1.
BMW i
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The BMW i is a sub-brand of BMW founded in 2011 to design and manufacture plug-in electric vehicles. The companys initial plans call for the release of two vehicles, the i3 all-electric car and the i8 plug-in hybrid, concept versions of both these vehicles were shown at the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show. Series production of the BMW i3 destined for retail customers began in September 2013, the BMW i8 was launched in Germany in June 2014. The United States, Norway, Germany, and the UK are the markets for both models. In February 2016, BMW announced the introduction of the model designation. The aim is to provide an indicator of the transfer of technology from BMW i to the BMW core brand. BMW i sales reached the 50,000 unit milestone in January 2016, global i3 sales achieved the 50,000 unit milestone in July 2016. Combined global sales of BMW i and iPerformance plug-in hybrid models achieved the 100,000 unit milestone in early November 2016, BMWs leading electrified model is the i3 with more than 60,000 units sold globally. Two years after its introduction, the BMW i3 became the worlds third best selling all-electric car. BMWs Project i is a program created to develop lightweight eco-friendly urban electric car designed to address the mobility and sustainability needs for people who live in megacities. According to BMW, Project i has three phases, the Mini E demonstration was the first phase of this project, and it was followed by a similar field testing that began in January 2012 with the BMW ActiveE all-electric vehicle. The ActiveE was based on the BMW1 Series Coupe and built considering the lessons learned from the Mini E trial, the last phase of Project i was the development of the i3 and i8 electric cars. BMW expected high sales of the i3 to allow the company to continue selling several of its high-performance cars with low fuel economy in the U. S. In February 2011, BMW announced a new sub-brand, BMW i, BMW i vehicles are to be sold separately from BMW or Mini. Production of both electric cars was scheduled to start in Leipzig in 2013. Global i3 sales passed the 25,000 unit milestone in May 2015, combined global sales of the BMW i brand models passed the 30,000 mark in June 2015, and the 50,000 unit milestone in January 2016. Global sales of the BMW i3 achieved the 50,000 unit milestone in July 2016, BMWs next electric development is expected to be the self-driving iNext in 2021. The first BMW i store opened in June 2012 at BMW’s London Park Lane showroom, the carmaker premiered an updated version of the BMW i3 concept electric car and unveiled its i Pedelec electric bicycle concept
2.
Oxford
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Oxford is a city in the South East region of England and the county town of Oxfordshire. With an estimated 2015 population of 168,270, it is the 52nd largest city in the United Kingdom, the city is situated 57 miles from London,69 miles from Bristol,65 miles from both Southampton and Birmingham and 25 miles from Reading. The city is known worldwide as the home of the University of Oxford, buildings in Oxford demonstrate notable examples of every English architectural period since the late Saxon period. Oxford is known as the city of dreaming spires, a term coined by poet Matthew Arnold, Oxford has a broad economic base. Its industries include motor manufacturing, education, publishing and a number of information technology and science-based businesses. Oxford was first settled in Saxon times and was known as Oxenaforda, meaning Ford of the Oxen. It began with the establishment of a crossing for oxen around AD900. In the 10th century, Oxford became an important military frontier town between the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex and was on several occasions raided by Danes, Oxford was heavily damaged during the Norman Invasion of 1066. Following the conquest, the town was assigned to a governor, Robert DOyly, the castle has never been used for military purposes and its remains survive to this day. DOyly set up a community in the castle consisting of a chapel. The community never grew large but it earned its place in history as one of Britains oldest places of formal education and it was there that in 1139 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, a compilation of Arthurian legends. Mary at Oseney and to the canons serving God in that place and we have made this concession and confirmation in the Common council of the City and we have confirmed it with our common seal. These are those who have made this concession and confirmation, a grandson of King John established Rewley Abbey for the Cistercian Order, and friars of various orders all had houses of varying importance at Oxford. Parliaments were often held in the city during the 13th century, the Provisions of Oxford were instigated by a group of barons led by Simon de Montfort, these documents are often regarded as Englands first written constitution. Richard I of England and John, King of England the sons of Henry II of England, were born at Beaumont Palace in Oxford, on 8 September 1157 and 24 December 1166 respectively. A plaque in Beaumont Street commemorates these events, the University of Oxford is first mentioned in 12th century records. Of the hundreds of Aularian houses that sprang up across the city, what put an end to the halls was the emergence of colleges. Oxfords earliest colleges were University College, Balliol and Merton and these colleges were established at a time when Europeans were starting to translate the writings of Greek philosophers
3.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
4.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
5.
Compact car
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The dimension standards are absolute, meaning special consideration is not made for SUVs, CUVs, minivans, station wagons or hatchbacks. Compact car is a largely North American term denoting an automobile smaller than a mid-size car, Compact cars usually have wheelbases between 100 inches and 109 inches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a car as measuring between 100 cubic feet and 109 cubic feet of combined passenger and cargo volume capacity. Vehicle class size is defined in the U. S. by environmental laws in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40—Protection of Environment, Section 600. 315-82 Classes of comparable automobiles. Passenger car classes are defined based on interior volume index or seating capacity, in the United States, the compact car segment currently holds a 16% share of the market. This segment is dominated by import models, one of the first truly small cars on the U. S. market, in the sense that it was considerably smaller than the standard- size cars of its day, was the Austin Bantam that appeared in 1930. Production of the British-based city car lasted only four years with a total of 20,000 units, although other little cars such as the Crosley focused on low price and economy, Americans did not take easily to small cars. The U. S. market after World-War II experienced growth in sales in standard-sized cars, by 1947, Chevrolet had prototypes of the Cadet, an economy car developed by Earle S. MacPherson. Ford also experimented with a car and, unlike Chevrolets Cadet, production ensued for the European market as a large car. In 1950, Nash introduced a convertible Rambler model and it was built on a 100-inch wheelbase to which a station wagon, hardtop, and sedan versions were added. Compared to European standards, they were large, conceived by George W. Mason, the term compact was coined by George W. Romney as a euphemism for small cars with a wheelbase of 110 inches or less. The Nash Rambler established a new segment, it became known as Americas first small car. Several competitors to the Nash Rambler arose from the ranks of Americas other independent automakers, other early compact cars included the Henry J from Kaiser-Frazer, as well as the Willys Aero and the Hudson Jet. In 1952, Ford Division assistant general manager Robert S. McNamara started the Market Research Unit, in 1954,64,500 of over 5 million cars sold in the United States were imports or small American cars. Ford alone sold over 1.4 million big cars, yet 5 percent of those surveyed said they would consider a small car. These models also gave rise to compact vans that were sized similarly to the Volkswagen Type 2 microbus and were based from the Falcon, Corvair, and Valiant automobile platforms. Ford Division marketing research manager George Brown said smaller cars appealed to people with a college education, the cars had to offer not only high gas mileage but also headroom, legroom, and plenty of trunk space. Within a few years after that, the compacts had given rise to a new class called the car, named after the Ford Mustang
6.
Hatchback
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A hatchback is a car body configuration with a rear door that swings upward to provide access to a cargo area. Hatchbacks may feature fold-down second row seating, where the interior can be reconfigured to prioritize passenger vs. cargo volume. Hatchbacks may feature two- or three-box design, while early examples of the body configuration can be traced to the 1930s, the Merriam-Webster dictionary dates the term itself to 1970. The hatchback body style has been marketed worldwide on cars ranging in size from superminis to small family cars, Hatchbacks may be described as three-door or five-door cars. A model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2001–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon, the models typically share a platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. Hatchbacks may have a rigid parcel shelf, liftable with the tailgate. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically feature a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers, further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C pillars, station wagons more likely also feature a D pillar. Cargo volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume, with alongside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks have one or two rows of seats. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons also have numerous tailgate configurations. Typically, a hatch or liftgate does not extend down to the bumper. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a liftback is a broad marketing term for a hatchback where the rear cargo door is more horizontal than vertical, with a sharply raked or fastback profile. In comparison with the hatchback the back opening area is sloped and longer and is lifted up to open. Liftback and fastback are often misused, a fastback is described as a hatchback where the rear cargo door flows down continuously from the roof of the car and most of the time is not as raked as the liftback. In 1946, DeSoto marketed the Suburban as a station wagon, in 1949, Kaiser-Frazer introduced the Vagabond and Traveler hatchbacks. Although these were styled much like the typical 1940s sedan, they incorporated an innovative split rear tailgate, folding rear seats, the design was neither fully a sedan nor a station wagon, but the folding rear seat provided for a large, 8-foot long interior cargo area. These Kaiser-Frazer models have described as America’s First Hatchback. In 1953, Aston Martin marketed the DB2 with a rear tailgate
7.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
8.
Front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FWD, or front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout places both the internal combustion engine and driven roadwheels at the front of the vehicle. Historically, this designation was used regardless of whether the engine was behind the front axle line. Most pre-World War II front engine cars would qualify as front-mid engine, using the front-mid designation and this layout is the most traditional form, and remains a popular, practical design. The engine which takes up a deal of space is packaged in a location passengers. The main deficit is weight distribution — the heaviest component is at one end of the vehicle, car handling is not ideal, but usually predictable. Like the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout and rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout layouts, it places the engine over the drive wheels, improving traction in many applications. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FWD cars are generally considered superior to RWD cars in conditions where there is low traction such as snow, mud. When hill climbing in low traction conditions RR is considered the best two-wheel-drive layout, the cornering ability of a FWD vehicle is generally better, because the engine is placed over the steered wheels. However, as the wheels have the additional demands of steering, if a vehicle accelerates quickly, less grip is available for cornering. Electronic traction control can avoid wheel-spin but largely negates the benefit of extra power and this was a reason for the adoption of the four-wheel-drive quattro system in the high performance Jensen FF and Audi Quattro road cars. Early cars using the FWD layout include the 1929 Cord L-29,1931 DKW F1, the 1948 Citroën 2CV,1949 Saab 92, in the 1980s, the traction and packaging advantages of this layout caused many compact and mid-sized vehicle makers to adopt it in the US. Most European and Japanese manufacturers switched to front wheel drive for the majority of their cars in the 1960s and 1970s, the last to change being VW, Ford of Europe, Toyota was the last Japanese company to switch in the early 1980s. BMW, focussed on luxury vehicles, however retained the layout in even their smaller cars. There are four different arrangements for this layout, depending on the location of the engine. The earliest such arrangement was not technically FWD, but rather mid-engine, the engine was mounted longitudinally behind the wheels, with the transmission ahead of the engine and differential at the very front of the car. With the engine so far back, the distribution of such cars as the Cord L-29 was not ideal. The 1934 Citroën Traction Avant solved the weight issue by placing the transmission at the front of the car with the differential between it and the engine. Combined with the low slung unibody design, this resulted in handling which was remarkable for the era
9.
Electric motor
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An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
10.
Induction motor
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An induction motor can therefore be made without electrical connections to the rotor. An induction motors rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type, three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used in industrial drives because they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans, although traditionally used in fixed-speed service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump, squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed and variable-frequency drive applications. Tesla applied for U. S. patents in October and November 1887 and was granted some of these patents in May 1888, in April 1888, the Royal Academy of Science of Turin published Ferrariss research on his AC polyphase motor detailing the foundations of motor operation. George Westinghouse, who was developing an alternating current power system at time, licensed Tesla’s patents in 1888. Tesla was also employed for one year as a consultant, Westinghouse employee C. F. Scott was assigned to assist Tesla and later took over development of the induction motor at Westinghouse. Steadfast in his promotion of development, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the cage-rotor induction motor in 1889. Furthermore, he claimed that Teslas motor was not practical because of two-phase pulsations, G. Lamme developed a rotating bar winding rotor. The General Electric Company began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891, by 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called the squirrel-cage rotor. Arthur E. Kennelly was the first to bring out full significance of the i to designate the 90-degree rotation operator in complex number analysis of AC problems. GEs Charles Proteus Steinmetz greatly developed application of AC complex quantities including in terms now commonly known as the induction motors Steinmetz equivalent circuit. Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such that a 100-horsepower induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7. 5-horsepower motor in 1897. In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the motors stator creates a field that rotates in time with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous motors rotor turns at the rate as the stator field. The induction motor stators magnetic field is changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces a current in the induction motors rotor, in effect the motors secondary winding. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor, the currents in the rotor windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react against the stator field
11.
Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
12.
Electric-vehicle battery
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An electric vehicle battery or traction battery is a battery used to power the propulsion of battery electric vehicles. Vehicle batteries are usually a secondary battery, traction batteries are used in forklifts, electric Golf carts, riding floor scrubbers, electric motorcycles, full-size electric cars, trucks, and vans, and other electric vehicles. Electric vehicle batteries differ from starting, lighting, and ignition batteries because they are designed to power over sustained periods of time. Deep cycle batteries are used instead of SLI batteries for these applications, traction batteries must be designed with a high ampere-hour capacity. Compared to liquid fuels, most current battery technologies have much lower energy. However, metal-air batteries have high specific energy because the cathode is provided by the oxygen in the air. Rechargeable batteries used in vehicles include lead-acid, NiCd, nickel metal hydride, lithium ion, Li-ion polymer. The amount of electricity stored in batteries is measured in hours or in coulombs. The battery makes up a substantial cost of BEVs, which unlike for fossil fueled cars, the few electric cars with over 500 km of range, are firmly in the luxury segment, as of 2015. Since the late 1990s, advances in technology have been driven by demands for portable electronics, like laptop computers. The BEV marketplace has reaped the benefits of these advances, however, Mitsubishi ascribes the price reduction of its 2012 model MiEV, compared to the 2011 model, to a dramatic reduction in the cost of batteries. The cost of vehicle batteries has been reduced by more than 35% from 2008 to 2014. Rechargeable traction batteries are used all day, and fast–charged all night. Forklifts, for instance, are discharged and recharged every 24 hours of the work week. The predicted market for automobile batteries is over $37 billion in 2020. On an energy basis, the price of electricity to run an EV is a fraction of the cost of liquid fuel needed to produce an equivalent amount of energy. The cost of replacing the batteries dominates the operating costs, in 2015, the most used battery type for electric vehicles is Lithium-ion battery. There are two types of lead-acid batteries, automobile engine starter batteries, and deep cycle batteries
13.
Lithium-ion battery
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A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as one electrode material, the electrolyte, which allows for ionic movement, and the two electrodes are the constituent components of a lithium-ion battery cell. Lithium-ion batteries are common in home electronics and they are one of the most popular types of rechargeable batteries for portable electronics, with a high energy density, tiny memory effect and low self-discharge. Beyond consumer electronics, LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, battery electric vehicle, for example, lithium-ion batteries are becoming a common replacement for the lead–acid batteries that have been used historically for golf carts and utility vehicles. Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types, handheld electronics mostly use LIBs based on lithium cobalt oxide, which offers high energy density, but presents safety risks, especially when damaged. Lithium iron phosphate, lithium ion manganese oxide battery and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide offer lower energy density, such batteries are widely used for electric tools, medical equipment and other roles. NMC in particular is a contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide and lithium titanate are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles, the newer lithium–sulfur batteries promise the highest performance-to-weight ratio. Lithium-ion batteries can pose unique safety hazards since they contain a flammable electrolyte, an expert notes If a battery cell is charged too quickly, it can cause a short circuit, leading to explosions and fires. Because of these risks, testing standards are more stringent than those for acid-electrolyte batteries, there have been battery-related recalls by some companies, including the 2016 Samsung Note 7 recall for battery fires. This article covers just the topics and general principles of lithium-ion batteries. Nearly all facets have elements that are impacted by currently very active development or research, a cell is a basic electrochemical unit that contains the basic components, such as electrodes, separator, and electrolyte. In the case of cells, this is the single cylindrical, prismatic or pouch unit. In this regard, the simplest battery is a cell with perhaps a small electronic circuit for protection. In many cases, distinguishing between cell and battery is not important, however, this should be done when dealing with specific applications, for example, battery electric vehicles, where battery may indicate a high voltage system of 400 V, and not a single cell. The term module is used as an intermediate topology, with the understanding that a battery pack is made of modules. In electrochemistry, the anode is the electrode where oxidation is taking place in the battery, i. e. electrons get free, however, this happens on opposite electrodes during charge vs. discharge. Historically, for lithium cells, which started as single use discharge cells and this is true on discharge, but with a rechargeable system, the negative electrode chemically becomes the cathode while charging
14.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
15.
Electric car
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An electric car is an automobile that is propelled by one or more electric motors, using electrical energy stored in rechargeable batteries or another energy storage device. Electric motors give electric cars instant torque, creating strong and smooth acceleration and they are also around three times as efficient as cars with an internal combustion engine. The first practical electric cars were produced in the 1880s, Electric cars are significantly quieter than conventional internal combustion engine automobiles. They do not emit tailpipe pollutants, giving a reduction of local air pollution. They also provide for independence from oil, which in several countries is cause for concern about vulnerability to oil price volatility. Recharging can take a time and in many places there is a patchy recharging infrastructure. For long distance driving, many cars support fast charging that can give around 80% charge in half an hour using public rapid chargers, drivers can also sometimes suffer from range anxiety- the fear that the batteries will be depleted before reaching their destination. Cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric vehicles passed the one million milestone in September 2016. About 61% of the stock of 2 million light-duty plug-in electric vehicles by the end of 2016 were pure electric cars. The worlds all-time top selling electric car is the Nissan Leaf, released in December 2010. The Tesla Model S, released in June 2012, ranks second with global sales of over 158,000 units through December 2016, the Model S has been the worlds top selling plug-in car for two years in a row,2015 and 2016. Electric cars are a variety of electric vehicle, the term electric vehicle refers to any vehicle that uses electric motors for propulsion, while electric car generally refers to highway-capable automobiles powered by electricity. Thus, a car that derives its power from an on-board battery pack is a form of battery electric vehicle. Most often, the electric car is used to refer to battery electric vehicles. Thomas Parker built the first practical production electric car in London in 1884, the Flocken Elektrowagen of 1888 by German inventor Andreas Flocken is regarded as the first real electric car of the world. The electric vehicle stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles at the turn of the 20th century, advances in internal combustion engines in the first decade of the 20th century lessened the relative advantages of the electric car. These cars were withdrawn from the U. S. market. California electric automaker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 on the Tesla Roadster, the Roadster was the first highway legal serial production all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 320 km per charge
16.
BMW
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Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, usually known under its abbreviation BMW, is a German luxury vehicle, motorcycle, and engine manufacturing company founded in 1916. It is one of the luxury automakers in the world. The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index, headquartered in Munich, Bavaria, BMW owns Mini cars and is the parent company of Rolls-Royce Motor Cars. BMW was established as a business entity following a restructuring of the Rapp Motorenwerke aircraft manufacturing firm in 1912 named Aerowerke Gustav Otto, after the end of World War I in 1918, BMW was forced to cease aircraft-engine production by the terms of the Versailles Armistice Treaty. The company consequently shifted to production as the restrictions of the treaty started to be lifted in 1923. BMWs first significant aircraft engine, and commercial product of any sort, was the BMW IIIa inline-six liquid-cooled engine of 1918, known for good fuel economy, with German rearmament in the 1930s, the company again began producing aircraft engines for the Luftwaffe. The factory in Munich made ample use of forced labour, foreign civilians, prisoners of war, the few Me 262 A-1b test examples built used the more developed version of the 003 jet, recording an official top speed of 800 km/h. The first-ever four-engine jet aircraft flown were the sixth and eighth prototypes of the Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance-bomber. Through 1944 the 003s reliability improved, making it a power plant for air frame designs competing for the Jägernotprogramms light fighter production contract. Which was won by the Heinkel He 162 Spatz design, the BMW003 aviation turbojet was also under consideration as the basic starting point for a pioneering turboshaft powerplant for German armored fighting vehicles in 1944–45, as the GT101. Towards the end of the Third Reich, BMW developed some military aircraft projects for the Luftwaffe, the BMW Strahlbomber, the BMW Schnellbomber and the BMW Strahljäger, but none of them were built. By the year 1958, the division of BMW was in financial difficulties. It was decided to carry on by trying to cash in on the current economy car boom exploited so successfully by German ex-aircraft manufacturers such as Messerschmitt, BMW bought the rights to manufacture the Italian Iso Isetta. BMWs version of the cars were to be powered by a modified form of BMWs motorcycle engine. This was moderately successful and helped the company get back on its feet, since 1959, the controlling majority shareholder of the BMW Aktiengesellschaft has been the Quandt family, which owns about 46% of the stock. The rest is in public float, BMW acquired the Hans Glas company based in Dingolfing, Germany, in 1966. Glas vehicles were badged as BMW until the company was fully absorbed. However, this factory was outmoded and BMWs biggest immediate gain was, according to themselves, the Glas factories continued to build a limited number of their existing models, while adding the manufacture of BMW front and rear axles until they could be closer incorporated into BMW
17.
Electric vehicle conversion
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An electric vehicle conversion is the modification of a conventional internal combustion engine vehicle to electric propulsion, creating an all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. Almost any vehicle can be converted to electric, many people prefer to pick a vehicle that is light and aerodynamic in order to maximize distance traveled per battery charge. There must also be room and load capacity for batteries. The battery pack, which provides a source of electrical power, the most commonly available and affordable batteries are lead-acid flooded type. Next are the AGM sealed maintenance free batteries, a more powerful. Then there are the more exotic batteries like Ni-MH and Li-ion, more difficult to find but light and longer lasting, maintenance free, the new lithium batteries are showing some promise for EVs in the near future. The charger which restores energy to the batteries The power controller, however, currently the relatively small power generated by solar cells means that the other components in the system must be special to compensate for this. Thus, it is more practical to create a solar-powered electric vehicle from scratch or specially made parts. Other hobbyists with larger budgets may prefer to convert a later model vehicle, in some cases the vehicle itself may be built by the converter, or assembled from a kit car. A two-stage vehicle is a vehicle that has built by two separate manufacturers. The result is a standard, complete vehicle, in this process, vehicles may be converted by a manufacturer. Alternatively, in a known as third-party trainization, an independent converter will purchase new vehicle gliders and then perform the conversion. In some countries, the user can choose to buy a vehicle of any model in the automaker dealerships only paying the cost of the batteries and motor. The electric vehicle industry has grown to include conversion car garages, aftermarket kits. An electric bicycle is a bicycle that has been fitted with an electric motor. Converting an existing bicycle by retrofitting it with a kit is the simplest and least expensive electric vehicle conversion option. Some experimenters have even used super capacitors to store energy, using an on-board generator may impact the legal jurisdictional definition of an electric bicycle. A few types of bicycles are able to re-capture a small amount of energy from braking
18.
Mini (marque)
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Mini is a British automotive marque owned by BMW which specialises in small cars. The original Mini was a line of iconic British small cars manufactured by the British Motor Corporation and their models included the Morris Mini-Minor and the Austin Seven, the Countryman, Moke, 1275GT and Clubman. Performance versions of models used the name Cooper, due to a partnership with racing legend John Cooper. The original two-door Mini continued in production until 2000, Development of a successor began in 1995 and the new generation car was launched in 2001. The current Mini range includes the Hardtop/Hatch/Convertible, Clubman, Countryman, Coupe/Roadster, the Mini was originally a product of the British Motor Corporation, which in 1966 became part of British Motor Holdings. British Motor Holdings merged with Leyland Motors in 1968 to form British Leyland, Mini became a marque in its own right in 1969. In the 1980s, British Leyland was broken-up and in 1988 Rover Group, in 1994, Rover Group was acquired by BMW. In 2000, Rover Group was broken up by BMW, with BMW retaining the Mini brand, jochen Goller of BMW currently serves as the managing director of the Mini division. The Mini Hatch/Hardtop, Clubman, Convertible, Coupe and Roadster are assembled at BMWs Plant Oxford in Cowley, England, a total of 301,526 Mini vehicles were sold worldwide in 2012. Mini vehicles have been active in rallying and the Mini Cooper S won the Monte Carlo Rally on three occasions, in 1964,1965 and 1967, Mini has participated in the World Rally Championship since 2011 through the Prodrive WRC Team. The original two-door Mini was a car produced by the British Motor Corporation. It is considered an icon of the 1960s, and its space-saving front-wheel-drive layout influenced a generation of car-makers, the vehicle is in some ways considered the British equivalent to its German contemporary, the Volkswagen Beetle, which enjoyed similar popularity in North America. In 1999 the Mini was voted the second most influential car of the 20th Century and this distinctive two-door car was designed for BMC by Sir Alec Issigonis. The Mini Mark I had three major UK updates, the Mark II, the Clubman and the Mark III, within these was a series of variations including an estate car, a pickup truck, a van and the Mini Moke—a jeep-like buggy. Initially Minis were marketed under the Austin and Morris names, as the Austin Seven and Morris Mini-Minor, the Mini was again marketed under the Austin name in the 1980s. In the 1990s, BMW was seeking to broaden its range through the addition of compact cars. This sparked a series of compact car concept vehicles from the company during the early 1990s, the first were the E1 and Z13, powered by an electric motor and a rear-mounted 1100 cc BMW motorcycle engine, respectively. In early 1994, BMW acquired the Rover Group from British Aerospace, BMW insisted that even a compact model must feature iconic BMW characteristics to uphold the companys standards and image
19.
BMW ActiveE
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The BMW ActiveE was a demonstration electric car based on the BMW1 Series small family cars. It was the vehicle after the Mini E to be developed under BMW Group’s Project i. The electric drive system was the latest addition to BMW’s EfficientDynamics programme, the US Environmental Protection Agency official range is 151 kilometres, with an energy consumption of 33 kW·h/100 miles, and the agency rated the ActiveEs combined fuel economy at 2. 3L/100 km. The four-seater, rear-wheel drive ActiveE was unveiled at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit in January 2010, deliveries of the ActiveE for field testing in the U. S. began in January 2012, after the Mini E trial ended. A total of 1,100 vehicles were planned to participate in the worldwide,700 will be allocated for the U. S. trial and 35 to a trial in China. Participants in the Mini E trial had priority to lease the new electric car, production began at BMWs Leipzig plant in July 2011. After the field trial of the Mini E, BMW took reservations for drivers, the field trial of the ActiveE started in early 2012. BMW stopped accepting reservations for the ActiveE, and has leased out all of their ActiveE cars, the lease details were similar to that of the Mini E lease details, a two-year limited lease with free maintenance. The lessee had to complete online surveys and take their ActiveE into their local BMW dealership for analysis, once the ActiveE program ended, all ActiveE cars were taken off of the road. Lessees returned their ActiveE vehicles to BMW, and were not able to purchase them, the cars were donated to tech schools or museums for analysis and dissassembly, as well as for display purposes. The electric car had a 32 kWh lithium-ion battery pack developed in cooperation with SB LiMotive, the ActiveE takes 8.5 seconds to reach 97 kilometres per hour and its maximum speed was electronically limited to 140 kilometres per hour. The ActiveE had an EcoPro mode that retards throttle response, shuts down the defrosters, the ActiveE had a 125 kW electric synchronous motor integrated into the rear axle to power the rear wheels, the same configuration that will be used in the BMW i3. The motor weighs 91 kg and delivers 249 N·m of torque, the curb weight of the ActiveE is 1,815 kg, nearly 360 kg heavier than a BMW 135i, but the ActiveE has a 50,50 weight distribution. The liquid-cooled storage cells are located under the hood, in the transmission tunnel, the rear-mounted electric motor reduces the trunk space to 200 L versus 280 L in the standard BMW1 Series. The smartphone app allows the user to find charging stations, get range information. Many drivers rarely used the brakes except to hold the car at a stop, the US Environmental Protection Agency official range is 151 km, with a city/highway combined energy consumption of 33 kWh/160 kilometers. Under its five-cycle testing, EPA rated the ActiveE at 2. 3L/100 km combined fuel economy, production of the ActiveE began at BMWs Leipzig plant in July 2011. The first ActiveE delivery in the United States took place in New Jersey on 13 January 2012, BMW explained that the first delivery went to the customer that logged more miles than anyone else in the U. S. Mini-E program
20.
BMW i3
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The BMW i3 is a five-door urban electric car developed by the German car manufacturer BMW. The i3 is part of BMWs Project i and was launched as a new brand, the BMW i3s official range is 130 to 160 km for the 60 Ah battery option under the New European Driving Cycle, and up to 200 km in the most efficient driving mode. Under the United States Environmental Protection Agency cycle the official range is 130 km with combined fuel economy of 124 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent —MPGe—, the i3 concept car was unveiled at the 2011 International Motor Show Germany. And the production version was unveiled in July 2013, mass production of the i3 began in September 2013 and retail deliveries started in Europe in November 2013. Deliveries in the U. S. began in May 2014, Pricing in the United States starts at US$42,275 before any government incentives, and the range extender option costs an additional US$3,850. Prices in Germany start from 34,950 €, Pricing in the UK starts at GB£30,680 before the applicable government grant. The i3 ranked third among all-electric cars sold worldwide for three years running, from 2014 to 2016, global i3 sales passed the 50,000 unit milestone in July 2016. Three years after its introduction, the i3 is the top selling BMW electrified model, representing 60% of combined BMW i and BMW iPerformance models. As of December 2016, the i3 ranked as the third best selling all-electric car in history with more than 65,000 units sold since its inception. The U. S. is its best-selling market with 24,741 units sold. Among other awards and recognition, the BMW i3 won two World Car of the Year Awards selected as 2014 World Green Car of the Year and also as 2014 World Car Design of the Year. The i3 was also given an iF Product Design Gold Award, in February 2011, BMW announced a new sub-brand, BMW i, to market the vehicles produced under Project i. BMW i vehicles are to be sold separately from BMW or Mini, production of both plug-in electric cars was scheduled to start in Leipzig in 2013. The i3 concept car was unveiled at the 2011 International Motor Show Germany, BMW showcased a BMW i3 prototype during the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, and the production version was unveiled in July 2013. BMW unveiled the i3 Concept Coupé study at the 2012 Los Angeles Auto Show, the carmaker developed the concept car to demonstrate the potential for extending the model range. Power delivery to the wheels is via a single-speed transmission. The li-ion battery pack is placed under the floor and can deliver a range of 160 km. As of November 2015, the i3 ranked as the third best selling all-electric car in history
21.
Mass production
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Mass production, flow production or continuous production is the production of large amounts of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines. Together with job production and batch production, it is one of the three main production methods, the term mass production was popularized by a 1926 article in the Encyclopedia Britannica supplement that was written based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company. The New York Times used the term in the title of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article, the concepts of mass production are applied to various kinds of products, from fluids and particulates handled in bulk to discrete solid parts to assemblies of such parts. Mass production is a field, but it can generally be contrasted with craft production or distributed manufacturing. Mass production of fluid matter typically involves pipes with centrifugal pumps or screw conveyors to transfer raw materials or partially complete products between vessels, materials on pallets are handled with forklifts. Also used for handling heavy items like reels of paper, steel or machinery are electric overhead cranes, sometimes called bridge cranes because they span large factory bays. Mass production is intensive and energy intensive, as it uses a high proportion of machinery. It is also usually automated while total expenditure per unit of product is decreased, however, the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to attain profits. One of the descriptions of mass production is that the skill is built into the tool, for example, in the 19th or early 20th century, this could be expressed as the craftsmanship is in the workbench itself. Later, once computerized control came about, jigs were obviated and this is the specialized capital required for mass production, each workbench and set of tools is different. Crossbows made with bronze parts were produced in China during the Warring States period, the Qin Emperor unified China at least in part by equipping large armies with these weapons, which were equipped with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. Ships of war were produced on a scale at a moderate cost by the Carthaginians in their excellent harbors. The Venetians themselves also produced ships using prefabricated parts and assembly lines many centuries later, the Venetian Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day, in what was effectively the worlds first factory which, at its height, employed 16,000 people. Mass production in the industry has been commonplace since the Gutenberg Bible was published using a printing press in the mid-15th century. In the Industrial Revolution simple mass production techniques were used at the Portsmouth Block Mills in England to make ships pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Napoleonic Wars. It was achieved in 1803 by Marc Isambard Brunel in cooperation with Henry Maudslay under the management of Sir Samuel Bentham, the Navy was in a state of expansion that required 100,000 pulley blocks to be manufactured a year. Bentham had already achieved remarkable efficiency at the docks by introducing power-driven machinery, by 1805, the dockyard had been fully updated with the revolutionary, purpose-built machinery at a time when products were still built individually with different components. A total of 45 machines were required to perform 22 processes on the blocks, the machines were almost entirely made of metal thus improving their accuracy and durability
22.
Los Angeles
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Los Angeles, officially the City of Los Angeles and often known by its initials L. A. is the cultural, financial, and commercial center of Southern California. With a census-estimated 2015 population of 3,971,883, it is the second-most populous city in the United States, Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated county in the United States. The citys inhabitants are referred to as Angelenos, historically home to the Chumash and Tongva, Los Angeles was claimed by Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo for Spain in 1542 along with the rest of what would become Alta California. The city was founded on September 4,1781, by Spanish governor Felipe de Neve. It became a part of Mexico in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence, in 1848, at the end of the Mexican–American War, Los Angeles and the rest of California were purchased as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, thereby becoming part of the United States. Los Angeles was incorporated as a municipality on April 4,1850, the discovery of oil in the 1890s brought rapid growth to the city. The completion of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in 1913, delivering water from Eastern California, nicknamed the City of Angels, Los Angeles is known for its Mediterranean climate, ethnic diversity, and sprawling metropolis. Los Angeles also has an economy in culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine. A global city, it has been ranked 6th in the Global Cities Index, the city is home to renowned institutions covering a broad range of professional and cultural fields, and is one of the most substantial economic engines within the United States. The Los Angeles combined statistical area has a gross metropolitan product of $831 billion, making it the third-largest in the world, after the Greater Tokyo and New York metropolitan areas. The city has hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1932 and 1984 and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics and thus become the second city after London to have hosted the Games three times. The Los Angeles area also hosted the 1994 FIFA mens World Cup final match as well as the 1999 FIFA womens World Cup final match, the mens event was watched on television by over 700 million people worldwide. The Los Angeles coastal area was first settled by the Tongva, a Gabrielino settlement in the area was called iyáangẚ, meaning poison oak place. Gaspar de Portolà and Franciscan missionary Juan Crespí, reached the present site of Los Angeles on August 2,1769, in 1771, Franciscan friar Junípero Serra directed the building of the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, the first mission in the area. The Queen of the Angels is an honorific of the Virgin Mary, two-thirds of the settlers were mestizo or mulatto with a mixture of African, indigenous and European ancestry. The settlement remained a small town for decades, but by 1820. Today, the pueblo is commemorated in the district of Los Angeles Pueblo Plaza and Olvera Street. New Spain achieved its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821, during Mexican rule, Governor Pío Pico made Los Angeles Alta Californias regional capital
23.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
24.
New Jersey
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New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, New Jersey is the fourth-smallest state but the 11th-most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies entirely within the statistical areas of New York City. New Jersey was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, in the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. New Jersey was the site of decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War in the 18th century. In the 19th century, factories in cities such as Camden, Paterson, Newark, Trenton, around 180 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period, New Jersey bordered North Africa. The pressure of the collision between North America and Africa gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains, around 18,000 years ago, the Ice Age resulted in glaciers that reached New Jersey. As the glaciers retreated, they left behind Lake Passaic, as well as rivers, swamps. New Jersey was originally settled by Native Americans, with the Lenni-Lenape being dominant at the time of contact, scheyichbi is the Lenape name for the land that is now New Jersey. The Lenape society was divided into clans that were based upon common female ancestors. These clans were organized into three distinct phratries identified by their animal sign, Turtle, Turkey, and Wolf and they first encountered the Dutch in the early 17th century, and their primary relationship with the Europeans was through fur trade. The Dutch became the first Europeans to lay claim to lands in New Jersey, the Dutch colony of New Netherland consisted of parts of modern Middle Atlantic states. Although the European principle of ownership was not recognized by the Lenape. The first to do so was Michiel Pauw who established a patronship called Pavonia in 1630 along the North River which eventually became the Bergen, peter Minuits purchase of lands along the Delaware River established the colony of New Sweden. During the English Civil War, the Channel Island of Jersey remained loyal to the British Crown and it was from the Royal Square in St. Helier that Charles II of England was proclaimed King in 1649, following the execution of his father, Charles I. The North American lands were divided by Charles II, who gave his brother, the Duke of York, the region between New England and Maryland as a proprietary colony. James then granted the land between the Hudson River and the Delaware River to two friends who had remained loyal through the English Civil War, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley of Stratton, the area was named the Province of New Jersey. Since the states inception, New Jersey has been characterized by ethnic, New England Congregationalists settled alongside Scots Presbyterians and Dutch Reformed migrants
25.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
26.
2012 Summer Olympics
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It took place in London and to a lesser extent across the United Kingdom from 25 July to 12 August 2012. The first event, the stage in womens football began on 25 July at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. 10,768 athletes from 204 National Olympic Committees participated, London is the first and only city thus far to host the modern Olympic Games three times, having previously done so in 1908 and in 1948. Construction for the Games involved considerable redevelopment, with an emphasis on sustainability, the main focus was a new 200-hectare Olympic Park, constructed on a former industrial site at Stratford, East London. The Games also made use of venues that already existed before the bid, the Games received widespread acclaim for their organisation, with the volunteers, the British military and public enthusiasm praised particularly highly. During the Games, Michael Phelps became the most decorated Olympic athlete of all time, saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Brunei entered female athletes for the first time, so that every currently eligible country has sent a female competitor to at least one Olympic Games. Womens boxing was included for the first time, thus the Games became the first at which every sport had female competitors and these were the final Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Jacques Rogge. The final medal tally was led by the United States, followed by China, several world and Olympic records were set at the games. Furthermore, the focus on sporting legacy and post-games venue sustainability was seen as a blueprint for future Olympics. On 18 May 2004, as a result of a technical evaluation. All five submitted their candidate files by 19 November 2004 and were visited by the IOC inspection team during February, throughout the process, Paris was widely seen as the favourite, particularly as this was its third bid in recent years. London was initially seen as lagging behind Paris by a considerable margin and its position began to improve after the appointment of Lord Coe as the new head of London 2012 on 19 May 2004. In late August 2004, reports predicted a tie between London and Paris, on 6 June 2005, the IOC released its evaluation reports for the five candidate cities. They did not contain any scores or rankings, but the report for Paris was considered the most positive, London was close behind, having closed most of the gap observed by the initial evaluation in 2004. New York and Madrid also received positive evaluations. On 1 July 2005, when asked who would win, Jacques Rogge said, but my gut feeling tells me that it will be very close. Perhaps it will come down to a difference of say ten votes, on 6 July 2005, the final selection was announced at the 117th IOC Session in Singapore. Moscow was the first city to be eliminated, followed by New York, the final two contenders were London and Paris
27.
LA Auto Show
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The Los Angeles Auto Show is an annual auto show held at the Los Angeles Convention Center in mid-to-late November. The LA Auto Show is an OICA sanctioned international exhibition and also endorsed by the Greater Los Angeles New Car Dealers Association and it is open to the public for ten days each year, filling 760,000 square feet of exhibit space. Starting in 2016, the show kicks off with AutoMobility LA, four days full of activity for journalists, designers, in 2014, the show had a record number of debuts with more than 65 World and North American debuts. The Los Angeles Auto Show began in 1907 with ninety-nine vehicles on display at Morley’s Skating Rink, in 1910, the event was held under a canvas big top at Fiesta Park. As the auto industry grew, the show changed venues four times throughout the 1920s to accommodate the growing needs of vendors. In 1926, it place at the corner of Hill. During the 1929 show, a circuit in one of the airplane exhibits caught fire causing the entire show to go up in flames ending in more than $1 Million in damage. With the help of the community, the show re-opened one day later at the Shrine Auditorium, the show continued to prove successful throughout the 1930s, but took a down turn during the Second World War and went on hiatus from 1940 through 1951. In 1952, the show re-opened at the Pan Pacific Auditorium with 152 vehicles on display, in 2006, the show moved its dates from early January to late November/early December, thus resulting in two shows during the year 2006, the second marking the 100 year anniversary show. For 2016, AutoMobility LA will also include the events, AutoMobility LA, four days of networking. Press days and vehicle debuts took place on November 16 and 17, the 2015 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 20 through November 29,2015. Press days and vehicle debuts took place on November 18 and 29, the 2014 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 21 through November 30,2014. Press days and vehicle debuts took place on November 19 and 20, the 2013 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 22 through December 1,2013. Press days and vehicle debuts took place on November 20 and 21, the 2013 Connected Car Expo was held on November 19–21. 56 total vehicles debuted at the 2013 show, with 22 of them being world debuts, the following below are production models that debuted. The 2012 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 30 through December 9,2012, Honda also announced the 2014 Accord Plug-In Hybrid will be available starting January 15,2013 in California and New York. The 2011 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 18 through November 27,2011, the Sneak Preview Night was held on November 17,2011. The 2010 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 19 through November 28,2010, the Sneak Preview Night was held on November 18,2010
28.
Zero-emissions vehicle
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A zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV, is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power. Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions, as they do emit water or water vapor, although they are still usually included in this category. The term zero-emissions or ZEV, as coined by the California Air Resources Board. On the other hand, if ZEVs are recharged from electricity generated by coal-fired plants. Other countries have a different definition of ZEV, noteworthy the more recent inclusion of greenhouse gases, cARBs role in regulating greenhouse gases began in 2004 based on the 2002 Pavley Act, but was blocked by lawsuits and by the EPA in 2007, by rejecting the required waiver. The emissions from manufacture are many factors larger than the emissions from tailpipes, most reports on ZEVs impact to the climate do not take into account these manufacturing emissions. Considering the current U. S. energy mix, a ZEV would produce a 30% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. Given the current energy mixes in other countries, it has been predicted that such emissions would decrease by 40% in the U. K. and 19% in China. Apart from animal-powered and human-powered vehicles, battery electric vehicles also do not emit any of the above pollutants and this is a particularly important quality in densely populated areas, where the health of residents can be severely affected. A well-to-wheel life cycle assessment is necessary to understand the implications associated with operating a ZEV. Segway Personal Transporters are two-wheeled, self-balancing, battery-powered machines that are eleven times more energy-efficient than the average American car, operating on two lithium-ion batteries, the Segway PT produces zero emissions during operation, and utilizes a negligible amount of electricity while charging via a standard wall outlet. Also, for ships, nuclear power is also used. Japanese public transport is being driven in the direction of zero emissions due to growing environmental concern, honda has launched a conceptual bus which features exercise machines to the rear of the vehicle to generate kinetic energy used for propulsion. Due to the nature of idling in public transport, regenerative braking may be a possibility for public transport systems of the future. The Joule is a car, planned to be released in 2014. E. Tesla Motors Tier Electric rickshaw Ultra Low Emission Vehicle Who Killed the Electric Car, a documentary Zero carbon city Zero emission ZENN Optimal Energy Joule Official California site on ZEVs and PZEVs 2006 Scientific American article - CALSTART Felix Kramer and Max Baumhefner. Good and Green Reasons to Consider an Electric Car This Year
29.
AC Propulsion
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AC Propulsion is a San Dimas, California, USA company founded in 1992 by Alan Cocconi and Wally Rippel that specializes in alternating current-based drivetrain systems for electric vehicles. The company produces electric vehicle drive systems featuring high performance, high efficiency induction motors, previously, they built an electric sports car, the tzero and the eBox, an electric conversion based on the Scion XB. They also develop prototype electric vehicles for OEM customers, founder Alan Cocconi designed and built the controller used in the original GM Impact, which later became the GM EV1. ACP introduced the first AC-100 in 1992 and the AC-150150 kW integrated drive system in 1994, the AC-150 has been used in a variety of applications such as the BMW Mini E, Luxgen7 MPV van, Foton Midi taxi and a USPS LLV demo vehicle. AC Propulsion is a leader in Vehicle to grid or V2G systems, AC Propulsion announced a partnership with Yulon Group to build an electric MPV under Yulon Group’s LUXGEN brand in October 10,2008. China based Chongqing Sokon Industry Group Co Ltd announced on October 16,2016 its intent to acquire a 100% share of AC Propulsion Inc. Martin Eberhard encouraged Tom Gage and Alan Cocconi to move their prototype tzero into production. Elon Musk later test drove the tzero as well, and he also encouraged AC Propulsion to commercialize the vehicle, Tom Gage again deferred, but put Elon Musk in contact with Martin Eberhard. Tesla then designed and built its own power electronics, motor, given the extensive redevelopment of the vehicle, Tesla Motors no longer licenses any proprietary technology from AC Propulsion
30.
AC Propulsion tzero
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The tzero is a handmade electric sports car designed and built in very limited numbers by the U. S. company AC Propulsion. AC Propulsion added the AC-150 drivetrain, an electric system with an overall gear ratio of 9,1. Launched in January 1997, only three prototypes were built and plans for production were dropped in mid-2003. The name comes from t0, the symbol for a starting point in time. Due to high costs, AC Propulsion ceased to produce the tzero. As of 2009, only three still exist, one of which is owned by the company itself, one by Gruber Power Services, a company specializes in Tesla Roadster repair. The drivetrain, however, was used in other vehicles. Because the car recharges its batteries when the throttle is released — slowing sharply as energy is recaptured — it can be driven hard using only the accelerator pedal. Also, if the car detects a turn more than half a g-force. The single gear ratio limited the maximum speed to 90 mph at 12,000 rpm. Even with the ratio, lead-acid models are capable of completing a quarter mile drag race in 13.24 seconds. The expected range per charge of the tzero with the batteries is 80 to 100 mi as a result of consuming only 180 watt hours per mile on the highway. The car can be charged from 0 to 95% within an hour, the base price of this version was to have been US$80,000. The conversion was done over six months from March through September,2003, lighter than the original version by 500 lb, the lithium-ion conversion goes from 0–60 mph in 3.6 seconds. The single gear ratio limits the maximum speed to just over 140 mph at 13,000 rpm with proper gearing. The base price of the car was US$220,000, Martin Eberhard encouraged Tom Gage and Alan Cocconi to move the lithium-ion powered prototype into production. When they declined, Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning incorporated Tesla Motors in July,2003 to pursue commercializing the tzero, Eberhard then borrowed the converted tzero for three months as part of his pitch to persuade venture capitalists to invest in Tesla Motors. JB Straubel then told Elon Musk about the newly converted, now lithium-ion powered tzero, Musk also encouraged AC Propulsion to commercialize the vehicle
31.
Trademark
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The trademark owner can be an individual, business organization, or any legal entity. A trademark may be located on a package, a label, for the sake of corporate identity, trademarks are often displayed on company buildings. A trademark identifies the owner of a particular product or service. The unauthorized usage of trademarks by producing and trading counterfeit consumer goods is known as brand piracy, the owner of a trademark may pursue legal action against trademark infringement. Most countries require formal registration of a trademark as a precondition for pursuing this type of action, the United States, Canada and other countries also recognize common law trademark rights, which means action can be taken to protect an unregistered trademark if it is in use. Still, common law trademarks offer the holder in general less legal protection than registered trademarks. A trademark may be designated by the symbols, ™ ℠ ® A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these categories, such as those based on colour, smell. Trademarks which are considered offensive are often rejected according to a nations trademark law, the term trademark is also used informally to refer to any distinguishing attribute by which an individual is readily identified, such as the well-known characteristics of celebrities. When a trademark is used in relation to services rather than products, it may sometimes be called a service mark, in other words, trademarks serve to identify a particular business as the source of goods or services. The use of a trademark in this way is known as trademark use, certain exclusive rights attach to a registered mark. Different goods and services have been classified by the International Classification of Goods, in trademark treatises it is usually reported that blacksmiths who made swords in the Roman Empire are thought of as being the first users of trademarks. Other notable trademarks that have used for a long time include Löwenbräu. The first trademark legislation was passed by the Parliament of England under the reign of King Henry III in 1266, the first modern trademark laws emerged in the late 19th century. In France the first comprehensive system in the world was passed into law in 1857 with the Manufacture. In Britain, the Merchandise Marks Act 1862 made it an offense to imitate anothers trade mark with intent to defraud or to enable another to defraud. In 1875 the Trade Marks Registration Act was passed which allowed formal registration of marks at the UK Patent Office for the first time. Registration was considered to comprise prima facie evidence of ownership of a trade mark, in the United States, Congress first attempted to establish a federal trademark regime in 1870
32.
Charging station
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Many charging stations are on-street facilities provided by electric utility companies or located at retail shopping centers and operated by many private companies. These charging stations provide one or a range of duty or special connectors that conform to the variety of electric charging connector standards. Charging stations fall into four basic contexts, Residential charging stations, An EV owner plugs in when he or she returns home, a home charging station usually has no user authentication, no metering, and may require wiring a dedicated circuit. Some portable chargers can also be mounted as charging stations. Charging while parked – a commercial venture for a fee or free and this charging may be slow or high speed and encourages EV owners to recharge their cars while they take advantage of nearby facilities. It can include parking stations, parking at malls, small centres, Fast charging at public charging stations >40 kW, delivering over 60 miles of range in 10–30 minutes. These chargers may be at rest stops to allow for longer distance trips and they may also be used regularly by commuters in metropolitan areas, and for charging while parked for shorter or longer periods. Common examples are CHAdeMO, SAE Combined Charging System, and Tesla Superchargers, battery swaps or charges in under 15 minutes. A specified target for CARB credits for a vehicle is adding 200 miles to its range in under 15 minutes. In 2014, this was not possible for charging electric vehicles and it intends to match the refueling expectations of regular drivers. Battery capacity and the capability of handling faster charging are both increasing, and methods of charging have needed to change and improve, new options have also been introduced. The differing needs and solutions of various manufacturers has slowed the emergence of standard charging methods, as of December 2012, around 50,000 non-residential charging points were deployed in the U. S. Europe, Japan and China. As of August 2014, there are 3,869 CHAdeMO quick chargers deployed around the world, as of November 2012, about 15,000 charging stations had been installed in Europe. As of March 2013, Norway, which has the highest electric ownership per capita, had 4,029 charging points and 127 quick charging stations. As part of its commitment to sustainability, the Dutch government initiated a plan to establish over 200 fast charging stations across the country by 2015. In addition to that, the E-laad foundation installed about 3000 public charge points since 2009, as of December 2012, Japan had 1,381 public quick-charge stations, the largest deployment of fast chargers in the world, but only around 300 slow chargers. As of December 2012, China had around 800 public slow charging points, there are two main types of safety sensor, Current sensors which monitor the power consumed, and maintain the connection only if the demand is within a predetermined range. Sensor wires react more quickly, have fewer parts to fail and are less expensive to design
33.
Burnout (vehicle)
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A burnout is the practice of keeping a vehicle stationary and spinning its wheels, causing the tires to heat up and smoke due to friction. They also clean the tire of any debris and lay down a layer of rubber by the line for better traction. Burnouts eventually became a form of competition and entertainment in their own right. Considerable prize money or goods are sometimes involved, and cars may even be sponsored or purpose-built specifically as burnout cars, burnout contests are judged on crowd response, with style and attitude therefore being important factors. Such contests are particularly popular in Australia but often occur in North America as well, Burnouts are also common in informal street racing, usually for show value. As with all street racing activities, burnouts on public property are illegal in most countries, in New South Wales, for example, police have the power to confiscate the offending vehicle for 3 months for a first offense. Burnouts are also performed by winning drivers at the end of NASCAR races to celebrate their victory. Performing a burnout in a front wheel drive vehicle is likely to result in damage to the drivetrain and it is usually achieved by engaging the emergency brake to lock up the rear tires and flooring the gas pedal. To perform a burnout in a rear wheel drive vehicle the driver has to engage the gas. The brake pedal will require modulation, as the goal is to allow the rear tires to spin while holding the car in place with the front wheels remaining motionless. This is especially useful in a manual vehicle, in which it can be quite difficult to manipulate the clutch, brake. Line locks also reduce wear to the brakes, a common problem otherwise. Burnouts are most difficult to perform in four-wheel drive and all-wheel drive cars and it requires significantly more powerful engines to break all four tires loose at the same time, and the tires will spin for only a short while before all four gain traction. Another burnout technique is aimed at cars with insufficient power to perform a burnout from a standing-still position and it involves putting the car into reverse, reversing at a higher speed than normal and then quickly putting the car into first gear and hitting the accelerator. At least as late as the 1970s in the United States and this would result in spectacular clouds of white smoke during the burnout. These and similar techniques are not recommended because they place a great load on drivetrain components. The effective lifetime of the wheel tires is appropriately shortened. Doughnut Drifting Line lock Wheelspin Friction Motorcycle stunt riding Burnouts, An Appreciation - John Pearley Huffman, Car and Driver, February 2011
34.
Regenerative braking
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A regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a vehicle or object by converting its kinetic energy into a form which can be either used immediately or stored until needed. This contrasts with conventional braking systems, where the kinetic energy is converted to unwanted and wasted heat by friction in the brakes. In addition to improving the efficiency of the vehicle, regeneration can greatly extend the life of the braking system as its parts do not wear as quickly. The most common form of regenerative brake involves a motor as an electric generator. In electric railways the electricity generated is fed back into the supply system, in battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored chemically in a battery, electrically in a bank of capacitors, or mechanically in a rotating flywheel. Hydraulic hybrid vehicles use hydraulic motors to store energy in the form of compressed air, the regenerative braking effect drops off at lower speeds, and cannot bring a vehicle to a complete halt reasonably quickly. A regenerative brake does not immobilise a vehicle, physical locking is required. Many road vehicles with regenerative braking do not have drive motors on all wheels, for safety, the ability to brake all wheels is required. The regenerative braking effect available is limited, and insufficient in many cases, the friction brake is a necessary back-up in the event of failure of the regenerative brake. Regenerative and friction braking must both be used, creating the need to them to produce the required total braking. The GM EV-1 was the first commercial car to do this, in 1997 and 1998 engineers Abraham Farag and Loren Majersik were issued two patents for this brake-by-wire technology. Electric motors, when used in function as generators, convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Vehicles propelled by electric motors use them as generators when using regenerative braking, braking by transferring energy from the wheels to an electrical load. Early examples of this system were the front-wheel drive conversions of horse-drawn cabs by Louis Antoine Krieger in Paris in the 1890s, the Krieger electric landaulet had a drive motor in each front wheel with a second set of parallel windings for regenerative braking. These included tramway systems at Devonport, Rawtenstall, Birmingham, Crystal Palace-Croydon, slowing the speed of the cars or keeping it in control on descending gradients, the motors worked as generators and braked the vehicles. The tram cars also had brakes and track slipper brakes which could stop the tram should the electric braking systems fail. In several cases the car motors were shunt wound instead of series wound. Following a serious accident at Rawtenstall, an embargo was placed on this form of traction in 1911, Regenerative braking has been in extensive use on railways for many decades
35.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
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The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states
36.
Monroney sticker
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The Monroney sticker or window sticker is a label required in the United States to be displayed in all new automobiles and includes the listing of certain official information about the car. Since the mid-1970s the United States Environmental Protection Agency provides fuel economy metrics in the label to help consumers choose more fuel efficient vehicles, the window sticker was named after Almer Stillwell Mike Monroney, United States Senator from Oklahoma. Monroney sponsored the Automobile Information Disclosure Act of 1958, which mandated disclosure of information on new automobiles, a more comprehensive fuel economy and environment label was mandatory beginning in model year 2013, though some carmakers adopted it voluntarily for model year 2012. The previous label was issued in 2008, the Monroney sticker is required to be affixed to the side window or windshield of every new car sold in the United States and can only be removed by the consumer. A fine of up to US$1,000 per vehicle for each offense is authorized if the sticker is missing, the act does not apply to vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating of more than 8,500 lb. S. As part of the research and redesign process, EPA conducted focus groups where presented participants with several options to express the consumption of electricity for electric vehicles. Instead, participants favored a miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent, MPGe, the research also concluded that the kW-hrs per 100 miles metric was more confusing to focus group participants compared to a miles per kW-hr. Based on these results, EPA decided to use the fuel economy and fuel consumption metrics on the redesigned labels, MPG, MPGe, Gallons per 100 miles. One of the options had a letter grading system from A to D. The letter grade system was opposed by carmakers and rejected after the public consultation, in November 2010, EPA introduced MPGe as comparison metric on its new sticker for fuel economy for the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt. A gallon of gasoline equivalent means the number of kilowatt-hours of electricity, cubic feet of compressed natural gas, ePAs objective is to avoid the traditional miles per gallon metric that can be potentially misleading when consumers compare fuel economy improvements, and known as the MPG illusion. Other information provided for the first time in the redesigned labels includes, a footnote like note clarifies that upstream emissions from electricity generation are not included. Smog emissions ratings based on air pollutans such as nitrogen oxide, new ways to compare energy use and cost between new-technology cars that use electricity and conventional cars that are gasoline-powered. Estimates on how much more or less consumers will save or spend on fuel over the five years compared to the average new vehicle. Information on the range while running in all-electric mode and charging time for plug-in hybrids. This tool will also allow consumers to enter information about their typical commutes and driving behavior in order to get a precise estimate of fuel costs
37.
Kilowatt hour
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The kilowatt-hour is a derived unit of energy equal to 3.6 megajoules. If the energy is being transmitted or used at a constant rate over a period of time, the kilowatt-hour is commonly used as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by electric utilities. The kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy equivalent to one kilowatt of power sustained for one hour. 1 k W ⋅ h = =3600 =3600 k J =3.6 M J One watt is equal to 1 J/s. One kilowatt-hour is 3.6 megajoules, which is the amount of energy converted if work is done at a rate of one thousand watts for one hour. The base unit of energy within the International System of Units is the joule, the hour is a unit of time outside the SI, making the kilowatt-hour a non-SI unit of energy. The kilowatt-hour is not listed among the non-SI units accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI, although the hour, an electric heater rated at 1000 watts, operating for one hour uses one kilowatt-hour of energy. A television rated at 100 watts operating for 10 hours continuously uses one kilowatt-hour, a 40-watt light bulb operating continuously for 25 hours uses one kilowatt-hour. Electrical energy is sold in kilowatt-hours, cost of running equipment is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours, the unit price of electricity may depend upon the rate of consumption and the time of day. Industrial users may also have extra charges according to their peak usage, the symbol kWh is commonly used in commercial, educational, scientific and media publications, and is the usual practice in electrical power engineering. Other abbreviations and symbols may be encountered, kW h is less commonly used and it is consistent with SI standards. This is supported by a standard issued jointly by an international and national organization. However, at least one major usage guide and the IEEE/ASTM standard allow kWh, One guide published by NIST specifically recommends avoiding kWh to avoid possible confusion. KW·h is, like kW h, preferred with SI standards, the US official fuel-economy window sticker for electric vehicles uses the abbreviation kW-hrs. Variations in capitalization are sometimes seen, KWh, KWH, kwh, the notation kW/h, as a symbol for kilowatt-hour, is not correct. To convert a quantity measured in a unit in the column to the units in the top row, multiply by the factor in the cell where the row. All the SI prefixes are commonly applied to the watt-hour, a kilowatt-hour is 1,000 W·h (symbols kW·h, kWh or kW h, a megawatt-hour is 1 million W·h, a milliwatt-hour is 1/1000 W·h and so on. Megawatt-hours, gigawatt-hours, and terawatt-hours are often used for metering larger amounts of energy to industrial customers
38.
Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent
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Miles per gallon gasoline equivalent is a measure of the average distance traveled per unit of energy consumed. The MPGe metric was introduced in November 2010 by EPA in the Monroney sticker of the Nissan Leaf electric car, all new cars and light-duty trucks sold in the U. S. are required to have this label showing the EPAs estimate of fuel economy of the vehicle. Fuel economy estimates for window stickers and CAFE standard compliance are different, Fuel economy for CAFE purposes include an incentive adjustment for alternative fuel vehicles and plug-in electric vehicles which results in higher MPGe than those estimated for window stickers.15. For the purposes of calculation, the fuel economy is equal to the weighted average of the fuel economy while operating on natural gas. Beginning in 1993, manufacturers of other alternative fuel automobiles that meet the qualifying requirements can also benefit for special treatment in the calculation of their CAFE. In 1994 the U. S. National Institute of Standards, NIST defined a gasoline gallon equivalent as 5.660 pounds of natural gas, and gasoline liter equivalent as 0.678 kilograms of natural gas. Popular models available in California included the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV, the formula also includes a fuel efficiency incentive factor of 1/0.15 to benefit electric vehicles. The incentive factor chosen by DoE for EVs is the same 1/0.15 factor already applied in the treatment of other types of alternative fuel vehicles. When all factors are considered in DoEs formula, the efficiency or equivalent fuel economy of electric vehicles increases from 33,705 Wh/gallon to 82,049 Wh/gallon. As required by the 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act, with the introduction of vehicles in the U. S. These changes were proposed to be introduced in new vehicles beginning with model year 2012, the EPA rating for on board energy efficiency for electric vehicles before 2010 was expressed as kilowatt-hour per 100 miles. The window sticker of the 2009 Mini E showed an energy consumption of 33 kW-hrs/100 mi for city driving and 36 kW-hrs/100 mi on the highway, technically equivalent to 102 mpg city and 94 mpg highway. The 2009 Tesla Roadster was rated 32 kW-hrs/100 mi in city and 33 kW-hrs/100 mi on the highway, the research showed that participants did not understand the concept of a kilowatt hour as a measure of electric energy use despite the use of this unit in their monthly electric bills. Instead, participants favored a miles per gallon equivalent, MPGe, the research also concluded that the kW-hrs per 100 miles metric was more confusing to focus group participants compared to a miles per kW-hr. Based on these results, EPA decided to use the fuel economy and fuel consumption metrics on the redesigned labels, MPG, MPGe, Gallons per 100 miles. In November 2010, EPA introduced MPGe as comparison metric on its new sticker for fuel economy for the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt. A gallon of gasoline equivalent means the number of kilowatt-hours of electricity, cubic feet of compressed natural gas, as mentioned above, confusion and misinterpretation is common in the public between the two types of fuel efficiency. Fuel economy measures how far a vehicle will go per amount of fuel, Fuel consumption is the reciprocal of fuel economy, and measures the fuel used to drive a fixed distance
39.
Fuel economy in automobiles
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The fuel economy of an automobile is the fuel efficiency relationship between the distance traveled and the amount of fuel consumed by the vehicle. Consumption can be expressed in terms of volume of fuel to travel a distance, different measurement cycles are used to approximate the actual performance of the vehicle. The energy in fuel is required to overcome various losses in propelling the vehicle, various measures can be taken to reduce losses at each of the conversions between chemical energy in fuel and kinetic energy of the vehicle. Driver behavior can affect fuel economy, maneuvers such as sudden acceleration, electric cars do not directly burn fuel, and so do not have fuel economy per se, but equivalence measures, such as miles per gallon gasoline equivalent have been created to attempt to compare them. Fuel economy is the relationship between the distance traveled and fuel consumed, british and Canadian law allow for the use of either liters per 100 kilometers or miles per imperial gallon. Recently, the sticker on new US cars has started displaying the vehicles fuel consumption in US gallons per 100 miles. Units of distance per fixed fuel unit Miles per gallon is used in the United States, the United Kingdom. Kilometers per liter is more commonly used elsewhere in the Americas, continental Europe, Asia, parts of Africa, in Arab countries km/20 L which is known as kilometers per Tanaka is used, where Tanaka is a metal container which has a volume of 20 liters. Both mpg and km/L are units of distance per fixed fuel amount whereas L/100 km is a unit of consumption per a fixed unit of distance. When the mpg unit is used, it is necessary to identify the type of gallon used, the imperial gallon is 4.5 liters, and the U. S. gallon is 3.785 liters. Conversions of units, While the thermal efficiency of engines has increased since the beginning of the automotive era to around 20-30%. The design of automobile as a whole and usage pattern affects the fuel economy, published fuel economy is subject to variation between jurisdiction due to variations in testing protocols. One of the first studies to determine fuel economy in the United States was the Mobil Economy Run and it was designed to provide real fuel efficiency numbers during a coast to coast test on real roads and with regular traffic and weather conditions. The Mobil Oil Corporation sponsored it and the United States Auto Club sanctioned and operated the run, in more recent studies, the average fuel economy for new passenger car in the United States rose from 17 mpg in 1978 to more than 22 mpg in 1982. The average fuel economy in 2008 for new cars, light trucks and SUVs in the United States was 26.4 mpgUS.5 L/100 km for a diesel-fueled car, the proportion of driving on high speed roadways varies from 4% in Ireland to 41% in the Netherlands. When the US National Maximum Speed Laws 55 mph speed limit was mandated, there were complaints that fuel economy could decrease instead of increase. The 1997 Toyota Celica got 1 mpg better fuel-efficiency at 105 km/h than it did at 65 km/h, although almost 5 mpg better at 60 mph than at 65 mph, and its best economy at only 25 mph. Other vehicles tested had from 1.4 to 20. 2% better fuel-efficiency at 90 km/h vs.105 km/h and their best economy was reached at speeds of 40 to 90 km/h. 2% drop from annualized 1973 gasoline consumption levels
40.
Battery electric vehicle
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A battery electric vehicle, battery-only electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is a type of electric vehicle that uses chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. BEVs use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines for propulsion and they derive all power from battery packs and thus have no internal combustion engine, fuel cell, or fuel tank. BEVs include bicycles, scooters, skateboards, rail cars, watercraft, forklifts, buses, trucks, cumulative global sales of highway-capable light-duty pure electric vehicles passed the one million unit milestone in September 2016. PHEVs with a series powertrain are also called range-extended electric vehicles, such as the Chevrolet Volt, in China, plug-in electric vehicles, together with hybrid electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles. The concept of electric vehicles is to use charged batteries on board vehicles for propulsion. Battery electric cars are becoming more and more attractive with the advancement of new technology that have higher power and energy density. BEVs include automobiles, light trucks, and neighborhood electric vehicles, two of these buses were used for the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. A similar bus was operated in Napa Valley, California for 14 months ending in April,2004, the 2008 Beijing Olympics used a fleet of 50 electric buses, which have a range of 130 km with the air conditioning on. They use Lithium-ion batteries, and consume about 1 kW·h/mi, the buses were designed by the Beijing Institute of Technology and built by the Jinghua Coach Co. Ltd. The batteries are replaced with fully charged ones at the station to allow 24-hour operation of the buses. In France, the bus electric phenomenon is in development, PVI, a medium company located in the Paris region, is one of the leader of the market with its brand Gepebus. In the United States, the first battery-electric, fast-charge bus has been in operation in Pomona, the Proterra EcoRide BE35 uses lithium-titanate batteries and is able to fast-charge in less than 10 minutes. In 2014, the first production model all-electric school bus was delivered to the Kings Canyon Unified School District in California’s San Joaquin Valley, the bus was one of four the district ordered. This battery electric bus, which has 4 sodium nickel batteries, is the first modern electric school bus approved for student transportation by any state. The same technology is used to power the Mountain View Community Shuttles and this technology was supported by the California Energy Commission, and the shuttle program is being supported by Google. The buses will also be built in the United States and Finland, Tindo is an all-electric bus from Adelaide, Australia. The Tindo is made by Designline International in New Zealand and gets its electricity from a solar PV system on Adelaides central bus station, rides are zero-fare as part of Adelaides public transport system. Proterras EcoRide BE35 transit bus, called the Ecoliner by Foothill Transit in West Covina, California, is a duty, fast charge
41.
Field trial
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A field trial is a competitive event at which hunting dogs compete against one another. There are field trials for retrievers, pointing dogs and flushing dogs, Field trials are usually organized by kennel clubs or other gun dog organizations. Field trials are considered more competitive than hunt tests in that success at a field trial requires a higher level of training than success at a hunt test requires. For example, in Retriever Field Trials, dogs retrieve over longer distances with a complex path than a Retriever Hunt Test would generally provide. Field trial dogs must be finished in order to enter and their purpose is also different, as they exist mainly for breeders, while hunting tests are made for users. The term is confusing as it means different things to different breed organizations, spaniel field trials demand that dogs compete against one another, whereas retriever field trials are more similar to hunt tests among other breeds. In most hunt tests, on the hand, dogs are evaluated against a written standard. To further complicate the issue, various organizations have differing definitions of field trial. Field trials come in various grades including Open, Amateur, Sanctioned and non-sanctioned, an Open field trial permits entry from any handler or trainer while an Amateur trial only permits non-professional handlers/trainers. Sanctioned trials are ones that are held under the control of a kennel club or organization. A field trial that is held under the auspices of the Kennel Club, by definition this means that all field trials are held on live, unhandled game that is shot for the purpose of that field trial. Game that has been handled in any way, whether it be live or dead game, the only exception to this rule is where dead game may be used in the conduct of a water test at a field trial. Field trials not licensed by the Kennel Club are liable to be deemed as unrecognised canine events, in the US, retriever field trials are held under the auspices of the American Kennel club. Field trials can consist of one or more stakes, which can be considered as separate competitions within a field trial, such stakes can be run for any of the four sub-groups of gundogs recognised by the Kennel Club. Four placements plus a Reserve JAM and JAMs. S and this stake is for dogs that have not yet placed first or second in a Qualifying stake nor completed an Open or Amateur stake. Confined to dogs whelped not earlier than 1 January in the preceding the date of the field trial. If a Puppy Stake is run in January then a dog that was a puppy in the year is deemed to still be a puppy. In the U. S. this stake is for dogs at 6 months of age, the judges at field trials are appointed by the Field Trial Secretary of the organising club or society, after having been instructed to do so by the committee of the club or society
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Car dealership
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A car dealership or vehicle local distribution is a business that sells new or used cars at the retail level, based on a dealership contract with an automaker or its sales subsidiary. It employs automobile salespeople to sell their automotive vehicles and it may also provide maintenance services for cars, and employ automotive technicians to stock and sell spare automobile parts and process warranty claims. The early cars were sold by automakers to customers directly, or through a variety of channels that included mail order, department stores, the first dealership in the United States was established in 1898 by William E. Metzger. Direct sales by an automaker to consumers are now limited by most states in the U. S. through franchise laws that require new cars be sold only by licensed and bonded, car dealerships are typically franchised to sell and service vehicles by specific companies. Many dealerships are located out of town or on the edge of town centers, an example of a traditional single proprietorship car dealership is Collier Motors in North Carolina. Many modern dealerships are part of corporate-owned chains such as AutoNation with over 300 franchises, dealership profits in the US mainly come from servicing, some from used cars, and little from new cars. The average new car price was $33,419 in 2015, most automotive manufacturers have shifted the focus of their franchised retailers to branding and technology. New or refurbished facilities are required to have a look for its dealerships and have ‘product geniuses’ to liaise with customers. Audi has experimented with a showroom that allows customers to configure. In markets where it is permitted, Mercedes-Benz opened city centre brand stores, however, in the United States, direct manufacturer auto sales are prohibited in almost every state by franchise laws requiring that new cars be sold only by dealers. In response, Tesla has opened city centre galleries where customers can view cars that can only be ordered online. Multibrand and multimaker car dealers sell cars from different and independent carmakers, some are specialized in electric vehicles. Auto transport is used to move vehicles from the factory to the dealerships and this includes international and domestic shipping. It was largely a commercial activity conducted by manufacturers, dealers, internet use has encouraged this niche service to expand and reach the general consumer marketplace
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Museum
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Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and specialists to serving the general public, the goal of serving researchers is increasingly shifting to serving the general public. There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, the city with the largest number of museums is Mexico City with over 128 museums. According to The World Museum Community, there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries, the English museum comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as museums. The first museum/library is considered to be the one of Plato in Athens, however, Pausanias gives another place called Museum, namely a small hill in Classical Athens opposite to the Akropolis. The hill was called Mouseion after Mousaious, a man who used to sing on the hill, the purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display items of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the education of the public. The purpose can also depend on ones point of view, to a family looking for entertainment on a Sunday afternoon, a trip to a local history museum or large city art museum could be a fun, and enlightening way to spend the day. To city leaders, a healthy museum community can be seen as a gauge of the health of a city. To a museum professional, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museums mission, Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithsons bequest, that would fund the Smithsonian Institution, stated he wanted to establish an institution for the increase, Museums of natural history in the late 19th century exemplified the Victorian desire for consumption and for order. Gathering all examples of classification of a field of knowledge for research. As American colleges grew in the 19th century, they developed their own natural history collections for the use of their students, while many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most museums. While there is a debate about the purposes of interpretation of a museums collection, there has been a consistent mission to protect. Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in efforts to retard decomposition in aging documents, artifacts, artworks. All museums display objects that are important to a culture, as historian Steven Conn writes, To see the thing itself, with ones own eyes and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of the same experience can be enchanting. Museum purposes vary from institution to institution, some favor education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the Canada Science and Technology Museum favored education over preservation of their objects and they displayed objects as well as their functions. One exhibit featured a printing press that a staff member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia
44.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
45.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
46.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
