays such ships rely on stealth or speed to avoid destruction by shore batteries or land-based aircraft, the US Navy has also used the term to refer to the first phase of the expansion of Chinas navy into a full blue-water navy. Subsequently, other authors have applied it to other navies that can project power locally. Such navies typically have amphibious ships and sometimes small aircraft carriers, the elements of maritime geography are loosely defined and their meanings have changed throughout history. The USs 2010 Naval Operations Concept defines blue water as the ocean, green water as coastal waters, ports and harbors. Robert Rubel of the US Naval War College includes bays in his definition of brown water, during the Cold War, green water denoted those areas of ocean in which naval forces might encounter land-based aircraft. The development of long-range bombers with anti-ship missiles turned most of the oceans to green, after the Cold War, US amphibious task forces were sometimes referred to as the green-water navy, in contrast to the blue-water carrier battle groups. This distinction disappeared as increasing threats in coastal waters forced the ships further offshore, delivering assaults by helicopter. Under his scheme, brown water would be zones in which ocean-going units could not operate at all, including rivers, minefields, straits and other choke points. This is not true for most other navies, whose supply chains, a number of countries are working on overcoming these constraints. Other authors have started to apply the term green-water navy to any navy that has ocean-going ships. Its often not clear what they mean, as the term is used without consistency or precision, for example, the German Navy has near the same capability as the Canadian Navy but is not recognized as a true green-water navy. Another example is the Portuguese Navy that, despite being classified as a minor navy, has several times conducted sustained operations in faraway regions typical of the green-water navies. The collapse of the USSR also brought with it the collapse of the second largest naval force in the world, moreover, budget cuts forced large cuts in the submarine force, such as the retirements of the Typhoon-class submarine. As the Soviet Navy was built largely around submarine warfare the losses in the submarine capability have adversely affected the capability of the newly formed Russian Navy as well, the Royal Australian Navy is well established as a green-water navy. The navy sustains a range of maritime operations, from the Middle East to the Pacific Ocean
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Broadside
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A broadside is the side of a ship, the battery of cannon on one side of a warship, or their coordinated fire in naval warfare. From the 16th century until the decades of the steamship. Firing all guns on one side of the ship known as a broadside. The cannons of 18th century men of war were accurate only at short range and these wooden ships sailed closer and closer towards each other until cannon fire would be effective. Each tried to be the first to fire a broadside, often giving one party a decisive headstart in the battle when it crippled the other ship. Since ancient times, war at sea had been much like on land, with melee weapons and bows and arrows. Though the introduction of guns was a significant change, it slowly changed the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat. The first guns on ships were small wrought-iron pieces mounted on the decks and in the fighting tops. They were designed to injure, kill or simply stun, shock, as guns were made more durable to withstand stronger gunpowder charges, they increased their potential to inflict critical damage to the vessel rather than just its crew. Since these guns were heavier than the earlier anti-personnel weapons, they had to be placed lower in the ships. In Northern Europe the technique of building ships with clinker planking made it difficult to cut ports in the hull, the solution was the gradual adoption of carvel-built ships that relied on an internal skeleton structure to bear the weight of the ship. The development of propulsion during the 15th century from single-masted, square-rigged cogs to three-masted carracks with a mix of square, gunports cut in the hull of ships had been introduced as early as 1501. Initially, the gunports were used to mount heavy so-called stern chasers pointing aft and this made possible coordinated volleys from all the guns on one side of a ship for the first time in history, at least in theory. Guns in the 16th century were considered to be in fixed positions and were intended to be fired independently rather than in concerted volleys. It was not until the 1590s that the word broadside in English was commonly used to refer to gunfire from the side of a rather than the ships side itself. This is calculated by multiplying the weight of the ships main armament shells times the number of barrels that can be brought to bear. If some turrets are incapable of firing to either side of the vessel, for example, the American Iowa-class battleships carried a main armament of nine 16-inch main guns in turrets which could all be trained to a single broadside. Each 16-inch shell weighed 2,700 pounds, which multiplied by nine equals a total of 24,300 pounds
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Central battery ship
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One of the participants was the Confederate casemate ironclad CSS Virginia, essentially a central battery ship herself, albeit a low-freeboard one. The central battery ships had their main guns concentrated in the middle of the ship in an armoured citadel, the concentration of armament amidships meant the ship could be shorter and handier than a broadside type like previous warships. In this manner the design could maximize the thickness of armour in an area while still carrying a significant broadside. These ships meant the end of the frigates with their full-length gun decks. In the UK, the man behind the design was the newly appointed Chief Constructor of the Royal Navy, Edward James Reed. The previous Royal Navy ironclad designs, represented by HMS Warrior, had proven to be seaworthy, fast under power and sail, the first central battery ship was HMS Bellerophon of 1865. Great Britain built a total of 18 central battery ships before turrets became common on ships in the 1880s. The second British central battery ship, HMS Hercules, served as model for the Austrian navy, starting with their first design SMS Lissa designed by Josef von Romako and launched in 1871. The Austrian SMS Kaiser—not to be confused with German Kaiser—was built along a similar design, although the hull had been converted from a wooden ship, three older broadside ironclads of the Kaiser Max class were also officially converted to casemate design, although they were mostly built from scratch. The largest design yet was Tegetthoff, later renamed to Mars when the new dreadnought battleship Tegetthoff was commissioned, the Austrian records distinguish between the category of older broadside ironclads and the newer designs using the words Panzerfregatten and respectively Casemattschiffe. The German navy had two large ships of the Kaiser class built in UK shipyards. The first ironclad of the Greek navy, Vasilefs Georgios, was built in the UK, at 1700 tons. The Italians had three ships built, Venezia, converted from broadside during construction, and the two Principe Amedeo-class ironclads. The disadvantage of the centre-battery was that, while more flexible than the broadside, each gun still had a restricted field of fire. The centre-battery ships were succeeded by turreted warships. Box battery Brown, David K. RCNC, Warrior to Dreadnought, Warship Design 1860–1905, London, Chatham,1997 ISBN 1-84067-529-2 Sondhaus, Lawrence. The Naval Policy of Austria-Hungary, 1867–1918, Navalism, Industrial Development, gardiner, Robert, ed. Conways All the Worlds Fighting Ships 1860–1905
34.
Casemate
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A casemate, sometimes erroneously rendered casement, is a fortified gun emplacement or armored structure from which guns are fired. Originally, the referred to a vaulted chamber in a fortress. In armoured fighting vehicles that do not have a turret for the main gun, the word comes from the Italian casamatta, the etymology of which is uncertain. Others think that it comes from the Arabic word kasaba, transliterated to kasbah, menagio speculated that it came from the Greek word for pit, khasma, the plural of which is khasmata. Hensleigh Wedgwood thought that it came from the Spanish casa and matar, others take matto in its archaic Italian meaning of dark, equivalent to the English matt, as in opaque, making a casamatta a dark house. Casematte were also used as prisons, making use of their lack of light to add to the punishment. This explanation seems to be the most agreed upon, a casemate was originally a vaulted chamber usually constructed underneath the rampart. It was intended to be impenetrable and could be used for sheltering troops or stores, with the addition of an embrasure through the scarp face of the rampart, it could be used as a protected gun position. In the early 19th century, French military engineer Baron Haxo designed a free-standing casemate that could be built on the top of the rampart, casemates built in concrete were used in the Second World War to protect coastal artillery from air attack. In warship design the term casemate has been used in a number of ways, the most famous naval battle of the war was the duel at Hampton Roads between the Union turretted ironclad USS Monitor and the Confederate casemate ironclad CSS Virginia. Casemate ship was a term for central battery ship or center battery ship. The casemate was a box that extended the full width of the ship protecting many guns. The armoured sides of the box were the sides of hull of the ship, there was an armoured bulkhead at the front and rear of the casemate, and a thick deck protecting the top. The lower edge of the casemate sat on top of ships belt armour, some ships, such as the Alexandra, had a two-storey casemate. A casemate was a room in the side of a warship. A typical casemate held a 6-in gun, and had a 6 front plate, with armour plates on the sides and rear, with a protected top and floor. Casemates were similar in size to turrets, ships carrying them had them in pairs, the first battleships to carry them were the British Royal Sovereign class laid down in 1889. They were adopted as a result of live-firing trials against HMS Resistance in 1888, the use of casemates enabled the 6-in guns to be dispersed, so that a single hit would not knock out all of them
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Gun turret
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A gun turret is a location from which weapons can be fired that affords protection, visibility, and some cone of fire. Rotating gun turrets have the protection, the weapon, and its crew rotate, when this meaning of the word turret started being used at the beginning of the 1860s, turrets were normally cylindrical. Barbettes were an alternative to turrets, with a barbette the protection was fixed, in the 1890s, armoured hoods were added to barbettes, these rotated with the platform. By the early 20th Century, these hoods were known as turrets, modern warships have gun-mountings described as turrets, though the protection on them is limited to protection from the weather. They may be manned or remotely controlled and are most often protected to some degree, the protection provided by the turret may be against battle damage, the weather conditions, general environment in which the weapon or its crew will be operating. A small turret, or sub-turret set on top of a one, is called a cupola. The term cupola is used for a rotating turret that carries a sighting device rather than weaponry. Before the development of large-calibre, long-range guns in the mid-19th century, firepower was provided by a large number of guns, each of which could traverse only in a limited arc. Additionally casemate mounts had to be recessed into the side of a vessel to afford a wide arc of fire, designs for a rotating gun turret date back to the late 18th century. The Lady Nancy proved a success and Coles patenting his rotating turret design after the war. Coless aim was to create a ship with the greatest possible all round arc of fire, the Admiralty accepted the principle of the turret gun as a useful innovation, and incorporated it into other new designs. Coles submitted a design for a ship having ten domed turrets each housing two large guns, the design was rejected as impractical, although the Admiralty remained interested in turret ships and instructed its own designers to create better designs. Coles enlisted the support of Prince Albert, who wrote to the first Lord of the Admiralty, in January 1862, the Admiralty agreed to construct a ship, the HMS Prince Albert which had four turrets and a low freeboard, intended only for coastal defence. While Coles designed the turrets the ship was the responsibility of the chief Constructor Isaac Watts, another ship using Coles turret designs, HMS Royal Sovereign, was completed in August 1864. Its existing broadside guns were replaced with four turrets on a flat deck, early ships like the Royal Sovereign had little sea-keeping qualities being limited to coastal waters. Sir Edward James Reed, went on to design and build HMS Monarch, laid down in 1866 and completed in June 1869, it carried two turrets, although the inclusion of a forecastle and poop prevented the turret guns firing fore and aft. The gun turret was independently invented by the Swedish inventor John Ericsson in America, Ericsson designed the USS Monitor in 1861, its most prominent feature being a large cylindrical gun turret mounted amidships above the low-freeboard upper hull, also called the raft. This extended well past the sides of the lower, more traditionally shaped hull, a small armoured pilot house was fitted on the upper deck towards the bow, however, its position prevented Monitor from firing her guns straight forward
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Aircraft carrier
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An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the ship of a fleet, as it allows a naval force to project air power worldwide without depending on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Aircraft carriers are expensive to build and are critical assets, there is no single definition of an aircraft carrier, and modern navies use several variants of the type. These variants are sometimes categorized as sub-types of aircraft carriers, Aircraft carriers may be classified according to the type of aircraft they carry and their operational assignments. Admiral Sir Mark Stanhope, former head of the Royal Navy, has said, To put it simply, as of April 2017, there are 37 active aircraft carriers in the world within twelve navies. The United States Navy has 10 large nuclear-powered fleet carriers, the largest carriers in the world, the Royal Navy of Great Britain is building two 280-m / 920-ft carriers, the Queen Elizabeth, and the Prince of Wales scheduled to go into service in 2020-2023. These are the largest carriers capable of fast speeds, by comparison, escort carriers were developed to provide defense for convoys of ships. They were smaller and slower with lower numbers of aircraft carried, most were built from mercantile hulls or, in the case of merchant aircraft carriers, were bulk cargo ships with a flight deck added on top. Light aircraft carriers were fast enough to operate with the main fleet, three nations currently operate carriers of this type, ten by the United States, and one each by France and Brazil for a total of twelve in service. Short take-off but arrested-recovery, these carriers are generally limited to carrying lighter fixed-wing aircraft with more limited payloads, currently, Russia, China, and India possess commissioned carriers of this type. Short take-off vertical-landing, limited to carrying STOVL aircraft and this type of aircraft carrier is currently in service with Italy. Some also count the nine US amphibious assault ships in their secondary light carrier role boosting the total to thirteen. Helicopter carrier, Helicopter carriers have an appearance to other aircraft carriers. Some are designed for addition of, or may include, a ski jump ramp allowing for STOVL operations or may have a ski jump installed before retirement of STOVL aircraft. In the past, some conventional carriers were converted and called commando carriers by the Royal Navy, some helicopter carriers with a resistant flight surface can operate STOVL jets. Currently the majority of carriers, but not all, are classified as amphibious assault ships. The US has nine of this type, France and Japan three, Australia two, the UK one, the Republic of Korea one and Spain one, the US and Spains amphibious assault ships operate STOVL jets in normal deployment. Supercarrier Fleet carrier Light aircraft carrier Escort carrier Several systems of identification symbol for aircraft carriers, two months later, on 18 January 1911, Ely landed his Curtiss pusher airplane on a platform on the armored cruiser USS Pennsylvania anchored in San Francisco Bay
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Aircraft cruiser
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The aircraft cruiser is a warship that combines the features of the aircraft carrier and a surface warship such as a cruiser or battleship. The first aircraft cruiser was originally a 1930s experimental concept of creating an all-around warship, the early aircraft cruisers were usually armed with relatively heavy artillery, mines and a number of aircraft fitted with floats. The early aircraft cruiser turned out to be an unsuccessful design, the rapid development of naval aircraft in the 1930s quickly rendered the vessels obsolete, and they were rebuilt e. g. as anti-aircraft cruisers. One United States design for a flight deck cruiser from 1930, was described as a Brooklyn-class light cruiser forwards one half of a Wasp-class aircraft carrier aft, although not built, similar ships were created during and after World War II as reconstructions and later from the keel up. The cruiser Mogami also had its gun turrets replaced by aircraft handling facilities. The German Kriegsmarine also studied several Flugdeckkreuzer designs in 1942 which included 20.3 cm or 28 cm gun turrets forward of the flight deck. A more modern derivative of the cruiser is the helicopter cruiser which could typically operate at least 4 or more helicopters including medium. Litton-Ingalls completed sketch design work for DDH-997, which moved the helicopter deck aft, stretching the length of the hangar, the design would have accommodated two SH-3 Sea Kings or four smaller SH-60 Seahawk or SH-2 Seasprite helicopters. This raised the cost of the DDH substantially above a standard Spruance-class destroyer, while this additional cost might have been justified if the DDH was going to enter series production, it was difficult to justify for a single ship. Accordingly, the Navy built Hayler to the design as the rest of the Spruance-class. In the Russian Navy, aviation cruiser is a designation for the Kiev and they are a cross between a cruiser and an aircraft carrier. Aviation cruisers ships have close-in weapon systems, both gun and missile, for self-defense against missiles or rockets, the Kiev class of aviation cruisers is capable of carrying VTOL aircraft and helicopters. The ships have only a single angled flight deck for aviation, the forward deck is used to carry cruiser weapons, including P-500 Bazalt cruise missiles that are the main armament of the Slava-class cruiser. The Kuznetsov class is classified as heavy cruisers, reflecting their greater weight as well as the larger number of aircraft they can operate. In addition to helicopters, they are capable of operating conventional fixed-wing aircraft like the Sukhoi Su-33. The ships have a flight deck as well as an axial flight deck for takeoff. Since there is no catapult, a bow ski jump is used to assist takeoff, Kuznetsov also carries the P-700 Granit cruise missiles that form the main armament of the Kirov-class battlecruiser. All Soviet aircraft carriers were built at the Nikolayev Shipyard in the Ukrainian SSR and their classification as aircraft cruisers is very important for the purposes of international law, as it allows them to transit the Turkish Straits on their way into the Mediterranean Sea
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Amphibious assault ship
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An amphibious assault ship is a type of amphibious warfare ship employed to land and support ground forces on enemy territory by an amphibious assault. The design evolved from aircraft carriers converted for use as helicopter carriers, coming full circle, some amphibious assault ships now have a secondary role as aircraft carriers, supporting V/STOL fixed-wing aircraft. Most of these ships can carry or support landing craft. The largest fleet of these types is operated by the United States Navy, including the Tarawa class dating back to the 1970s and this does not include the amphibious transport dock, and dock landing ship. In the Pacific theater of World War II, escort carriers would often escort the landing ships, in this role, they would provide air cover for the troopships as well as fly the first wave of attacks on the beach fortifications in amphibious landing operations. In addition, they would also transport aircraft and spare parts from the US to the remote island airstrips, despite all the progress that was seen during World War II, there were still fundamental limitations in the types of coastline that were suitable for assault. Beaches had to be free of obstacles, and have the right tidal conditions. However, the development of the helicopter fundamentally changed the equation, the first use of helicopters in an amphibious assault came during the invasion of Egypt during the Suez War in 1956. In this engagement, two British light fleet carriers, Ocean and Theseus, were converted to perform an airborne assault with helicopters. The techniques were developed further by American forces during the Vietnam War, the modern amphibious assault can take place at virtually any point of the coast, making defending against them extremely difficult. Most early amphibious assault ships were converted from small aircraft carriers and their sister ship HMS Hermes was also converted to a commando carrier in the early 1970s, but was restored to aircraft carrier operations before the end of the 1970s. Later amphibious assault craft were constructed for the role, the United States Navy is also designing a new class of assault ships, the first America-class ship entered service in October 2014. The first British ship to be constructed specifically for the assault role was HMS Ocean. Most modern amphibious assault ships have a deck, allowing them to launch landing craft in rougher seas than a ship that has to use cranes or a stern ramp. Due to their aircraft carrier heritage, all amphibious assault ships resemble aircraft carriers in design, landing craft are also carried, either on deck-mounted davits, or in an internal well deck
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Anti-submarine warfare carrier
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An anti-submarine warfare carrier is a type of small aircraft carrier whose primary role is to hunt and destroy submarines. This type of came into existence during the Cold War as a development of the escort carriers used in the ASW role in the North Atlantic during World War II. After World War II, the naval threat to most Western nations was confrontation with the Soviet Union. This trend in ASW force draw-down only accelerated with the reduction in the operational Soviet/Russian submarine fleet. Ships that could be called dedicated ASW carriers are now found within the Japan MSDF. Aircraft carriers and helicopter carriers that had primary ASW duties from the mid-1960s onward, Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force Hyūga class. ASW, utility, and sea mine clearing helicopters Izumo class, ASW, utility, and sea mine clearing helicopters Spanish Navy Dédalo - one ship ASW helicopter carrier 1967-1976, STOVL carrier 1976-1989. HMS Hermes, Centaur-class aircraft carrier converted to helicopter ASW in 1976, Invincible class - three ships Strike/ASW/Amphibious Assault STOVL and helicopters. After the Falklands War they were used as conventional, albeit light, HMS Invincible and HMS Ark Royal retired/scrapped, HMS Illustrious converted to amphibious assault ship. Escort carrier Helicopter carrier Light aircraft carrier
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Balloon carrier
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A balloon carrier or balloon tender was a ship equipped with a balloon, usually tied to the ship by a rope or cable, and usually used for observation. During the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century, later, during the American Civil War, about the time of the Peninsula Campaign, gas-filled balloons were being used to perform reconnaissance on Confederate positions. The battles turned inland into the forested areas of the Virginia Peninsula where balloons could not travel. A coal barge, the George Washington Parke Custis, was cleared of all deck rigging to accommodate the gas generators, from this ship, professor Thaddeus S. C. Lowe, Chief Aeronaut of the Union Army Balloon Corps, made his first ascents over the Potomac River, other barges were converted to assist with the other military balloons transported about the eastern waterways. None of these Civil War craft ever sailed on the high seas. Balloons launched from ships led to the development of balloon carriers, or balloon tenders, during World War I, by the navies of Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Russia. About 10 such balloon tenders were built with their objective being aerial observation posts. These ships were decommissioned or converted to seaplane tenders after the War
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CAM ship
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CAM ships were World War II-era British merchant ships used in convoys as an emergency stop-gap until sufficient escort carriers became available. CAM ship is an acronym for catapult aircraft merchant ship, a CAM ship was equipped with a rocket-propelled catapult launching a single Hawker Hurricane, dubbed a Hurricat or Catafighter. CAM ships continued to carry their normal cargoes after conversion, the German Luftwaffe had Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor aircraft with a range of nearly 2,000 nautical miles. After the Fall of France, these aircraft could operate from western France against British merchant ships in the Atlantic, flying from Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport, Fw 200s of I/KG40 could reach the convoy lanes west of Britain while staying outside the range of British land-based fighters. The Royal Navy had no aircraft available to provide close air cover for the convoys. The Fw 200s could shadow convoys, directing U-boat attacks on them, or drop bombs on convoy ships, without opposition and to deadly effect. To counter this threat, the Admiralty developed the fighter catapult ship – a converted freighter, manned by a naval crew, when an enemy bomber was sighted, the fighter would be launched into the air with rockets, and fly up to destroy or drive away the bomber. Being large and slow, the Fw 200 became a rather vulnerable target, after the combat, the fighter pilot would bail out or ditch in the ocean near the convoy, and be picked up if all went well. The Admiralty had already experimented with this system and they ordered 50 rocket-propelled aircraft catapults to be fitted to merchant ships. The planes were Hurricane Mark Is, converted to Sea Hurricane IAs, the pilots for these aircraft were drawn from the Royal Air Force. The RAF formed the Merchant Ship Fighter Unit on 5 May 1941 in RAF Speke by the River Mersey in Liverpool, moulton-Barrett commanded the unit providing training for volunteer pilots, Fighter Direction Officers, and airmen. After training, MSFU crews were posted to Liverpool, Glasgow, each team consisted of one pilot for Atlantic runs, with one fitter, one rigger, one radio-telephone operator, one FDO, and a seaman torpedoman who worked on the catapult as an electrician. MSFU crews signed ships articles as civilian crew members under the authority of the ships master. The ships chief engineer responsible for the catapult, and the first mate acted as Catapult Duty Officer. The single Hurricane fighter was launched only when enemy aircraft were sighted and agreement was reached via hand, the first four or five ships were taken into Royal Navy service as Auxiliary Fighter Catapult Ships, and later conversions were officially named CAMs manned by merchant crews. The first CAM ship, Michael E, was sponsored by the Royal Navy while the RAF MSFUs were working up, after a trial launch off Belfast, Michael E sailed with convoy OB327 on 28 May 1941. She was sunk by U-108 on 2 June, the first RAF trial CAM launch was from Empire Rainbow, at Greenock on the River Clyde on 31 May 1941, the Hurricane landed at Abbotsinch. Six CAM ships joined convoys in June 1941, when a CAM ship arrived at its destination, the pilot usually launched and landed at a nearby airfield to get in as much flight time as possible before his return trip
42.
Escort carrier
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They were typically half the length and a third the displacement of larger fleet carriers. While they were slower, carried fewer planes and were well armed and armored, escort carriers were cheaper and could be built quickly. Escort carriers could be completed in greater numbers as a stop-gap when fleet carriers were scarce, however, the lack of protection made escort carriers particularly vulnerable and several were sunk with great loss of life. The light carrier was a concept to escort carriers in most respects. Most often built on a ship hull, escort carriers were too slow to keep up with the main forces consisting of fleet carriers, battleships. Instead, they were used to escort convoys, defending them from threats such as submarines and planes. In the invasions of mainland Europe and Pacific islands, escort carriers provided air support to forces during amphibious operations. Escort carriers also served as aircraft transports for fleet carriers. In the Battle of the Atlantic, escort carriers were used to protect convoys against U-boats, initially escort carriers accompanied the merchant ships and helped to fend off attacks from aircraft and submarines. As numbers increased later in the war, escort carriers formed part of hunter-killer groups that sought out submarines instead of being attached to a particular convoy. In the Pacific theater, CVEs provided air support of troops in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. They lacked the speed and weapons to enemy fleets, relying on the protection of a Fast Carrier Task Force. However, at the Battle off Samar, one U. S. task force of escort carriers managed to defend itself against a much larger Japanese force of battleships. The Japanese met a furious defense of carrier aircraft, screening destroyers, of the 151 aircraft carriers built in the U. S. during World War II,122 were escort carriers. Though no examples survive to this day, the Casablanca class was the most numerous class of aircraft carrier, second was the Bogue class, with 45 launched. In the early 1920s, the Washington Naval Treaty imposed limits on the maximum size, later treaties largely kept these provisions. As a result, construction between the World Wars had been insufficient to meet needs for aircraft carriers as World War II expanded from Europe. The foregoing mission requirements limited use of fleet carriers′ unique offensive strike capability demonstrated at the Battle of Taranto, conversion of existing ships provided additional aircraft carriers until new construction became available
