1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
Minneapolis
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Minneapolis is the county seat of Hennepin County, and the larger of the Twin Cities, the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the United States. As of 2015, Minneapolis is the largest city in the state of Minnesota, Minneapolis and Saint Paul anchor the second-largest economic center in the Midwest, after Chicago. Minneapolis lies on both banks of the Mississippi River, just north of the confluence with the Minnesota River, and adjoins Saint Paul. It was once the worlds flour milling capital and a hub for timber, the city and surrounding region is the primary business center between Chicago and Seattle, with Minneapolis proper containing Americas fifth-highest concentration of Fortune 500 companies. As an integral link to the economy, Minneapolis is categorized as a global city. Noted for its music and performing arts scenes, Minneapolis is home to both the award-winning Guthrie Theater and the historic First Avenue nightclub. The name Minneapolis is attributed to Charles Hoag, the citys first schoolteacher, who combined mni, a Dakota Sioux word for water, and polis, Dakota Sioux had long been the regions sole residents when French explorers arrived around 1680. For a time relations were based on fur trading, gradually more European-American settlers arrived, competing for game and other resources with the Dakota. In the early 19th century, the United States acquired this territory from France, fort Snelling was built in 1819 by the United States Army, and it attracted traders, settlers and merchants, spurring growth in the area. The United States government pressed the Mdewakanton band of the Dakota to sell their land, the Minnesota Territorial Legislature authorized present-day Minneapolis as a town in 1856 on the Mississippis west bank. Minneapolis incorporated as a city in 1867, the rail service began between Minneapolis and Chicago. It later joined with the city of St. Anthony in 1872. Minneapolis developed around Saint Anthony Falls, the highest waterfall on the Mississippi River, forests in northern Minnesota were a valuable resource for the lumber industry, which operated seventeen sawmills on power from the waterfall. By 1871, the west river bank had twenty-three businesses, including mills, woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes. Due to the hazards of milling, six local sources of artificial limbs were competing in the prosthetics business by the 1890s. The farmers of the Great Plains grew grain that was shipped by rail to the citys thirty-four flour mills, a father of modern milling in America and founder of what became General Mills, Cadwallader C. Some ideas were developed by William Dixon Gray and some acquired through industrial espionage from the Hungarians by William de la Barre, pillsbury Company across the river were barely a step behind, hiring Washburn employees to immediately use the new methods. The hard red spring wheat that grows in Minnesota became valuable, not until later did consumers discover the value in the bran that Minneapolis
3.
Minnesota
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Minnesota is a state in the midwestern and northern regions of the United States. Minnesota was admitted as the 32nd U. S. state on May 11,1858, the state has a large number of lakes, and is known by the slogan Land of 10,000 Lakes. Its official motto is LÉtoile du Nord, Minnesota is the 12th largest in area and the 21st most populous of the U. S. Minnesota is known for its progressive political orientation and its high rate of civic participation and voter turnout. Until European settlement, Minnesota was inhabited by the Dakota and Ojibwe/Anishinaabe, in recent decades, immigration from Asia, the Horn of Africa, and Latin America has broadened its historic demographic and cultural composition. Minnesotas standard of living index is among the highest in the United States, Native Americans demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mnisota. Many places in the state have similar names, such as Minnehaha Falls, Minneiska, Minneota, Minnetonka, Minnetrista, and Minneapolis, a combination of mni and polis, Minnesota is the second northernmost U. S. state. Its isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods county is the part of the 48 contiguous states lying north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U. S. region known as the Upper Midwest and it shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, with 86,943 square miles, or approximately 2.25 percent of the United States, Minnesota is the 12th-largest state. Minnesota has some of the Earths oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old. About 2.7 billion years ago, basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean, the roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Following a period of volcanism 1, in more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the landscape of the state and sculpted its terrain. The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago and these glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift, much of the remainder of the state outside the northeast has 50 feet or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago and its bed created the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling. Minnesota is geologically quiet today, it experiences earthquakes infrequently, the states high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet, which is only 13 miles away from the low of 601 feet at the shore of Lake Superior. Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a rolling peneplain. Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesotas northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed, precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Long and Kees
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Long and Kees was an architecture firm based in Minneapolis, Minnesota active for a twelve-year period starting in 1885 and ending in 1897. Named for its two proprietors, Franklin B, Long and Frederick Kees, the firm designed several notable churches, offices, schools and houses, including Minneapolis City Hall. Most of the buildings designed by Long and Kees reflect the Richardsonian-Romanesque style, the firm was established in 1885 when Franklin Long, having recently relocated to Minneapolis from Chicago, partnered with Maryland-born Frederick Kees. In later years, Long added his son Louis Long as a partner, after Long and Kees disbanded their firm, Kees partnered with Serenus Colburn starting in 1898 and ending in 1921. At the same time, a number of buildings designed by Long and Kees have been demolished, such as the first Minneapolis Public Library, the Minneapolis Corn Exchange, and Donaldsons Glass Block
6.
Richardsonian Romanesque
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Richardson first used elements of the style in his Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane in Buffalo, New York, designed in 1870. This very free revival style incorporates 11th and 12th century southern French, Spanish, the style includes work by the generation of architects practicing in the 1880s before the influence of the Beaux-Arts styles. It is epitomised by the American Museum of Natural Historys original 77th Street building by J. Cleaveland Cady of Cady, Berg and See in New York City. It was seen in communities in this time period such as in St. Thomas, Ontarios city hall and Menomonie. Some of the practitioners who most faithfully followed Richardsons proportion, massing and detailing had worked in his office and these include, Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow and Frank Alden, George Shepley and Charles Coolidge, Herbert Burdett. Bate designed the Grays Armory in this style in Cleveland, Ohio, the style also influenced the Chicago school of architecture and architects Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright. In Finland, Eliel Saarinen was influenced by Richardson, research is underway to try to document the westward movement of the artisans and craftsmen, many of whom were immigrant Italians and Irish, who built in the Richardsonian Romanesque tradition. The style began in the East, in and around Boston, as the style was losing favor in the East, it was gaining popularity further west. Stone carvers and masons trained in the Richardsonian manner appear to have taken the style west, as an example, four small bank buildings were built in Richardsonian Romanesque style in Osage County, Oklahoma, during 1904–1911. For pictures of H. H. Richardson’s own designs and some of the details, with the exception of the Richardson Olmsted Complex, none of the following structures were designed by Richardson. They illustrate the strength of his personality on progressive North American architecture from 1885 to 1905. They are divided into categories denoting the various different uses of the buildings, civic Buildings Educational Institutions and Libraries Service-related buildings Churches and chapels Residences Henry Hobson Richardson H
7.
Hennepin County, Minnesota
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Hennepin County /ˈhɛnəpɪn kaʊnti/ is a county in the U. S. state of Minnesota. As of the 2010 census the population was 1,152,425 and it is the most populous county in Minnesota and the 34th-most populous county in the United States, more than one in five Minnesotans live in Hennepin County. Its county seat is Minneapolis, the states most populous city, the county is named in honor of the 17th-century explorer Father Louis Hennepin. Hennepin County is included in the Minneapolis-St. Paul-Bloomington, MN-WI Metropolitan Statistical Area, the center of population of Minnesota is in Hennepin County, in the city of Minneapolis. Hennepin County was created in 1852 by the Minnesota Territorial Legislature, Father Louis Hennepins name was chosen because he originally named St. Anthony Falls and recorded some of the earliest accounts of the area for the Western world. Hennepin Countys early history is linked to the establishment of the cities of Minneapolis. The history of Hennepin County is cataloged at the Hennepin History Museum, according to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 607 square miles, of which 554 square miles is land and 53 square miles is water. Hennepin is one of 17 Minnesota counties with more savanna soils than prairie or forest soils. The highest waterfall on the Mississippi River, the Saint Anthony Falls is in Hennepin County next to downtown Minneapolis, but in the 19th century, barges and boats now pass through locks to move between the parts of the river above and below the dams. There were 468,824 housing units at a density of 325/km². The racial makeup of the county was 80. 53% White,8. 95% Black or African American,1. 00% Native American,4. 80% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,2. 06% from other races, and 2. 60% from two or more races. 4. 07% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,22. 8% were of German,12. 0% Norwegian,7. 6% Irish and 7. 2% Swedish ancestry. 31. 80% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.39 and the average family size was 3.07. In the county 24. 00% of the population was under the age of 18,9. 70% was between 18 and 24,33. 70% from 25 to 44,21. 70% from 45 to 64, the median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 97.00 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.70 males. Males had an income of $42,466 versus $32,400 for females. The per capita income for the county was $28,789, about 5. 00% of families and 8. 30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10. 50% of those under age 18 and 5. 90% of those age 65 or over. Hennepin County is the wealthiest county in Minnesota and one of the 100 highest-income counties in the United States, besides English, languages with significant numbers of speakers in Hennepin County include Arabic, Hmong, Khmer, Lao, Russian, Somali, Spanish, and Vietnamese
8.
Minneapolis City Council
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The Minneapolis City Council is the governing body of the City of Minneapolis. It consists of 13 members, elected from wards to four-year terms in office. Barbara Johnson, Fourth Ward Council Member and a member of the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party, is the current president of the council, the council is dominated by members of the DFL, with a total of 12 members. The Green Party of Minnesota has one member, Cam Gordon, each members term is four years, and there are no limits on the number of terms a member may serve. The city has never had more than 13 wards, but at one time there were three representatives from each area, for a total of 39 members of the City Council, the City Council assumed its current size in the 1950s. In July 2001, DFL Council Member Brian Herron pleaded guilty to one count of felony extortion and he admitted to accepting a $10,000 bribe from a business owner who faced numerous health and safety inspections violations. Herron served a sentence in federal prison. Biernat was found not guilty on extortion and conspiracy to extort charges, in September 2005, Green Party Council Member Dean Zimmermann was served with a federal search warrant to his home by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The affidavit attached to the warrant revealed that the FBI had Zimmermann on video, Zimmermann was released from prison in July 2008. In 2009, Council President Barbara A. Johnson was accused of misusing campaign funds for personal spending, an administrative hearing was held January 26,2010. Johnson paid a fine for these violations, the lowest fine possible. In 2006, Minneapolis voters approved the use of the single vote for its municipal elections. The first use of voting was in the 2009 municipal election. However, since the city council uses single-member districts, the single transferable vote functions the same way as instant-runoff voting, the single transferable vote is also known as instant-runoff voting, although this is a misnomer since they refer to two different systems of voting. It is also known as ranked choice voting, although there are other voting methods that involve ranking. As of 2014, all Council Members are paid a salary of $82,362 annually
9.
Cincinnati City Hall
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Cincinnati City Hall is a registered historic building in Cincinnati, Ohio, listed in the National Register on December 11,1972. The main building comprises four and a half stories with a nine story clock tower, an optical trick known as forced perspective makes the building appear even larger than it actually is. As it becomes taller, its windows get smaller, the building was constructed by the David Hummel company of Cincinnati using stone quarried in Wisconsin, Ohio, Missouri, and Indiana. Marble stairways and wainscoting originated in Italy and Tennessee, while granite columns were obtained from Vermont, stained glass windows were installed which depict Cincinnatus and illustrate Cincinnatis early history. A granite statue of Jesus was contributed by the Archdiocese of Cincinnati in 1864, the first city hall was built on this site in 1852 and was demolished in 1888 to make way for the current structure. Construction costs for the building totaled $1,610,000 of which $54,000 was paid to Samuel Hannaford as architect and construction superintendent. Cincinnatis City Hall represents the architectural tastes at the time of its construction. Samuel Hannaford practiced from 1858 until 1897 and made a significant contribution to the heritage of the Cincinnati area. The building bears a resemblance to the city hall buildings in Minneapolis, Toronto
10.
Old City Hall (Toronto)
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The Old City Hall is a Romanesque civic building and court house in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It was the home of the Toronto City Council from 1899 to 1966, the building is located at the corner of Queen and Bay Streets, across Bay Street from Nathan Phillips Square and the present City Hall in the Downtown Toronto. The heritage landmark has a clock tower which heads the length of Bay Street from Front Street to Queen Street as a terminating vista. Old City Hall was designated a National Historic Site in 1984, Torontos Old City Hall was one of the largest buildings in Toronto and the largest civic building in North America upon completion in 1899. It was the citys third city hall. It housed Torontos municipal government and courts for York County and Toronto, York County offices were also located in Old City Hall from 1900 to 1953. With the establishment of Metropolitan Toronto, the county moved to Newmarket. Designed by prominent Toronto architect Edward James Lennox, the building more than a decade to build. Work on the began in 1889 and was built on the site of old York buildings including the Lennox hotel. It was constructed of sandstone from the Credit River valley, grey stone from the Orangeville, Ontario area, angry councillors, due to cost overruns and construction delays, refused E. J. Lennox a plaque proclaiming him as architect for the building in 1899. Not to be denied, Lennox had stonemasons sign his name in corbels beneath the upper floor eaves around the entire building, an annex to this building, Manning Chambers, was built by Lennox at the northwest corner of Bay and Queen Street. Completed in 1900, the 5 storey building was demolished to make way for the current Toronto City Hall. Manning Chambers was built for and named after former mayor Alexander Manning, a public square was originally planned in front of the city hall called Victoria Square. The space would be a square with diagonal walkways meeting at a central statue of Queen Victoria. The plan never came into being and a space was allocated in front of the building by Queen Street. It, too, was never built, though the City Beautiful movement did influence the design principles of nearby University Avenue. Four gargoyles were placed on the corners of the Clock Tower in 1899, in 2002, bronze casts of the gargoyles were reinstalled
11.
Frederick Kees
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Frederick G. Kees was an American architect notable for his work in Minnesota and partnerships with Franklin B. Kees was born in Baltimore, Maryland on April 9,1852 and he joined the firm of E. G. Lind as an apprentice in 1865 and worked at the firm until 1878. He moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1878 and briefly worked with Leroy Buffington and he also partnered with Burnham W. Fisk for a few years under the name Kees and Fisk. In 1885, Kees partnered with Franklin B, Long to form the architectural firm Long and Kees. After designing more than 13 buildings, Kees ended the partnership and he then went on to partner with Serenus Colburn to create the firm Kees and Colburn which survived until 1925, the year of Colburns death. Kees died two years later, on March 16,1927, Kees is considered to be one of Minneapolis’ foremost architects by the Minneapolis Heritage and Preservation Commission. Through the firm of Kees and Fisk, Comstock House, Moorhead, Minnesota First Baptist Church, Minneapolis Syndicate Block, Minneapolis Grand Opera House, Minneapolis
12.
Hennepin Avenue
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Hennepin Avenue is a major street in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. It runs from Lakewood Cemetery, north through the Uptown District of Southwest Minneapolis, through the Virginia Triangle, the former Bottleneck area west of Loring Park. It then goes through the North Loop in the city center, to Northeast Minneapolis and the eastern boundary. Hennepin is a Minneapolis city street south/west of Washington Avenue, and is designated as Hennepin County Road 52 from Washington Avenue until the county line, in Downtown Minneapolis, Hennepin Avenue serves as a major entertainment thoroughfare, dubbed the Hennepin Theatre District. It also serves as the line between North and South street addresses. Across the river, it divides Northeast and Southeast street addresses, to the east of the Minneapolis city limits, it becomes Larpenteur Avenue at Highway 280 which forms the northern border of Saint Paul. The Theatre District contains four historic and architecturally significant theaters for live performances, the State Theatre, the Orpheum Theatre, the Pantages Theatre and the Goodale Theater. Also the Hennepin Center for the Arts and the Cowles Center for Dance, for sections south of the Mississippi River, Hennepin Avenue follows stretches of an old Indian trail from Saint Anthony Falls to Lake Calhoun. It was named after Father Louis Hennepin, a Roman Catholic priest and it is one of the oldest streets in the city and was the first street to cross the Mississippi River, when the first Hennepin Avenue suspension bridge was completed in 1855. Many important institutions and structures have been built on Hennepin, including Calhoun Square, the Suburban World Theater, the Uptown Theater, the Walker Art Center, the Basilica of St. Mary, St. It is also a parade route, used by the annual Aquatennial celebration held in July. Once a two-way avenue, the Theatre District portion was changed in 1980 to a one-way going north with only a bus only lane going south, the Environmental Protection Agency was concerned with the air quality in downtown Minneapolis. Turning the streets into one-way lowered the near dangerous high levels of pollution, however, on October 10,2009, it was changed back to a two-way avenue, with its bike lanes being transferred one block west to First Avenue. This change was hoped by the city to create urban vibrancy, quicker travel times to destination, nicollet Island Block E Historic Hennepin Avenue
13.
Nicollet Avenue
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Nicollet Avenue is a major street in Minneapolis, Minnesota and three of its suburbs. It passes through a number of locally well-known neighborhoods and districts, notably Eat Street in south Minneapolis and it began as a military road between St. Anthony Falls and Fort Snelling. Nicollet Avenue was named for early 19th-century French explorer and cartographer Joseph Nicollet, Nicollet Mall occupies the oldest section of the avenue. Before the mall was constructed in 1968, Nicollet Avenue stretched from the Mississippi River to the Minnesota River, technically, the avenue begins at Grant Street in Loring Park and continues south to West 29th Street/Cecil B. Newman Lane, where it is interrupted by a K-Mart store, across the river in Burnsville, Nicollet begins again at Cliff Road West and ends at County Road 42. Nicollet is a city street in Minneapolis and Burnsville, while it is designated as Hennepin County Road 52 between 98th Street in Bloomington and Crosstown Highway 62 in Richfield and this designation resumes on Hennepin Avenue in downtown Minneapolis, though the county highway is not contiguous. The city of Minneapolis has plans to restore Nicollet Avenue by reconstructing the K-Mart site into a new configuration that would include commercial and residential development. The Metro Transit route 18 bus travels most of Nicollet Avenue, historically, Nicollet had rail transportation, starting with the Minneapolis, Lyndale & Minnetonka Railway Co. also known as the Motor Line. The Motor Line ran along Marquette Avenue in downtown Minneapolis, then turned west for one block at 13th Street South to reach Nicollet. The line was constructed south to 31st Street in 1879, to 37th Street in 1884, and was extended further south to 50th Street in 1887. It was converted to operation in 1890, and the Twin City Rapid Transit Company extended the route to Diamond Lake Road in 1911, 58th Street in 1928. Streetcars on the road had a frequency of one every 5 minutes off-peak. The Dan Patch Line, a railroad serving communities as far south as Northfield, Minnesota. Nicollet Station, a carhouse originally built for the Motor Line, was kept and expanded by TCRT, the station was located at Nicollet and 31st Street, just south of the Minneapolis Millers Nicollet Park baseball field, which itself closed in 1955
14.
U.S. Bank Stadium
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Bank Stadium is a fixed-roof stadium located in the Downtown East section of Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States, on the former site of Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome. Bank Stadium serves as the home of the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League, the Vikings played at the Metrodome from 1982 until its closure in 2013 and before that at Metropolitan Stadium in Bloomington, Minnesota from 1961 to 1981. During the 2014 and 2015 seasons, the Vikings played at TCF Bank Stadium on the campus of the University of Minnesota while the new stadium was being built, Bank Stadium was deemed substantially complete by contractor Mortenson Construction. The stadium was completed six weeks before the ribbon-cutting ceremony and official grand opening. Authority to use and occupy the stadium was handed over to the Vikings, the Vikings played the first regular-season game at U. S. Bank Stadium on September 18,2016, against the Green Bay Packers on NBC Sunday Night Football and it is the first fixed-roof stadium built in the NFL since Ford Field, home of the Detroit Lions, opened in 2002. Bank Stadium is scheduled to host Super Bowl LII on February 4,2018, the 2019 NCAA Final Four, on June 15,2015, the Vikings announced that U. S. Bank had acquired the rights to the stadium. The naming deal is worth $220 million over 25 years, eTFEs low R-factor and the roofs slanted design, inspired by Nordic vernacular architecture, allows the stadium to endure heavy snow loads. Snow accumulates in areas that are more safely and easily accessible, and also moves down the roof into a heated gutter. The translucent roof and large wall panels also give fans a view of downtown Minneapolis, the glass operable wall panels will allow the stadium to experience some of the outdoor elements while providing protection from the snow, rain, and the cold winter weather. Bank Stadium has been compared to the Crystal Cathedral in California, Crystal Cathedral was previously considered Americas largest glass dominated building. Bank Stadium, which likewise sports transparent roofs, walls, the stadium seats 66,665 people for most games, slightly more than the Metrodome. It can be expanded to 73,000 for special events such as the Super Bowl, attendance Record, The Vikings lease with the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission, as signed by both parties in August 1979, kept them in the Metrodome until 2011. For several years prior to the Metrodomes demolition, however, the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission waived the teams nearly $4 million rent, the Vikings paid the MSFC9. Additionally, the commission controlled the parking and its revenue. The Vikings were 30th out of 32 NFL teams in local revenues in 2005, the Vikings, as well as the stadiums other tenants, continually turned down any proposals for renovating the Metrodome itself. The university would open its own TCF Bank Stadium in 2009
15.
Henry Hobson Richardson
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Henry Hobson Richardson was a prominent American architect who designed buildings in Albany, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and other cities. The style he popularized is named for him, Richardsonian Romanesque, along with Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, Richardson is one of the recognized trinity of American architecture. He was the great-grandson of inventor and philosopher Joseph Priestley, who is credited with the discovery of oxygen. Richardson went on to study at Harvard College and Tulane University, initially, he was interested in civil engineering, but shifted to architecture, which led him to go to Paris in 1860 to attend the famed École des Beaux Arts in the atelier of Louis-Jules André. He didnt finish his training there, as family backing failed due to the U. S. Civil War, Richardson returned to the U. S. in 1865. He settled in New York in October 1865 and he found work with a builder, Charles, whom he had met in Paris. The two worked together but Richardson was not being challenged. He had little to do and yearned for more, Richardson developed a unique and highly personal idiom, adapting in particular the Romanesque of southern France. His early works, however, were not very remarkable, there are few hints in the mediocre work of Richardsons early years of what was to come in his maturity, when, beginning with his competition-winning design. For the Brattle Square Church in Boston, he adopted the Romanesque, in 1869, he designed the Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane in Buffalo, the largest commission of his career and the first appearance of his eponymous Richardsonian Romanesque style. A massive Medina sandstone complex, it is a National Historic Landmark and, the 1872 Trinity Church in Boston solidified Richardsons national reputation and led to major commissions for the rest of his life. Although incorporating historical elements from a variety of sources, including early Syrian Christian, Byzantine, Trinity was also a collaboration with the construction and engineering firm of the Norcross Brothers, with whom the architect would work on some 30 projects. Of his buildings, the two he liked best, the Allegheny County Courthouse and the Marshall Field Wholesale Store, were completed posthumously by his assistants, Richardson died in 1886 at age 47 of Brights disease, a historical term for the kidney disorder chronic nephritis. On his last day, he signed an informal will directing the three still remaining to carry on the business, which was soon formalized as Shepley, Rutan. One example includes Richardsons design for the Greater Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce Building, Richardson had won the selection process in 1885 and nearly finalized the work, but after his death, his aforementioned successors completed the project. He was buried in Walnut Hills Cemetery, Brookline, Massachusetts, despite an enormous income for an architect of his day, his reckless disregard for financial order meant that he died deeply in debt, leaving little to his widow and six children. Richardsons great grand-daughter is Mill Valley architect Heidi Richardson, Richardson spent much of his later years in his house in Brookline, Massachusetts, which had a studio attached to ease the strain on his health. The house fell into disrepair and was listed in 2007 as an historic site
16.
Allegheny County Courthouse
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The Allegheny County Courthouse in downtown Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is part of a complex designed by H. H. Richardson. The buildings are considered among the finest examples of the Romanesque Revival style for which Richardson is well known, the complex is bordered by wide thoroughfares named for city founders James Ross, John Forbes and James Grant. The current building, completed in 1888, was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1976, Richardson later referred to it as his great achievement. Pittsburghs original courthouse, first occupied in 1794, was a structure located on one side of Market Square. The Pennsylvania Supreme Court and from December 7,1818, until 1841 the Western District of Pennsylvania also held sessions at Market Square. Land for a new courthouse was purchased in April 1834 and this was a tract of land on the corner of Forbes Avenue and Grant Street, on Grants Hill. Construction took place between 1836 and 1840 and this court house was built with polished gray sandstone, quarried at Coal Hill, opposite Water Street along the Monongahela River. The building was designed by John Chislett, the Greek Revival design included a domed cupola housing a rotunda 60 feet in diameter and 80 feet high. The building was completed in 1841, even in its deteriorated state, it was a handsome structure. On May 7,1882, a fire out and ruined the building. The third, and present, courthouse was erected on the same spot, following the destruction of the second courthouse, Allegheny County Commissioners decided to hold a competition to design a replacement. The winner of the competition was Boston architect Henry Hobson Richardson and construction of the buildings was begun by the Norcross Brothers, Richardson’s construction firm of choice, the courtyard is surrounded by four stories in three sides. A tower rises five stories from the open side. As was usually the case with Richardson’s buildings, the roof is steep with dormers placed at all the corners, a prison is connected to the courthouse via the Bridge of Sighs. The design was based on the Bridge of Sighs in Venice, the entire complex was built of large rusticated blocks of granite, with the entrance ways and windows topped with wide arches. This gives the building a heavy, stable and dignified appearance, in the 1900s the street level in front of the building was lowered as part of a general re-grading of Pittsburgh. Richardson had anticipated this and courses of finished masonry had been buried underground, unfortunately this left the ceremonial entrance a full story above the street. Muralist Vincent Nesbert completed five murals for the building on its first floor in 1937, Industry, Justice, Peace, Fort Duquesne, in 1973, the building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places
17.
Pittsburgh
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
18.
Striking clock
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A striking clock is a clock that sounds the hours audibly on a bell or gong. The striking feature of clocks was originally more important than their faces, the earliest clocks struck the hours. The development of clocks in Europe was motivated by the need to ring bells upon the canonical hours to call the community to prayer. The earliest known mechanical clocks were striking clocks installed in towers in monasteries or public squares. As the modern 12-hour clock became more widespread, particularly in Great Britain and Northern Europe, 12-hour striking became more widespread, in addition to striking on the hour, many striking clocks play sequences of chimes on the quarter-hours. The most common sequence is Westminster Quarters, today the time-disseminating functions of clock striking are almost totally unnecessary, and striking clocks are kept for historical, traditional, and aesthetic reasons. Historic clock towers in towns, universities, and religious institutions worldwide still strike the hours, famous examples being Big Ben in London, home striking clocks, such as mantel clocks, cuckoo clocks, and grandfather clocks are also common. The most basic sort of striking clock simply sounds a bell every hour. This sort of striking clock is called a passing strike clock. It is far simpler to create such a clock, all that must be done is to attach a cam to a shaft that rotates once an hour and this sort of striking is still found in some skeleton clocks. It does not require a separate train to arm and release the single stroke sounded. The Tang Dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk and inventor Yi Xing created a rotating globe that was given motive power by hydraulics of a turning waterwheel. This featured two wooden gear jacks on its surface with a drum and a bell, the bell being struck automatically every hour. It is recorded that Confucian students in the year 730 were required to write an essay on this device in order to pass the Imperial examinations. The use of jacks to sound the hours were used in later clock towers of Song Dynasty China, such as those designed by Zhang Sixun and Su Song in the 10th and 11th centuries. A striking clock outside of China was the tower near the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria. It was constructed by the Arab engineer al-Kaysarani in 1154, the Florentine writer Dante Alighieri made a reference to the gear works of striking clocks in 1319. The most famous original striking clock tower still standing is possibly the one in St Marks Clocktower in St Marks Square, Venice
19.
Big Ben
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Big Ben is the nickname for the Great Bell of the clock at the north end of the Palace of Westminster in London and is usually extended to refer to both the clock and the clock tower as well. The tower is known as Elizabeth Tower, renamed to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II in 2012, previously. When completed in 1859, it was, says clockmaker Ian Westworth, “the prince of timekeepers, a British cultural icon, the tower is one of the most prominent symbols of the United Kingdom and is often in the establishing shot of films set in London. The new parliament was built in a neo-gothic style, the tower is designed in Pugins celebrated Gothic Revival style, and is 315 feet high. The bottom 200 feet of the structure consists of brickwork with sand-coloured Anston limestone cladding. The remainder of the height is a framed spire of cast iron. The tower is founded on a 50 feet square raft, made of 10 feet thick concrete, the four clock dials are 180 feet above ground. The interior volume of the tower is 164,200 cubic feet, however, the tower currently has no lift, though one is planned, so those escorted must climb the 334 limestone stairs to the top. Due to changes in conditions since construction, the tower leans slightly to the north-west, by roughly 230 millimetres over 55 m height. This includes a maximum of 22 mm increased tilt due to tunnelling for the Jubilee line extension. Due to thermal effects it oscillates annually by a few millimetres east and west, journalists during Queen Victorias reign called it St Stephens Tower. As MPs originally sat at St Stephens Hall, these referred to anything related to the House of Commons as news from St. Stephens. The usage persists in Welsh, where the Westminster district, and this was thought to be appropriate because the large west tower now known as Victoria Tower was renamed in tribute to Queen Victoria on her diamond jubilee. On 26 June 2012, the House of Commons confirmed that the change could go ahead. The Prime Minister, David Cameron, announced the change of name on 12 September 2012 at the start of Prime Ministers Questions. The change was marked by a ceremony in which the Speaker of the House of Commons, John Bercow. The clock and dials were designed by Augustus Pugin, the clock dials are set in an iron frame 23 feet in diameter, supporting 312 pieces of opal glass, rather like a stained-glass window. Some of the pieces may be removed for inspection of the hands
20.
Foshay Tower
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The Foshay Tower, now the W Minneapolis – The Foshay hotel, is a skyscraper in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Modeled after the Washington Monument, the building was completed in 1929 and it has 32 floors and stands 447 feet high, plus an antenna mast that extends the total height of the structure to 607 feet. The building, which was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978, is an example of Art Deco architecture and its address is 821 Marquette Avenue, although it is set well back from the street and is actually closer to 9th Street than Marquette. The Foshay Tower marked a significant landmark locally in the push skyward, as the tower was the first in the city to surpass the height of Minneapolis City Hall and it remained the tallest building in Minneapolis until the IDS Center surpassed it in 1972. As the building was designed to echo the Washington Monument, the sides of the building slope slightly inward and it is also unusual in that the tower is set back from the street, with a two-story structure surrounding it on the Marquette Avenue and 9th Street sides. Internally the building uses steel and reinforced concrete and it cost US$3.75 million to build. From the Marquette Avenue side of the structure, the name, Foshay Tower was the lifelong dream and namesake of Wilbur Foshay, an art student turned businessman who amassed his fortune by building up three utility company empires. At the time the tower was being built, he had sold his previous two empires in turn and was building up his third, Foshay invited 25,000 guests to the dedication ceremony and provided all-expenses paid trips to many who included cabinet members, senators and congressmen. Each guest received a gold pocketwatch, john Philip Sousa conducted music, including the Foshay Tower–Washington Memorial March, a march he wrote for the occasion. Foshay presented Sousa with a check for US$20,000, the march was only played once during Foshays lifetime. Six weeks after the opening on November 2,1929. Ignominiously, Foshays check to Sousa bounced, and in retaliation, Foshay never lived in his new home, which also went into receivership. It wasnt until 1988 when a group of Minnesota investors repaid Foshays debt to Sousas estate that the march was permitted to be played in public again. The Foshay was designed by Léon Eugène Arnal, chief designer for the architects Magney & Tusler, later known as Setter, Leach & Lindstrom, the building has the name FOSHAY in 10 foot lighted letters on all four sides just below the top. A U. S. patent for this technique was filed in 1929 by Gottlieb R. Magney, Wilbur Tusler and Arnal and granted in 1931. In January 1981, the building was wrapped in a yellow ribbon during the final days of the Iran hostage crisis. Once the hostages returned to the United States, the ribbon was moved to the Minnesota State Capitol in Saint Paul so that people could sign it, the ribbon is now in the Minnesota Historical Society. The antenna on the roof has been used by broadcasters, including television stations WTCN, WCCO
21.
Bell
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A bell is a directly struck idiophone percussion instrument. Most bells have the shape of a cup that when struck vibrates in a single strong strike tone. The strike may be made by an internal clapper or uvula, Bells are usually cast from bell metal for its resonant properties, but can also be made from other hard materials, this depends on the function. Many public or institutional buildings house bells, most commonly as clock bells to sound the hours and quarters, historically, bells have been associated with religious rituals, and are still used to call communities together for religious services. Later, bells were made to important events or people and have been associated with the concepts of peace. The study of bells is called campanology and it is popularly but not certainly related to the former sense of to bell which gave rise to bellow. The earliest archaeological evidence of dates from the 3rd millennium BC. Clapper-bells made of pottery have found in several archaeological sites. The pottery bells later developed into metal bells, in West Asia, the first bells appear in 1000 BC. The earliest metal bells, with one found in the Taosi site, early bells not only have an important role in generating metal sound, but arguably played a prominent cultural role. See also Klang Bell of the British Museum collection, in the western world, the common form of bell is a church bell or town bell, which is hung within a tower or bell cote. Such bells are fixed in position or mounted on a beam so they can swing to. Bells that are hung dead are normally sounded by hitting the bow with a hammer or occasionally by pulling an internal clapper against the bell. Where a bell is swung it can either be swung over an arc by a rope. As the bell swings higher the sound is projected rather than downwards. Bells hung for full circle ringing are swung through just over a circle from mouth uppermost. A stay engages a mechanism to allow the bell to rest just past its balance point, the rope is attached to one side of a wheel so that a different amount of rope is wound on and off as it swings to and fro. Swinging bells are sounded by an internal clapper, the clapper may have a longer period of swing than the bell
22.
Chime (bell instrument)
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A carillon-like instrument with less than 23 bells is called a chime. American chimes usually have one to one and a half diatonic octaves, the first bell chime was created in 1487. Before 1900, chime bells typically lacked dynamic variation and the inner tuning required to permit the use of harmony, since then, chime bells produced in Belgium, the Netherlands, England, and America have inner tuning and can produce fully harmonized music. Some towers in England hung for full change ringing chime by an Ellacombe apparatus. The Arma Sifton bells at the International Peace Garden, North Dakota, the 14 bells by Gillett & Johnston were a gift from Central United Church of Brandon, Manitoba, in 1972. The tower was supplied by North Dakota Veterans and dedicated in 1976, the chimes of St. Peter the Apostle Parish in New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States. These nine bells were installed in 1870 by Meneely Bell Company of Watervliet, consists of 17 bells,10 of which were originally cast for St. Stephens Church in Cohasset Massachusetts, in the 1920s and 7 bells cast in 1997 by Royal Eijsbouts bell foundry in The Netherlands. The chime at the Highland Arts Theatre in Sydney, Nova Scotia still sings forth regularly and has become a part of the sound of the citys downtown and this is the original McShane Bell Foundry Ten Bell Chime, installed in the church as it was constructed in 1911. Follow this link to a page of videos of the chime being played, The Chimes ~ Christmas Music Campanology, Chimes
23.
Granite
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Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
24.
Ortonville, Minnesota
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Ortonville is a city in Big Stone county in the U. S. state of Minnesota at the southern tip of Big Stone Lake, along the border with South Dakota. The population was 1,916 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Big Stone County. Big Stone Lake State Park is nearby, Ortonville was platted in 1872 by Cornelius Knute Orton, and named for him. Ortonville was incorporated as a city in 1881, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 3.56 square miles, of which 3.51 square miles is land and 0.05 square miles is water. Highways 12 and 75 and Minnesota State Highway 7 are three of the routes in the city. As of the census of 2010, there were 1,916 people,884 households, the population density was 545.9 inhabitants per square mile. There were 1,090 housing units at a density of 310.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 0% White,0. 3% African American,0. 6% Native American,0. 1% Asian,0. 7% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 0% of the population. 38. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 21. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.07 and the average family size was 2.71. The median age in the city was 49.8 years. 19. 7% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 2% were between the ages of 18 and 24,18. 5% were from 25 to 44,26. 7% were from 45 to 64, and 28. 8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46. 5% male and 53. 5% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 2,158 people,923 households, and 594 families residing in the city. The population density was 635.8 people per square mile, there were 1,125 housing units at an average density of 331.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 68% White,0. 42% African American,0. 88% Native American,0. 09% Asian,0. 28% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 56% of the population. 33. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 20. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.88. In the city, the population was out with 23. 9% under the age of 18,5. 1% from 18 to 24,20. 2% from 25 to 44,24. 6% from 45 to 64. The median age was 45 years, for every 100 females there were 84.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 79.8 males, the median income for a household in the city was $30,614, and the median income for a family was $39,375
25.
Tunnel
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A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock and enclosed except for entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A pipeline is not a tunnel, though some recent tunnels have used immersed tube construction techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring methods, a tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. The central portions of a transit network are usually in tunnel. Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are sewers, utility tunnels are used for routing steam, chilled water, electrical power or telecommunication cables, as well as connecting buildings for convenient passage of people and equipment. Secret tunnels are built for military purposes, or by civilians for smuggling of weapons, contraband, special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings, are built to allow wildlife to cross human-made barriers safely. A tunnel is relatively long and narrow, the length is much greater than twice the diameter, although similar shorter excavations can be constructed. The definition of what constitutes a tunnel can vary widely from source to source, for example, the definition of a road tunnel in the United Kingdom is defined as a subsurface highway structure enclosed for a length of 150 metres or more. In the United States, the NFPA definition of a tunnel is An underground structure with a length greater than 23 m. The place where a road, railway, canal or watercourse passes under a footpath, cycleway, or another road or railway is most commonly called a bridge or, if passing under a canal, an aqueduct. Where it is important to stress that it is passing underneath, it may be called an underpass, a longer underpass containing a road, canal or railway is normally called a tunnel, whether or not it passes under another item of infrastructure. An underpass of any length under a river is usually called a tunnel. In the US, the term means an underground rapid transit system. Rail station platforms may be connected by tunnels or footbridges. Much of the technology of tunneling evolved from mining and military engineering. The etymology of the mining, military engineering, and civil engineering reveals these deep historic connections. A major tunnel project must start with an investigation of ground conditions by collecting samples from boreholes. An informed choice can then be made of machinery and methods for excavation and ground support, in planning the route, the horizontal and vertical alignments can be selected to make use of the best ground and water conditions. It is common practice to locate a tunnel deeper than otherwise would be required and this may be a particular concern in large-diameter tunnels
26.
Hennepin County Government Center
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The Hennepin County Government Center is the courthouse and primary county government administration building for Hennepin County in the State of Minnesota. It is located in downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota, the county seat of Hennepin County, before its construction, the Hennepin County government offices were housed in the Minneapolis City Hall-Hennepin County Courthouse. The building was designed by the firm of John Carl Warnecke & Associates. It was dedicated in 1973 and completed in 1977 and it is 403 feet tall and has 24 stories. When viewed from the northeast or southwest sides, it takes on the appearance of a stylized letter H and this shape serves as the logo of Hennepin County. Each side of the H is a separate tower, the towers are connected by catwalk bridges on several floors. The whole is enclosed by windows to form an atrium. In early 2015 remodeling was done on the skyway level public area, the Southeast side is known as the court tower. It houses courtrooms, county offices, and the Hennepin law library. The Northwest side houses county offices such as social services. The Hennepin County Government Center is built over 6th Street using the air rights over the street and it is connected by a tunnel to the Minneapolis City Hall, underneath 5th Street and the METRO Blue and Green lines. The Government Plaza METRO station is between the two buildings, the tunnel also connects to the federal courthouse for the United States District Court for the District of Minnesota. The building has skyway links to the Thrivent headquarters building and the US Bank Plaza Building, there is a separate secure tunnel to the Hennepin County Adult Detention center located diagonally across the plaza. Before its construction, the Hennepin County government offices were housed in the Minneapolis City Hall-Hennepin County Courthouse, after earlier suicides by jumping from the catwalk bridges, 6-foot high glass wall panels were added to the bridges & balconies throughout the building. One additional suicide occurred after this, when a person pulled seating benches onto a catwalk, climbed on top of them, following a deadly shooting within the court tower in 2003, new security measures were implemented. New metal detectors were installed, along with X-ray equipment, the 2nd-floor lobby service desks at the skyway level were re-configured to accommodate the changes. The building was the site of a performance by French tight-rope walker Philippe Petit, march 1994–January 1995 – Michael Olson was convicted of murder and Dennis Tate of second-degree murder for the 1993 killing of Brian Glick in Bloomington. 1988 – In Cohen v. Cowles Media Co, dan Cohen was awarded damages after a newspaper broke its promise not to name him as the source of inculpatory evidence concerning a politician
27.
Metro (Minnesota)
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Metro is a light rail and bus rapid transit system which serves the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area. As of 2016, the system consists of three lines connecting Downtown Minneapolis and St. Paul with Bloomington and Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport, in 1999, the Minnesota Legislature approved funding for the first line along Hiawatha Avenue in south Minneapolis, which opened in 2004. The first phase of the Red Line opened in mid-2013, extensions are planned to bring the system into the western metro area, with construction anticipated near the end of the decade. Blue Line, Target Field Station - Minneapolis-St, there are two light rail lines, which together run on a little more than one-mile of shared track through downtown Minneapolis. The BRT Red Line serves as an extension of the Blue Line across the Minnesota River, low ridership projections would have made the required bridge for an extension of the Blue Line economically infeasible. Together, the two rail lines run on 21.8 miles of route. There are a total of 41 stations,5 shared between the Green and Blue Lines,1 shared between the Blue and the Red,4 exclusively for the Red,13 for the Blue and 18 for the Green. The main hub of the system is Target Field Station in Minneapolis, trains run approximately every 10 minutes throughout the day, with reduced schedules at night and on weekends. All stations have displays that show predicted real-time departure information. Predicted real-time departure information is available through Metro Transits website. Metro uses a proof-of-payment system, requiring riders to carry tickets at all times, fares are purchased before boarding, either at ticket machines located in the stations or by scanning a Go-To card at dedicated pedestals. Tickets are valid for 2 1/2 hours after purchase, with transfers available to other Metro lines as well as any Metro Transit bus routes, kids below 6, free with paying rider. In addition, passes are available for various lengths of time or numbers of trips at appropriate discounts, in addition, students at the University of Minnesota have the option of purchasing U-Passes, which give unlimited rides throughout the semester. Several expansion projects are planned for the Metro system, at stages of completion. The C Line is a bus rapid transit route to run from downtown Minneapolis to the Brooklyn Center Transit Center. Construction was originally targeted for 2017, pending full project funding, as of April 2016, the timeline for the C Line has been adjusted to target 2018 construction instead. Metro Transit is working to advance project engineering over 2016-2017 to begin construction in 2018, the Green Line extension is a planned expansion of the Green Line, to run from Target Field Station to several southwestern suburbs. The project is in planning stages and is expected to be completed by 2021
28.
Metro Blue Line (Minnesota)
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The METRO Blue Line is a 12-mile light rail line in Hennepin County, Minnesota that extends from downtown Minneapolis to the southern suburb of Bloomington. The line was named after Hiawatha Avenue which runs parallel to a good portion of the line. Major locations on the line include the Mall of America, Minneapolis–St, Paul International Airport and Target Field in downtown Minneapolis. The Blue Line is operated by Metro Transit, which is also the operator of buses in the Twin Cities. The line accounts for about 13% of Metro Transits total ridership, less than two years after opening, the line had already exceeded its 2020 weekday ridership goal of 24,800. The line carried 10.6 million riders in 2015, in July 2011, the Metropolitan Council officially approved renaming the Hiawatha Line as the Blue Line. The name officially changed on Friday, May 17,2013, each of the 19 stations along the route is designed in a unique architectural style reflective of the stations surrounding community. This is not a new idea for the region, as many of the higher-traffic bus stops around the city have distinctive designs. Due to the makeup of Minneapoliss population, ticket-dispensing machines present instructions in four languages, English, Spanish, Somali. Travel time is two to three minutes between most stations. The airport used to operate a bus shuttle between the two terminals, but the line has replaced that service. No fare is required to ride between the two stations and trains run between these 2 stations 24 hours a day,7 days a week. During the summer of 2009, work began on lengthening the station platforms and this allowed the use of three-car trains, instead of the two-car trains that were the previous maximum. This allowed the line to meet the growing demand without adding additional trains to the schedule or adding more drivers. The expansions were completed in 2010, in November 2008, track welding was completed to extend the line several blocks northwest to reach the site of the Target Field Station. The station opened on November 14,2009 and is adjacent to Target Field, in addition, some routing options for the future Southwest Corridor Green Line extension would connect directly to the end of the Blue Line to share service with the station. Federal money was secured for construction of the new American Boulevard Station in Bloomington between the Humphrey Terminal Station and Bloomington Central Station and this station was included in the lines original plans, but was postponed until future demand. Light rail staff, security, and volunteers produced a largely hitch-free opening day for the new system on June 26,2004
29.
Metro Green Line (Minnesota)
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The Metro Green Line is an 11-mile light rail line that connects the central business districts of Minneapolis and Saint Paul in Minnesota as well as the University of Minnesota. An extension is being planned that would extend the line to the southwest connecting St. Louis Park, Hopkins, Minnetonka, the line follows the path of former Metro Transit bus route 16 along University Avenue and Washington Avenue. It is the second line in the region, after the Blue Line. Construction on the Green Line began in late 2010 and it opened to the public on June 14,2014. The travel time between the downtown Minneapolis and downtown St. Paul stops is about 46 minutes and this entire line operates 24 hours a day, seven days a week. In 2015, the line carried a total of 12.4 million passengers, the route is a descendant of the Twin City Rapid Transit Companys St. Paul–Minneapolis streetcar line, also known as the Interurban line. Streetcars became practical along the route with the advent of electrification, in the 1950s, the decision was made to convert the streetcar system to buses. Streetcar service along the Interurban line ended in Saint Paul on October 31,1953, service continued a short while longer in Minneapolis until November 28. However, due to service elsewhere in Minneapolis, streetcars continued to use the tracks along University to reach the shops at Snelling Avenue in Saint Paul until June 1954. Twin City Lines continued to operate buses until 1970, when the company was taken over by the Metropolitan Transit Commission. The route 16 bus was developed in the 1950s to replace the streetcar, other parallel service included freeway express service on route 94 and limited-stop service to the University of Minnesota on route 50. In 1972, the Regional Fixed Guideway Study for the Metropolitan Transit Commission proposed a $1, the Met Council had its own plans for bus rapid transit in the metropolitan region. It took another two decades before the Blue Line light rail line began operation and it began service on June 26,2004, just over 50 years since the last regular-service streetcar ran on June 19,1954. In May 2006 the CCCC concluded its study by publishing a Draft Environmental Impact Study, on June 28,2006, the Metropolitan Council concurred with the CCCCs decision and officially selected LRT as the locally preferred alternative. The work of the Central Corridor Coordinating Committee is now complete, a 2003 study commissioned by the Central Corridor Coordinating Committee placed the cost at US$840 million. Cost estimates placed the cost of the rail line in 2003, at about US$957 million. On June 6,2006, the rail option was endorsed by the Central Corridor Coordinating Committee. The Metropolitan Council gave final approval to this decision on June 28,2006, the existing Blue Line has exceeded ridership predictions, as is the case with many other light rail lines constructed in the U. S. during the last decade
30.
Light rail
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Light rail, light rail transit or fast tram is urban public transport using rolling stock similar to a tramway, but operating at a higher capacity, and often on an exclusive right-of-way. A few light rail networks tend to have closer to rapid transit or even commuter rail. Other light rail networks are tram-like in nature and partially operate on streets, Light rail systems are found throughout the world, on all inhabited continents. They have been popular in recent years due to their lower capital costs. The term light rail was coined in 1972 by the U. S, Urban Mass Transportation Administration to describe new streetcar transformations that were taking place in Europe and the United States. In Germany the term Stadtbahn was used to describe the concept, and many in UMTA wanted to adopt the direct translation, however, UMTA finally adopted the term light rail instead. Light in this context is used in the sense of intended for light loads and fast movement, the infrastructure investment is also usually lighter than would be found for a heavy rail system. The Transportation Research Board defined light rail in 1977 as a mode of urban transportation utilizing predominantly reserved, electrically propelled rail vehicles operate singly or in trains. LRT provides a range of passenger capabilities and performance characteristics at moderate costs. Light rail is a generic international English phrase for these types of rail systems, the use of the generic term light rail avoids some serious incompatibilities between British and American English. The word trolley is used as a synonym for streetcar in the United States. A further difference arose because, while Britain abandoned all of its trams except Blackpool after World War II, when these cities upgraded to new technology, they called it light rail to differentiate it from their existing streetcars since some continued to operate both the old and new systems. Conventional rail technologies including high-speed, freight, commuter/regional, and metro/subway/elevated urban transit systems are considered heavy rail, people movers and personal rapid transit are even lighter, at least in terms of capacity. Monorail is a technology that has been more successful in specialized services than in a commuter transit role. Due to varying definitions, it is hard to distinguish between what is called light rail, and other forms of urban and commuter rail, a system described as light rail in one city may be considered to be a streetcar or tram system in another. Conversely, some lines that are called light rail are in very similar to rapid transit, in recent years. Some light rail systems, such as Sprinter, bear little similarity to urban rail, in the United States, light rail has become a catch-all term to describe a wide variety of passenger rail systems. There is a significant difference in cost between these different classes of light rail transit, tram-like systems are often less expensive than metro-like systems by a factor of two or more
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Government Plaza (Metro Transit station)
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The Government Plaza station is a light rail station on the Blue Line and Green Line in Minneapolis, Minnesota. This station is located on 5th Street South, between 3rd and 4th Avenues South in Minneapolis, service began at this station when the Blue Line opened on June 26,2004. To retain a pleasant view of the Minneapolis City Hall from the adjacent plaza area and this is the only segment of the line downtown along 5th Street where there is not a roadway for automobiles running next to the rails. Minneapolis City Hall Hennepin County Government Center Minneapolis Federal Courthouse 225 South Sixth Metro Transit, Government Plaza Station
32.
Rotunda (architecture)
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A rotunda is any building with a circular ground plan, and sometimes covered by a dome. It can also refer to a room within a building. The Pantheon in Rome is a famous rotunda, a Band Rotunda is a circular bandstand, usually with a dome. The rotunda has historical and architectural value because it was widespread in medieval Central Europe, a great number of parochial churches were built in this form in the 9th to 11th centuries BCE in Central Europe. This type of circular shaped parochial building can be found in great number in Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Croatia, Austria, Bavaria, Dalmatia, Germany, and it was thought of as a structure descending from the Roman Pantheon. However, it can be found mainly not on former Roman territories, generally its size was 6–9 meters inner diameter and the apsis was directed toward the east. Sometimes 3 or 4 apsides were glued to the central circle, several types of rotundas are found in the Carpathian Basin, within the former boundaries of Medieval Hungary. The role and form developed from gradual enlargements of ancient small village churches, many of them still stand today, e. g. in Nagytótlak, Kallósd and Kissikátor in Hungary or in Bíňa and Šivetice in Slovakia. In many places the ancient foundations have been excavated and conserved, the village church of Sárospatak is complete with a simple circular nave and an eastern apse. The church of Alagimajor at Dunakeszi was enlarged toward the apse in the 14th century, in many cases the rotunda was used as the apse of the villages new and larger church. Such semi-circle apses are preserved all over the Carpathian Basin, rotundas of six apses, a most interesting form, are found at Karcsa, Kiszombor in Hungary, at Horjany in Ukraine and several places in Armenia. There is a connection between Central European and Caucasian rotundas of the 9th to 11th centuries BCE. Several Armenian built rotunda churches have sixfold arched central apsis, i. e. at Aragatz, Bagaran, Bagnayr, Botshor, at the same time eightfold arched central buildings are also frequently occurring in Armenia, Ani, Irind, Varzhahan. It was a suggestion that there was not only western European, temple of Heaven construction completed on 1420 during Yongle Emperor who also constructed Forbidden City of China. Fujian Tulou is a traditional rural dwellings of the Hakka in Fujian region of China and they are built between the 12th and the 20th centuries. The Baptistery at the Piazza dei Miracoli, Pisa, Italy, the Church of the Rotonda in Thessaloniki, built as the Tomb of Galerius in 306 AD. The St George Rotunda in Sofia, Bulgaria, a 4th-century Early Christian church, St. George Cathedral Church at Zvartnots, Armenia. St. Martins Rotunda in Vyšehrad Castle, Prague, Czech Republic, the Rotunda of St Marija Assunta in Mosta, Malta
33.
Larkin Goldsmith Mead
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Larkin Goldsmith Mead, Jr. was an American sculptor, working in a neoclassical style. He was born at Chesterfield, New Hampshire, the son of a prominent lawyer, a colossal snowman constructed by the young Mead was reported by the local press. He became a pupil of sculptor Henry Kirke Brown and he worked as an illustrator for Harpers Weekly during the early part of the American Civil War, and was at the front for six months with the Army of the Potomac. He returned to America in 1865, but subsequently returned to Italy and his first important work was a statue of Agriculture, designed to top the dome of the Vermont Statehouse at Montpelier, Vermont. This work proved so successful that he was commissioned to sculpt a statue of Ethan Allen for the Statehouse portico. His brother William Rutherford Mead was an architect, the Mead of McKim, Mead. He is buried in the Cimitero Evangelico degli Allori in the suburb of Florence. A replica of this adorns Meads grave in Florence, Italy, Agriculture, gilded wood, atop Vermont Statehouse dome, Montpelier, Vermont,1858, replaced with a copy 1938. Ethan Allen, marble, by main entrance to Vermont Statehouse, Montpelier, Vermont, 1858–61, bust of General George McClellan, unlocated,1862. Echo, marble, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC, replicas of this are at the Boston Public Library, the Corcoran Gallery of Art, and the Telfair Academy of Arts and Sciences. Bust of Venezia, marble, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City and this is believed to be a portrait of Meads wife. Returned Soldier, Italian marble, Connecticut Veterans Home, Rocky Hill, Connecticut, a replica of this is at the Chrysler Museum of Art. America, marble, atop Soldiers Monument, Courthouse Park, St. Johnsbury, Vermont, thought, marble, Bangor Public Library, Bangor, Maine,1868. Columbuss Last Appeal to Queen Isabella, California State Capitol, Sacramento, California, bust of Abraham Lincoln, Hall of Inscriptions, Vermont Statehouse, Montpelier, Vermont, ca. A study for Meads statue at the Lincoln Tomb, Ethan Allen, marble, National Statuary Hall Collection, United States Capitol, Washington, DC,1876. A replica of this is at Fort Ticonderoga in Ticonderoga, New York, bas-relief Portrait of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow,1883. Bas-relief of The Inauguration of George Washington as First President, bronze, the Triumph of Ceres, north portico of the Agricultural Building, Worlds Columbian Exposition, Chicago, Illinois,1893. His brother, William Rutherford Mead, was the buildings architect, the Return of Proserpine From the Realms of Pluto, unlocated, ca
34.
Florence
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Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered
35.
Terracotta
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Terracotta, terra cotta or terra-cotta, a type of earthenware, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic, where the fired body is porous. The term is used to refer to the natural, brownish orange color, of most terracotta. This article covers the senses of terracotta as a medium in sculpture, as in the Terracotta Army and Greek terracotta figurines, asian and European sculpture in porcelain is not covered. Glazed architectural terracotta and its version as exterior surfaces for buildings were used in Asia for some centuries before becoming popular in the West in the 19th century. In archaeology and art history, terracotta is used to describe objects such as figurines not made on a potters wheel. An appropriate refined clay is formed to the desired shape, after drying it is placed in a kiln or atop combustible material in a pit, and then fired. The typical firing temperature is around 1,000 °C, though it may be as low as 600 °C in historic and archaeological examples. In some contexts, such as Roman figurines, white-colored terracotta is known as pipeclay, as such clays were later preferred for tobacco pipes, fired terracotta is not watertight, but surface-burnishing the body before firing can decrease its porousness and a layer of glaze can make it watertight. It is suitable for use below ground to carry pressurized water, for garden pots or building decoration in many environments, most other uses, such as for tableware, sanitary piping, or building decoration in freezing environments, require the material to be glazed. Terracotta, if uncracked, will ring if lightly struck, painted terracotta is typically first covered with a thin coat of gesso, then painted. It has been widely used but the paint is only suitable for indoor positions and is much less durable than fired colors in or under a ceramic glaze. Terracotta sculpture was rarely left in its raw fired state in the West until the 18th century. Terracotta/earthenware was the known type of ceramic produced by Western and pre-Columbian people until the 14th century. Terracotta has been used throughout history for sculpture and pottery as well as for bricks, in ancient times, the first clay sculptures were dried in the sun after being formed. They were later placed in the ashes of open hearths to harden, however, only after firing to high temperature would it be classed as a ceramic material. Terracotta female figurines were uncovered by archaeologists in excavations of Mohenjo-daro, along with phallus-shaped stones, these suggest some sort of fertility cult and a belief in a mother goddess. The Burney Relief is a terracotta plaque from Ancient Mesopotamia of about 1950 BC. In Mesoamerica, the majority of Olmec figurines were in terracotta
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Patina
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Patina is a thin layer that variously forms on the surface of stone, on copper, bronze and similar metals, on wooden furniture, or any such acquired change of a surface through age and exposure. Patinas can provide a covering to materials that would otherwise be damaged by corrosion or weathering. They may also be aesthetically appealing, Patina also refers to accumulated changes in surface texture and colour that result from normal use of an object such as a coin or a piece of furniture over time. Archaeologists also use the term patina to refer to a layer that develops over time that is due to a range of complex factors on flint tools. This has led stone tool analysts in recent times to generally prefer the term cortification as a term to describe the process than patination. It also refers to development as the result of weathering of a layer, called cortex by geologists. The word patina comes from the Latin for shallow dish, figuratively, patina can refer to any fading, darkening or other signs of age, which are felt to be natural or unavoidable. The chemical process by which a patina forms is called patination, in clean air rural environments, the patina is created by the slow chemical reaction of copper with carbon dioxide and water, producing a basic copper carbonate. In industrial and urban air environments containing sulfurous acid rain from coal-fired power plants or industrial processes, a patina layer takes many years to develop under natural weathering. Buildings in damp coastal/marine environments will develop patina layers faster than ones in dry inland areas, facade cladding with alloys of copper, e. g. brass or bronze, will weather differently from pure copper cladding. Even a lasting gold colour is possible with copper-alloy cladding, for example Colston Hall in Bristol, or the Novotel at Paddington Central, often, antique and well-used firearms will develop a patina on the steel after the bluing, parkerizing, or other finish has worn. Firearms in this state are considered more valuable than ones that have been re-blued or parkerized. The patina protects the firearm from the more damaging rust that would occur were the patina to be polished off, the process is often called distressing. A wide range of chemicals, both household and commercial, can give a variety of patinas and they are often used by artists as surface embellishments either for color, texture, or both. Patination composition varies with the elements and these will determine the color of the patina. For copper alloys, such as bronze, exposure to chlorides leads to green, the basic palette for patinas on copper alloys includes chemicals like ammonium sulfide, liver of sulfur, cupric nitrate and ferric nitrate. For artworks, patination is often accelerated by applying chemicals with heat. Colors range from matte sandstone yellow to deep blues, greens, whites, reds, some patina colors are achieved by the mixing of colors from the reaction with the metal surface with pigments added to the chemicals
37.
Plummer Building
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The Plummer Building in Rochester, Minnesota is one of the many architecturally significant buildings on the Mayo Clinic campus. This new Mayo Clinic building, opened in 1927, added much needed space to the ever expanding Mayo practice, the architect of record is Ellerbe & Co. now Ellerbe Becket. It was the building designed by the firm for the Mayo Clinic. The early design collaboration between Henry Stanley Plummer and Franklin Ellerbe established the model for generations of new clinic. The new 1928 Mayo Clinic building was the manifestation of the early Mayo partners desire to create the first integrated private group practice. It is topped by a distinctive terra-cotta trimmed tower which contains a 56-bell carillon, songs are played from it several times a week, which can be heard throughout downtown. The tower is lit by floodlights every night, and it is a centerpiece of the citys skyline, ray Corwin, of Ellerbe and Round, designed the buildings decorative elements. Ray Corwin also was responsible for the design of the elements found in the Chateau Theatre. The Plummer Building is among the more than 200 structures designed by the Ellerbe firm in Rochester and its 4000-pound ornamental bronze doors nearly always stand open, symbolizing eternal willingness to accept those in medical need. They have been closed only to commemorate events in Mayo or national history
38.
Skyscraper
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A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building having multiple floors. When the term was used in the 1880s it described a building of 10 to 20 floors. Mostly designed for office, commercial and residential uses, a skyscraper can also be called a high-rise, for buildings above a height of 300 m, the term supertall can be used, while skyscrapers reaching beyond 600 m are classified as megatall. One common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel framework that supports curtain walls and these curtain walls either bear on the framework below or are suspended from the framework above, rather than resting on load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Some early skyscrapers have a frame that enables the construction of load-bearing walls taller than of those made of reinforced concrete. Modern skyscrapers walls are not load-bearing, and most skyscrapers are characterized by surface areas of windows made possible by steel frames. However, skyscrapers can have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls with a surface area of windows. Modern skyscrapers often have a structure, and are designed to act like a hollow cylinder to resist wind, seismic. To appear more slender, allow less wind exposure, and transmit more daylight to the ground, many skyscrapers have a design with setbacks, a relatively big building may be considered a skyscraper if it protrudes well above its built environment and changes the overall skyline. The maximum height of structures has progressed historically with building methods and technologies, the Burj Khalifa is currently the tallest building in the world. High-rise buildings are considered shorter than skyscrapers, the first steel-frame skyscraper was the Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Illinois in 1885. Even the scholars making the argument find it to be purely academic and this definition was based on the steel skeleton—as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicagos Monadnock Building. What is the characteristic of the tall office building. The force and power of altitude must be in it, the glory and it must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exaltation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line. Some structural engineers define a highrise as any vertical construction for which wind is a significant load factor than earthquake or weight. Note that this criterion fits not only high-rises but some other tall structures, the word skyscraper often carries a connotation of pride and achievement. A loose convention of some in the United States and Europe draws the limit of a skyscraper at 150 m or 490 ft. The tallest building in ancient times was the 146 m Great Pyramid of Giza in ancient Egypt and it was not surpassed in height for thousands of years, the 14th century AD Lincoln Cathedral being conjectured by many to have exceeded it
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100 Washington Square
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100 Washington Square is a 332-ft tall skyscraper in downtown Minneapolis. Construction started in 1979 and was completed in 1981, covers 481,600 square feet and has 22 floors and it is the 26th tallest building in the city. The building was designed by architect Minoru Yamasaki, who had designed the Northwestern National Life Building in Minneapolis. As with the Trade Center, the exterior of the building is composed of closely spaced load-bearing steel that distributes weight to the core, a skyway connects the building to Churchill Apartments, and The Crossings. In 2015, Shorenstein, a real estate investing organization. ING, a successor to Northwestern National Life Insurance, is the largest tenant, list of tallest buildings in Minneapolis
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33 South Sixth
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33 South Sixth, formerly known as International Multifoods Tower, is a skyscraper in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It was designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and stands 52 stories tall at 668 ft and its name comes from its address,33 South Sixth Street, Minneapolis. It was completed in 1983 as headquarters for International Multifoods Corporation which occupied the structure until 1997 when it moved to suburban Wayzata, although the corporate offices relocated, the name remained until 2003 under the terms of its lease. Adjacent to the tower is Minneapolis City Center Mall which occupies the ground level, skyway,33 South Sixth Street is a 52-story office building located in the heart of Minneapoliss 64-square block skyway system. Construction on the began in 1981 and it opened in 1983 as one of the tallest buildings in Minneapolis. Current tenants include Target Corporation, and law firms Meagher & Geer, the typical floors are 24,700 sq ft for a total of 1,170,000 sq ft of office space and 489,000 sq ft in the retail mall. The mall is anchored by Saks Fifth Avenue Off Fifth, Marshalls, local retailers include Len, Pacifier, along with others. Sports Authority announced in May 2016 that it would be shuttering all of its US stores, rosa Mexicano quietly shuttered its downtown Minneapolis location at Hennepin Avenue and 6th Street in November 2016. A new tenant has been in the works to fill that corner anchor space, the exterior of the building is faced with precast concrete panels tinted light brown. The east and west facades consist of four bays, divided by pilasters which extend to become the spandrel panels. Each wide bay is divided into three smaller bays with a square window. The north and south facades consist of seven bays with only the first and last being divided, the five central bays are wider with dark-tinted glass set into dark frames. The precast panels extend to cover the retail pod which does little to make the more visually appealing. Architecture critic Larry Millett calls it a big architectural oaf and adds that the precast concrete panel cladding is designed, quite successfully, the design of the tower is very similar to One HSBC Center in Buffalo. The exterior facade continues into the City Center atrium, and lower level offices on the south side directly overlook the shopping center. The former Multifoods Tower is located in the heart of Minneapoliss 64-square block skyway system,33 South Sixth is the tallest building in Minneapolis west of Nicollet Mall. Former tenants include the law firm of Rider Bennett. It was built on the formerly occupied by the Hotel Dyckman
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333 South Seventh Street
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333 South Seventh Street is a 454. 494-ft tall skyscraper in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It was completed in 1987 and has 33 floors and 650,000 square feet and it is the 16th-tallest building in the city. It was originally a project, but only the east tower was built. A small landscaped plaza fronting 3rd Avenue South now occupies the plot for the west tower, the two towers would have had a bow-tie shaped footprint, and shared the same lobby at the center of the site. A skyway connects this building to the 701 Building and the Ameriprise Financial Center, the Senator Hotel was demolished to make way for this building. List of tallest buildings in Minneapolis Emporis 333SouthSeventhStreet
42.
50 South Sixth
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50 South Sixth is a 404-ft tall skyscraper in Minneapolis. It was completed in 2001 and has 30 floors and it is the 18th-tallest building in the city. A skyway connects this building to the 15 Building, Renaissance Square, City Center, the Minnesota Law Center once occupied this site. The 689, 482-square-foot Class A office tower is managed by Hines, list of tallest buildings in Minneapolis Emporis Hines Twincities Business Journal
43.
Ameriprise Financial Center
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Ameriprise Financial Center is a 498-foot-tall skyscraper in Minneapolis, Minnesota located at 701 2nd Avenue South. It was completed in 2000 and has 31 floors and it is the tallest building completed in the US in 2000. This building is the largest single-tenant skyscraper in downtown Minneapolis, the headquarters of Ameriprise Financial moved here from the IDS Tower in April 2000. A skyway connects the building to the Capella Tower, Baker Center, a mixture of glass and granite on units, usually 5 feet wide by 15 feet tall, is used on the wall. Unitized aluminum framing, glass and granite were used on the building. It sits on the site of the old Lutheran Brotherhood Building, list of tallest buildings in Minneapolis Address,707 2nd ave s
44.
AT&T Tower (Minneapolis)
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The AT&T Tower is a 464-foot tall skyscraper in Minneapolis, located on the corner of Marquette Avenue and 9th Street South. It was completed in 1991 and has 34 floors and it is the 14th-tallest building in the city. A skyway connects the building to the TCF Tower and International Centre, the Foshay Tower is across the street to the north. The main floor lobby is shared with the Oracle Centre, the first and second floors contain restaurants and numerous small shops. List of tallest buildings in Minneapolis Emporis AT&T Tower project - builders website Norwegian Honorary Consulate General in Minneapolis Official Website
45.
Campbell Mithun Tower
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The Campbell Mithun Tower is a 41-floor tower located on 9th Street and 3rd Avenue in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It is the fifth tallest building in Minneapolis, Building amenities include conference facilities, a fitness center, bike storage, underground parking, a deli, convenience store, hair salon, coffee shop, dry cleaners, and on-site management. Campbell Mithun Tower earned Gold-level certification through the Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design program, the tower was first certified in 2009 then again in 2014
46.
Canadian Pacific Plaza
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Canadian Pacific Plaza is a 383-ft tall skyscraper in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It was completed in 1960 and has 28 floors and it is the 21st-tallest building in the city. It is the first major post-World War II skyscraper built in Minneapolis and it is also the citys tallest building completed in the 1960s. The New York Life Insurance Building was demolished to make way for this building, a skyway connects the building to the Rand Tower, Soo Line Building, and US Bank Plaza. The building was known as One Financial Plaza. Before that, it was the headquarters for First Bank System, list of tallest buildings in Minneapolis Emporis
47.
CenturyLink Building
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The CenturyLink Building in Minneapolis, Minnesota was completed in 1932 and became the tallest building to be built in the city during the 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s. Named for its current owner, it was known as the Qwest Building. Originally standing 346 feet tall, the structure grew to 416 feet with the addition of a microwave antenna crown in 1958. It was the second-tallest building in the city after the slightly older Foshay Tower for many years, the building has many small details on the exterior, including electric bolts and a stylized bird above the main entrance. When under construction, a move was made by stripping a 1920s Northwestern Bell building on the site. The building was expanded on its west side in the 1940s, Telephone service in Minneapolis first began in 1878 with a switchboard located in the old city hall, located in the Gateway area, and serving 11 phones. Demand increased rapidly, and in 1885, the office had 775 lines and was moved to the second floor of the city hall building. In 1890, the office outgrew its quarters in the city hall, with 1700 lines, demand increased to 3000 subscribers in 1897, so a three-story building was built at Third Avenue South and Fifth Street. In 1908, two wings were built. Additional central office buildings were established outside downtown Minneapolis, by 1920, there were 96,000 telephones in 14 central office buildings. In 1920, a building was built at Third Avenue South and Fifth Street. That building was planned with the possibility that it would be merged into a larger structure, in 1929, with still more expansion, six floors were leased in an outside building. Finally, the current building was built, after a study of future needs and it was decided to add some space for the Minnesota administrative offices of the phone company, in a decision that was both economical and architecturally pleasing. When built, the building had its business office on the first floor, with space for customers to transact business with the company, public telephone booths. There were also facilities and a lunch room for telephone operators who were off duty. The 14th, 25th, and 26th floors were mechanical floors, finally, a tower on the 15th through 24th floors housed administrative offices of the telephone company. There were also three basement floors with power and heating equipment, along with cable vaults, the building measured 346 feet above street level,42 feet in the basements, and had 26 stories. Many of these stories were somewhat taller than those in office due to the size of central office equipment
48.
Capella Tower
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Capella Tower is a skyscraper in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. The building opened in 1992 with the First Bank Place being the headquarters for First Bank System, in 1997, First Bank System acquired US Bancorp and changed the name of the building to US Bancorp Place. The headquarters of US Bancorp moved into the US Bancorp Center in 2000, in March 2009, the building took its present name. The ranking of the building as the tallest in Minneapolis is in dispute, the IDS Center is usually said to be taller by one foot, even by the owners of Capella Tower. In February 2005, the IDS counted a 16-foot-tall window washing garage built on its roof in 1979 as part of its actual height, the IDS is taller on two measures. The IDSs communications spires add a significant amount of height making it 910 ft, Capella Tower is connected to the Minneapolis Skyway System and has 1,400,000 sq ft. of office space. In March 2008, Capella Education Co, running through 2015, the new lease expands Capellas square footage in the building from 203,000 sq ft to about 400,000 sq ft, making it the largest tenant in the building. The expanded facility will house all of the companys 1,150 downtown Minneapolis employees, as the school does not have classrooms. The name change took place in March 2009, the office building, designed by Pei, Cobb, Freed & Partners, is laid out on an L-shaped site with the 56-story tower connected to the 20-story Park Building by a corner winter garden. The building combines six-story cubes and various round towers which echo the different styles of buildings in downtown Minneapolis, the illuminated semicircle located atop the tower is not only decorative but also houses an antenna farm and communications network. This feature has given the building the nickname the Halo Building, List of tallest buildings in Minnesota List of tallest buildings in the United States Capella Tower Pei Cobb Freed & Partners
