1.
Intercosmos
–
Interkosmos was a Soviet space program, designed to help the Soviet Unions allies with manned and unmanned space missions. The program included the allied nations of the Warsaw Pact, CoMEcon, and other socialist nations like Afghanistan, Cuba, Mongolia. In addition, pro-Soviet non-aligned nations such as India and Syria participated, beginning in April 1967 with unmanned research satellite missions, the first manned mission occurred in February 1978. Interkosmos missions enabled 14 non-Soviet cosmonauts to participate in Soyuz space flights between 1978 and 1988, the program was responsible for sending into space the first citizen of a country other than the USA or USSR, Vladimír Remek of Czechoslovakia. Interkosmos also resulted in the first black and Hispanic person in space, Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez of Cuba, of the countries involved, only Bulgaria sent two cosmonauts in space, though the French spationaut, Jean-Loup Chrétien, flew on two separate flights. The manned Interkosmos missions also had political goals as a means of strengthening Soviet relations with the Warsaw Pact nations when evidence of discontent in them was raising its head,1970 November 28 - Vertikal-1 Aeronomy/Ionosphere/Solar mission. 1971 August 20 - Vertikal-2 Solar Ultraviolet/Solar X-ray mission,1972 April 7 - Interkosmos 6 - Investigation of primary cosmic radiation and meteoritic particles in near-earth outer space. 1973 April 4 - Interkosmos 9 Copernicus-500 - satellite of cooperation of the Polish Peoples Republic and Soviet Union to study the Sun, orbit around 200–1550 km.1975 June 3 - Interkosmos 141975 September 2 - Vertikal-3 Solar Ultraviolet/Solar X-ray mission. 1976 - Re-entry Vehicle Test mission,1976 June 19 - Interkosmos 15. Testing of new systems and components of satellite under space flight conditions,1977 March 29 - Investigation of the upper atmosphere and outer space. 1977 June 17 - Signe 3 - Twenty French specialists worked on the satellite,1977 August 30 - Vertikal-5 Solar Ultraviolet/Solar X-ray mission. 1977 September 24 - Interkosmos 17 - Investigation of energetic charged and neutral particles,1977 October 25 - Vertikal-6 Ionosphere/Solar mission. 1978 October 24 - Interkosmos 18 - Conduct of complex investigations on the interaction between the magnetosphere and ionosphere of the earth, cooperation with the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the German Democratic Republic, the Hungarian Peoples Republic, the Polish Peoples Republic and the Socialist Republic of Romania. 1979 September 26 - Vertikal-8 Solar Ultraviolet/Solar X-ray mission,1979 November 1 - Interkosmos 20. 1981 - Re-entry Vehicle Test mission,1981 February 6 - Interkosmos 21 -1981 August 7 - Interkosmos 22 Bulgaria-1300. 1981 August 28 - Vertikal-9 Solar Ultraviolet/Solar X-ray mission,1981 September 21 - Oreol 3 - Developed by Soviet and French specialists under the joint Soviet-French project Arkad-3. 1985 April 26 - Interkosmos 23 - Developed by scientists and specialists of the USSR,1989 September 28 - Interkosmos 24 - US participation, in cooperation with Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic, Hungary, Poland and Romania. 1991 December 18 - Interkosmos 25 - experiments from Germany, Romania, Bulgaria, Poland, apollo–Soyuz Test Project, the first joint U. S. –Soviet space flight in July 1975
Intercosmos
–
February 3, 1978
Intercosmos
–
For the film, see
Interkosmos (film).
Intercosmos
–
June 27, 1978
Intercosmos
–
August 26, 1978
2.
Reichskommissariat Ukraine
–
During World War II, Reichskommissariat Ukraine, was the civilian occupation regime of much of German-occupied Ukraine. Between September 1941 and March 1944, the Reichskommissariat was administered by Reichskommissar Erich Koch, the administrations tasks included the pacification of the region and the exploitation, for German benefit, of its resources and people. Adolf Hitler issued a Führer Decree defining the administration of the newly occupied Eastern territories on 17 July 1941. Before the German invasion, Ukraine was a constituent republic of the USSR, inhabited by Ukrainians with Russian, Polish, Jewish, Belarusian, German, Romani and it was a key subject of Nazi planning for the post-war expansion of the German state and civilization. Nazi Germany launched Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union on June 22,1941 in breach of the mutual Treaty of Nonaggression, the German invasion resulted in the collapse of the western elements of the Soviet Red Army in the former territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union. On July 16,1941, Hitler appointed the Nazi Gauleiter Erich Koch as the Reichskommissar for the planned Reichskommissariat Ukraine, originally subject to Alfred Rosenbergs Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories, it became a separate German civil entity. The first transfer of Soviet Ukrainian territory from military to civil administration took place on September 1,1941. There were further transfers on October 20 and November 1,1941, and a transfer on September 1,1942. Ideological declarations about the German Herrenvolk having a right to expand their territory especially in the East were widely spread among the German public, — Erich Koch, March 5th 1943. On 14 December 1941, Rosenberg discussed with Hitler various administrative issues regarding the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, Hitler decreed the creation of the Nazi Party organization Arbeitsbereich Osten der NSDAP for the new eastern occupied territories on April 1,1942. Himmler and Rosenbergs rearguard resistance soon collapsed in the face of pressure from Martin Bormann in Berlin, Rosenberg at least managed to be appointed Reichsleiter of the new arbeitsbereich. Needless to say he was entirely disobeyed, the partnership between Rosenberg and Himmler achieved nothing other than the exasperation of each other beyond endurance and Berger soon withdrew all cooperation. Koch and Lohse thereafter gradually reduced communication with Rosenberg, liaising with Hitler through Bormann, both also made a point of establishing strong SA organisations in their jurisdiction as a counterbalance to the SS. Given that many of the officials were active or reserve SA officers, the pre-existing grudge against the SS was resurrected by these measures. As a last resort, the Höherer SS- und Polizeiführer in Ukraine, Hans-Adolf Prutzmann, the Reichskommissariat Ukraine excluded several parts of present-day Ukraine, and included some territories outside of its modern borders. Conquered territories further to the east, including the rest of Ukraine, were under military governance until 1943–44, at its greatest extent, it included just under 340,000 square kilometers. Eastern Galicia was transferred to the control of the General Government following a Hitler decree and this was done by the Germans in order to secure a steady wood supply and efficient railroad and water transportation. The Staatssekretär Secretary of State Herbert Backe was personally nominated by the Reich Minister for the Occupied Eastern Territories and his ministry produced the Instruktion für einen Reichskommissar in der Ukraine for the direction of future administrators of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine
Reichskommissariat Ukraine
–
Nazi propaganda poster in Ukrainian that says "Hitler, the Liberator!".
Reichskommissariat Ukraine
–
Flag
Reichskommissariat Ukraine
–
Erich Koch (right) and
Alfred Rosenberg (center) in
Kiev
Reichskommissariat Ukraine
–
Banknotes denominated in karbovanets (karbowanez in German). The karbovanets replaced the Soviet ruble at par and was in circulation between 1942 and 1945. It was pegged to the Reichsmark at a rate of 10 karbovantsiv = 1 Reichsmark.
3.
Ukraine
–
Ukraine is currently in territorial dispute with Russia over the Crimean Peninsula which Russia annexed in 2014 but which Ukraine and most of the international community recognise as Ukrainian. Including Crimea, Ukraine has an area of 603,628 km2, making it the largest country entirely within Europe and it has a population of about 42.5 million, making it the 32nd most populous country in the world. The territory of modern Ukraine has been inhabited since 32,000 BC, during the Middle Ages, the area was a key centre of East Slavic culture, with the powerful state of Kievan Rus forming the basis of Ukrainian identity. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, the Ottoman Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, two brief periods of independence occurred during the 20th century, once near the end of World War I and another during World War II. Before its independence, Ukraine was typically referred to in English as The Ukraine, following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state. Nonetheless it formed a limited partnership with the Russian Federation and other CIS countries. In the 2000s, the government began leaning towards NATO, and it was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future. Former President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO and these events formed the background for the annexation of Crimea by Russia in March 2014, and the War in Donbass in April 2014. On 1 January 2016, Ukraine applied the economic part of the Deep, Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands and is one of the worlds largest grain exporters. The diversified economy of Ukraine includes a heavy industry sector, particularly in aerospace. Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers, legislative, executive. Its capital and largest city is Kiev, taking into account reserves and paramilitary personnel, Ukraine maintains the second-largest military in Europe after that of Russia. Ukrainian is the language and its alphabet is Cyrillic. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodoxy, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature, there are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means borderland, while more recently some studies claim a different meaning, homeland or region. The Ukraine now implies disregard for the sovereignty, according to U. S. ambassador William Taylor. Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites include a mammoth bone dwelling
Ukraine
–
Gold
Scythian pectoral, or neckpiece, from a royal
kurgan in
Ordzhonikidze, dated to the 4th century BC
Ukraine
–
Flag
Ukraine
–
Principalities of
Kievan Rus', 1054-1132
Ukraine
–
The baptism of the Grand Prince Vladimir led to the adoption of Christianity in
Kievan Rus'.
4.
Aviator
–
A pilot or aviator is a person who controls the flight of an aircraft by operating its directional flight controls. Other aircrew members such as attendants, mechanics and ground crew, are not classified as aviators. In recognition of the qualifications and responsibilities, most militaries and many airlines worldwide award aviator badges to their pilots. The first recorded use of the aviator was in 1887, as a variation of aviation, from the Latin avis. The term aviatrix, now archaic, was used for a female aviator. These terms were used more in the days of aviation, when airplanes were extremely rare. For example, a 1905 reference work described the Wright brothers first airplane, The weight, the Aéro-Club de France delivered the first certificate to Louis Blériot in 1908—followed by Glenn Curtiss, Léon Delagrange, and Robert Esnault-Pelterie. The absolute authority given to the pilot in command derives from that of a ships captain, when flying for an airline, pilots are usually referred to as airline pilots, with the pilot in command often referred to as the captain. While the flight decks of U. S. and European airliners do have ex-military pilots, military training and flying, while rigorous, is fundamentally different in many ways from civilian piloting. Pilots licensing in Canada is similar to the United States, the Aeronautics Act of 1985 and Canadian Aviation Regulations provide rules for pilots in Canada. Retirement age is provided by each airline with some set to age 60, in 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licensing requirements for American civil aviation. Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a retirement age of 65. Military pilots fly with the forces of a government or nation-state. Their tasks involve combat and non-combat operations, including direct hostile engagements, military pilots undergo specialized training, often with weapons. Examples of military pilots include fighter pilots, bomber pilots, transport pilots, military pilots also serve as flight crews on aircraft for government personnel, such as Air Force One and Air Force Two in the United States. Military pilots are trained with a different syllabus than civilian pilots and this is due to the different aircraft, flight goals, flight situations and chains of responsibility. Many military pilots do transfer to civilian-pilot qualification after they leave the military, the person controlling a remotely piloted UAV may be referred to as its pilot or operator. Most jurisdictions have restrictions on the use of UAVs which have limited their use in controlled airspace, UAVs have mostly been limited to military
Aviator
–
U.S. Army test pilot
Lt. F.W. "Mike" Hunter wearing a
flight suit in October 1942
Aviator
–
Hot air balloon pilot and passenger in basket
Aviator
–
Pilots landing a
Boeing 777
Aviator
–
F-16 pilot in flight
5.
Brigadier General
–
Brigadier general is a senior rank in the armed forces. It is the lowest ranking general officer in some countries, usually sitting between the ranks of colonel and major general, when appointed to a field command, a brigadier general is typically in command of a brigade consisting of around 4,000 troops. In some countries a brigadier general is designated as a one-star general. The rank can be traced back to the militaries of Europe where a general, or simply a brigadier. An alternative rank of general was first used in the French revolutionary armies. Some countries, such as Brazil, Taiwan, and Japan, some of these countries then use the rank of colonel general to make four general-officer ranks. The naval equivalent is usually commodore and this gallery displays Air Force brigadier general insignia if they are different from the Army brigadier general insignia. Note that in many Commonwealth countries, the equivalent air force rank is Air Commodore, the rank of brigadier general is used in the Argentine Air Force. Unlike other armed forces of the World, the rank of general is actually the highest rank in the Air Force. This is due to the use of the rank of brigadier and its derivatives to designate all general officers in the Air Force, brigadier, brigadier-major, and brigadier-general. The rank of general is reserved for the Chief General Staff of the Air Force. The Argentine Army does not use the rank of brigadier-general, instead using brigade general which in turn is the lowest general officer before Divisional General, see also Argentine Army officer rank insignia. When posted elsewhere, the rank would be relinquished and the former rank resumed and this policy prevented an accumulation of high-ranking general officers brought about by the relatively high turnover of brigade commanders. Brigadier general was used as an honorary rank on retirement. The rank insignia was like that of the current major general, as in the United Kingdom, the rank was later replaced by brigadier. Prior to 2001, the Bangladesh Army rank was known as brigadier, in 2001 the Bangladesh Army introduced the rank of brigadier general, however the grade stayed equivalent to brigadier. It is the lowest ranking general officer, between the ranks of Colonel and Major General, Brigadier General is equivalent to commodore of the Bangladesh Navy and air commodore of the Bangladesh Air Force. It is still popularly called brigadier
Brigadier General
–
Charles de Gaulle during World War II in his uniform of Général de Brigade.
Brigadier General
–
Belgium: Général de brigade / Brigadegeneraal
6.
Polish Air Force
–
The Polish Air Force is a military branch of the Polish Armed Forces. Until July 2004 it was known as Wojska Lotnicze i Obrony Powietrznej. In 2014 it consisted of roughly 16,425 military personnel and about 475 aircraft, the Polish Air Force can trace its origins to the months following the end of World War I in 1918. During the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany in 1939, 70% of planes, military aviation in free Poland started even before officially acknowledged date of regaining independence. Poland was under German and Austro-Hungarian occupation until the armistice, and these planes were first used by the Polish Air Force in the Polish-Ukrainian War in late 1918, during combat operations centered around the city of Lwów. On 2 November Polish units took over an airfield Lewandówka in Lviv, when the Polish-Soviet War broke out in February 1920, the Polish Air Force used a variety of western-made Allied aircraft, including some from countries such as Britain, France and Italy. The most common aircraft in service at time were the British made Bristol F2B. Eskadra Niszczycielska included a Gotha G. IV on April 30,1920, after the Polish-Soviet War ended in 1921, most of the worn out World War I aircraft were gradually withdrawn and from 1924 the air force started to be equipped with new French aircraft. In total in 1918-1924 there were 2160 aircraft in the Polish Air Force and naval aviation, the first Polish-designed and mass-produced aircraft to serve in the countrys air force was a high wing fighter, the PWS-10, first manufactured in 1930 by the Podlasie Aircraft Factory. In 1933, Zygmunt Pulawskis first high wing, all-metal aircraft and its final version, the PZL P.24, was built for export only and was bought by four countries. As far as bombers are concerned, the Potez 25 and Breguet 19 were replaced by a monoplane, the PZL.23 Karaś, with 250 built from 1936 onwards. In 1938 the Polish factory PZL designed a modern medium bomber. The Łoś had a payload of 2580 kg and a top speed of 439 km/h. Unfortunately, only about 30 Łoś A bombers and 70 Łoś B bombers had been delivered before the Nazi invasion, as an observation and close reconnaissance plane, Polish escadres used the slow and easily damaged Lublin R-XIII, and later the RWD-14 Czapla. Polish naval aviation used the Lublin R-XIII on floats, just before the war, some Italian torpedo planes, the CANT Z.506, were ordered, but only one was delivered, and it was without armament. The principal aircraft used to train pilots were the Polish-built high-wing RWD-8, in 1939, Poland ordered 160 MS-406s and 10 Hawker Hurricane fighters from abroad, but they were not delivered before the outbreak of war. The aircraft destroyed by German bombers on the airfields were mostly trainer planes, the fighter planes were grouped into 15 escadres. Despite being obsolete, Polish PZL-11 fighters shot down over 170 German planes, the bombers, grouped in nine escadres of the Bomber Brigade, attacked armoured columns but suffered heavy losses
Polish Air Force
–
Albatros D.III (Oef) fighters of the
Polish 7th Air Escadrille at Lewandówka airfield in the winter of 1919-1920
Polish Air Force
–
Polish Air Force's Eagle
Polish Air Force
–
American volunteers,
Merian C. Cooper and
Cedric Fauntleroy, fighting in the Polish Air Force as part of the
Polish 7th Air Escadrille, known as the "Kościuszko Squadron".
Polish Air Force
–
PZL.23 Karaś tactical bomber
7.
Soyuz 30
–
Soyuz 30 was a 1978 manned Soviet space flight to the Salyut 6 space station. It was the mission to and fifth successful docking at the orbiting facility. The Soyuz 30 crew were the first to visit the long-duration Soyuz 29 resident crew, Soyuz 30 carried Pyotr Klimuk and Mirosław Hermaszewski, the first Polish cosmonaut, aloft. Mass,6,800 kg Perigee,197.6 km Apogee,261.3 km Inclination,51. 66° Period,88.83 minutes The second Intercosmos mission was launched 27 June 1978 to the orbiting Salyut 6 space station. For the third time, the Salyut was an orbiting space laboratory. The activities of the Soyuz 30 crew, however, were severely curtailed so as not to interfere with the Soyuz 29 crew, on the Soyuz 29 crews rest day, the international crew had to stay in their Soyuz to perform their experiments. One was crystallization experiments which produced 47 grams of cadmium tellurium mercury semiconductors for use by infra-red detectors on board the station, the yield was far greater - 50% compared to 15% - than ground-based experiments. The Soyuz 30 crew was trained, as all international crews, training in part took place on a Tu-134 flying at 10 km to best mimic conditions on the station. Hermaszewski photographed Poland in co-ordination with aircraft taking photos. They additionally filmed the Aurora Borealis, Hermaszewski participated in medical experiments which measured lung capacity and the heart during exercise and in a pressure suit. One experiment, which all four on board the station participated in, was Smak, the Soyuz 30 crew packed their experiments into their capsule and returned to Earth 5 July, landing in a Rostov state farm field 300 km west of Tselinograd. List of human spaceflights to Salyut space stations List of Salyut expeditions
Soyuz 30
–
Soyuz 30 landing capsule at the
Museum of Polish Military Technology in Warsaw
Soyuz 30
–
Soyuz programme (Manned missions)
Soyuz 30
–
Heatshield of the capsule
Soyuz 30
–
Soyuz 7K-OK (1967–1970)
8.
Astronaut
–
An astronaut or cosmonaut is a person trained by a human spaceflight program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the terms are applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists. Starting in the 1950s up to 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, with the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created, the commercial astronaut. The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed an altitude of 100 kilometers. In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 50 miles are awarded astronaut wings. As of 17 November 2016, a total of 552 people from 36 countries have reached 100 km or more in altitude, of which 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond. Of these,24 people have traveled beyond Low Earth orbit, to either lunar or trans-lunar orbit or to the surface of the moon, the three astronauts who have not reached low Earth orbit are spaceplane pilots Joe Walker, Mike Melvill, and Brian Binnie. As of 17 November 2016, under the U. S. definition 558 people qualify as having reached space, of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded 50 miles in altitude, only one exceeded 100 kilometers. Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days in space, as of 2016, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Gennady Padalka, who has spent 879 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman,377 days, dryden preferred cosmonaut, on the grounds that flights would occur in the cosmos, while the astro prefix suggested flight to the stars. Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred astronaut, which survived by common usage as the preferred American term, when the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to cosmonaut. In English-speaking nations, a space traveler is called an astronaut. The term derives from the Greek words ástron, meaning star, the first known use of the term astronaut in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his short story The Deaths Head Meteor in 1930. The word itself had been known earlier, for example, in Percy Gregs 1880 book Across the Zodiac, astronaut referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de lInfini of J. -H, rosny aîné, the word astronautique was used. The word may have inspired by aeronaut, an older term for an air traveler first applied to balloonists. An early use in a publication is Eric Frank Russells poem The Astronaut in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society. NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond, NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps
Astronaut
–
NASA Astronaut
Bruce McCandless II using a
Manned Maneuvering Unit outside
Space Shuttle Challenger on shuttle mission
STS-41-B in 1984.
Astronaut
–
Alan Shepard aboard
Freedom 7
Astronaut
–
Yuri Gagarin, first human in space (1961)
Astronaut
–
Valentina Tereshkova, first woman in space (1963)
9.
Poles
–
The Poles are a nation and West Slavic ethnic group native to Poland who share a common ancestry, culture, history and are native speakers of the Polish language. The population of Poles in Poland is estimated at 37,394,000 out of a population of 38,538,000. Polands population inhabits several historic regions, including Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Mazovia, Silesia, Pomerania, Kuyavia, Warmia, Masuria, a wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Europe, the Americas and in Australasia. Today the largest urban concentration of Poles is the Katowice urban agglomeration of 2.7 million inhabitants, Poland was also for centuries a refuge for many Jews from all over Europe, a large number emigrated in the twentieth century to Israel. Several prominent Israeli statesmen were born in Poland, including Israels founder David Ben-Gurion, former President of Israel Shimon Peres, the Slavic people have been in the territory of modern Poland for over 1500 years. In the 9th and 10th centuries the tribes gave rise to developed regions along the upper Vistula, the last tribal undertaking resulted in the 10th century in a lasting political structure and state, Poland, one of the West Slavic nations. After 1945 the so-called autochthonous or aboriginal school of Polish prehistory received official backing in Poland, Polish people are the sixth largest national group in the European Union. Estimates vary depending on source, though available data suggest a number of around 60 million people worldwide. There are almost 38 million Poles in Poland alone, there are also Polish minorities in the surrounding countries including Germany, and indigenous minorities in the Czech Republic, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Belarus. There are some smaller indigenous minorities in nearby countries such as Moldova, the term Polonia is usually used in Poland to refer to people of Polish origin who live outside Polish borders, officially estimated at around 10 to 20 million. There is a notable Polish diaspora in the United States, Brazil, France has a historic relationship with Poland and has a relatively large Polish-descendant population. Poles have lived in France since the 18th century, in the early 20th century, over a million Polish people settled in France, mostly during world wars, among them Polish émigrés fleeing either Nazi occupation or later Soviet rule. In the United States, a significant number of Polish immigrants settled in Chicago, Ohio, Detroit, New York City, Orlando, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, the highest concentration of Polish Americans in a single New England municipality is in New Britain, Connecticut. The majority of Polish Canadians have arrived in Canada since World War II, the number of Polish immigrants increased between 1945 and 1970, and again after the end of Communism in Poland in 1989. In Brazil the majority of Polish immigrants settled in Paraná State, smaller, but significant numbers settled in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Espírito Santo and São Paulo. The city of Curitiba has the second largest Polish diaspora in the world and Polish music, dishes and it is estimated that over half a million Polish people have come to work in the United Kingdom from Poland. Since 2011, Poles have been able to work throughout the EU and not just in the United Kingdom, Ireland. The Polish community in Norway has increased substantially and has grown to a number of 120,000
Poles
–
Stańczyk at a Ball at Queen Bona's Court, by
Matejko, 1862
Poles
–
Nicolaus Copernicus
Poles
–
Marie Skłodowska Curie
Poles
–
Rudolf Stefan Weigl
10.
Soviet Union
–
The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
Soviet Union
–
Vladimir Lenin addressing a crowd with Trotsky, 1920
Soviet Union
–
Flag
Soviet Union
–
Stalin and
Nikolai Yezhov, head of the
NKVD. After Yezhov was executed, he was
edited out of the image.
Soviet Union
11.
Second World War
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
Second World War
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
Second World War
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
Second World War
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
Second World War
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
12.
Massacres of Poles in Volhynia
–
The peak of the massacres took place in July and August 1943. Most of the victims were women and children, UPAs methods were particularly savage, and resulted in 35, 000–60,000 Polish deaths in Volhynia and 25, 000–40,000 in Eastern Galicia, for the total of between 76,000 and 106,000 casualties. Not limiting their activities to the purging of Polish civilians, UPA also wanted to erase all traces of the Polish presence in the area, the violence was endorsed by a significant number of the Ukrainian Orthodox clergy who supported UPAs nationalist cause. The massacres led to a conflict between Polish and Ukrainian forces in the German-occupied territories, with the Polish Home Army in Volhynia responding to the Ukrainian attacks. The principalities of Galicia and Volhynia were formed in the 11th century as the territories of the Polish-Rus border. They became part of Poland in the 14th century, when the Polish king Casimir III the Great gained the Principality of Galicia–Volhynia from the defeated Mongols in 1349. The Polish-Ukrainian tensions dated back to the Khmelnytsky Uprising of the 17th century, with territorial, religious, while relations were not always harmonious, Poles and Ukrainians interacted with each other on every civic, economic, and political level throughout hundreds of years. The two regions were inhabited by Poles and Ukrainians, along with German, Czech and Armenian newcomers who were later polonised. In the 19th century, with the rise of nationalism across Europe, the ethnicity of citizens became an issue, both Poles and Ukrainians claimed the territories of Volhynia and Eastern Galicia. In a single summer of 1930 Ukrainian peasants set fire to 2,200 estates, collective punishment meted out by the state police afterwards further exacerbated animosity between the Polish officials and the Ukrainian population. Until 1772 the area belonged to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but later, the conflict, known as the Polish–Ukrainian War, spilled over to Volhynia with the Ukrainian leader Symon Petliura attempting to expand Ukrainian claims westward. The war was conducted by forces on both sides, resulting in a relatively minimal number of civilian deaths. On July 17,1919, a ceasefire was signed, on November 21,1919, the Paris Peace Conference granted Eastern Galicia to Poland. The lost war left a generation of frustrated western Ukrainian veterans convinced that Poland was Ukraines principal enemy, even though Polish statehood had just been re-established by after a century of partitions, the frontiers between Poland and Soviet Russia had not been defined by the Treaty of Versailles. As a result, the Polish–Soviet War of 1920 broke out with the Soviets claiming both Ukraine and Belarus, which they viewed as a part of the Russian Empire, currently under civil war. The Soviets forced Ukrainian forces to retreat to Podolia, and Petliura decided to ally with Polands Józef Piłsudski, on April 21,1920, Piłsudski and Petliura signed a military alliance accepting the Polish-Ukrainian border on the river Zbruch. Following this agreement, the government of the West Ukrainian National Republic went into exile in Vienna, at the end of the Polish-Ukrainian war with the Soviets, the Peace of Riga was signed with Vladimir Lenin in 1921. Volhynia and Eastern Galicia were eventually joined to the Second Polish Republic, while the rest of contemporary Ukraine, known as the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, became part of the USSR
Massacres of Poles in Volhynia
–
Monument in memory of the Polish victims of
Janowa Dolina,
Volyn
Massacres of Poles in Volhynia
–
Linguistic map of Poland, based on 1937 census
Massacres of Poles in Volhynia
–
Victims of a massacre committed by the UPA in the village of
Lipniki, Poland, 1943
Massacres of Poles in Volhynia
–
The mass grave discovered during the second exhumation in Wola Ostrowiecka (August 2011)
13.
Ukrainian Insurgent Army
–
The political leadership of the army belonged to the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists—Bandera. Its official date of creation is 14 October 1942, day of the Intercession of the Theotokos feast, the Ukrainian Peoples Revolutionary Army at the period from December 1941 till July 1943 has the same name. The OUNs stated immediate goal was the re-establishment of a united, independent, the organization began as a resistance group and developed into a guerrilla army. In 1943 the UPA was controlled by the OUN and it included people of political and ideological convictions. Furthermore, it needed the support of the masses against both the Germans and the Soviets. Much of the nationalist ideology, including the concept of dictatorship, hence, a revision of the OUN ideology and political program was imperative. The OUN affirmed that it was fighting for freedom of the press, speech and its earlier nationality policy, encapsulated in the slogan Ukraine for Ukrainians, was dropped in favour of the rights of national minorities. The OUN also played a role in the ethnic cleansing of the Polish population of Volhynia and East Galicia. After the end of World War II, the Polish communist army—the Peoples Army of Poland—fought extensively against the UPA, the UPA remained active and fought against the Peoples Republic of Poland until 1947, and against the Soviet Union until 1949. It was particularly strong in the Carpathian Mountains, the entirety of Galicia, among the anti-Nazi resistance movements, it was unique in that it had no significant foreign support. Its growth and strength were a reflection of the popularity it enjoyed among the people of Western Ukraine, the UPAs command structure overlapped with that of the underground nationalist political party, the OUN, in a sophisticated centralized network. The UPA was responsible for operations while the OUN was in charge of administrative duties. The six main departments were military, political, security service, mobilization, supply, despite the division between the UPA and the OUN, there was overlap between their posts and the local OUN and UPA leaders were frequently the same person. Organizational methods were borrowed and adapted from the German, Polish and Soviet military, the General Staff, formed at the end of 1943 consisted of operations, intelligence, training, logistics, personnel and political education departments. UPAs largest units, Kurins, consisting of 500-700 soldiers, were equivalent to battalions in a regular army, occasionally, and particularly in Volyn, during some operations three or more Kurins would unite and form a Zahin or Brigade. UPAs leaders were, Vasyl Ivakhiv, Dmytro Klyachkivsky, Roman Shukhevych, in November 1943, the UPA adopted a new structure, creating a Main Military Headquarters and three areas commands, UPA-West, UPA-North and UPA-South. Three military schools for low-level command staff were also established, former policemen constituted a large proportion of the UPA leadership, and they comprised about half of the UPA membership in 1943. In terms of UPA soldiers social background,60 percent were peasants of low to moderate means,20 to 25 percent were from the working class, the latter group provided a large portion of the UPAs military trainers and officer corps
Ukrainian Insurgent Army
–
UPA Commanders left to right: Oleksander Stepchuk, Ivan Klimchak, Nikon Semeniuk 1941-1942
Ukrainian Insurgent Army
–
Battle flag of the UPA
Ukrainian Insurgent Army
–
UPA propaganda poster. OUN/UPAs formal greeting is written in Ukrainian on two of the horizontal lines Glory to Ukraine- Glory to (her) Heroes. The soldier is standing on the banners of the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany.
Ukrainian Insurgent Army
–
Monument to
Poles killed by UPA,
Liszna, Poland
14.
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
–
The Ukrainian SSR was a founding member of the United Nations, although it was legally represented by the All-Union state in its affairs with countries outside of the Soviet Union. From the start, the city of Kharkiv served as the republics capital. However, in 1934, the seat of government was moved to the city of Kyiv. Geographically, the Ukrainian SSR was situated in Eastern Europe to the north of the Black Sea, bordered by the Soviet republics of Moldavia, Byelorussia, the Ukrainian SSRs border with Czechoslovakia formed the Soviet Unions western-most border point. According to the Soviet Census of 1989 the republic had a population of 51,706,746 inhabitants, the name Ukraine, derived from the Slavic word kraj, meaning land or border. It was first used to part of the territory of Kievan Rus in the 12th century. The name has been used in a variety of ways since the twelfth century, after the abdication of the tsar and the start of the process of the destruction of the Russian Empire many people in Ukraine wished to establish a Ukrainian Republic. During a period of war from 1917-23 many factions claiming themselves governments of the newly born republic were formed, each with supporters. The two most prominent of them were the government in Kyiv and the government in Kharkiv, the former being the Ukrainian Peoples Republic and the latter the Ukrainian Soviet Republic. This government of the Soviet Ukrainian Republic was founded on 24–25 December 1917, in its publications it names itself either the Republic of Soviets of Workers, Soldiers, and Peasants Deputies or the Ukrainian Peoples Republic of Soviets. The last session of the government took place in the city of Taganrog, in July 1918 the former members of the government formed the Communist Party of Ukraine, the constituent assembly of which took place in Moscow. On 10 March 1919, according to the 3rd Congress of Soviets in Ukraine the name of the state was changed to the Ukrainian Socialist Soviet Republic. After the ratification of the 1936 Soviet Constitution, the names of all Soviet republics were changed, transposing the second, during its existence, the Ukrainian SSR was commonly referred to as Ukraine or the Ukraine. On 24 August 1991, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic declared independence, since the adoption of the Constitution of Ukraine in June 1996, the country became known simply as Ukraine, which is the name used to this day. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, several factions sought to create an independent Ukrainian state, the most popular faction was initially the local Socialist Revolutionary Party that composed the local government together with Federalists and Mensheviks. The Bolsheviks boycotted any government initiatives most of the time, instigating several armed riots in order to establish the Soviet power without any intent for consensus, immediately after the October Revolution in Petrograd, Bolsheviks instigated the Kiev Bolshevik Uprising to support the Revolution and secure Kyiv. Due to a lack of support from the local population and anti-revolutionary Central Rada, however. Most moved to Kharkiv and received the support of the eastern Ukrainian cities, later, this move was regarded as a mistake by some of the Peoples Commissars
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
–
Territories claimed by the
Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1920).
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
–
Flag
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
–
Soviet soldiers preparing rafts to cross the
Dnieper during the
Battle of the Dnieper (1943). The sign reads "To Kiev!".
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
–
"Eternally Together": a Soviet poster made for the 300th anniversary of the
Treaty of Pereyaslav in 1954.
15.
Pyotr Klimuk
–
Pyotr Ilyich Klimuk is a former Soviet cosmonaut and the first Belarusian to perform space travel. Klimuk made three flights into space, Klimuk attended the Leninski Komsomol Chernigov High Aviation School and entered the Soviet Air Force in 1964. The following year, he was selected to join the space programme and his first flight was a long test flight on Soyuz 13 in 1973. This was followed by a mission to the Salyut 4 space station on Soyuz 18 in 1975, from 1976 he became involved in the Intercosmos and made his third and final spaceflight on an Intercosmos flight with Polish cosmonaut Mirosław Hermaszewski on Soyuz 30. He resigned from the team in 1978 to take up a position as the Assistant to the Chief of the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center. In 1991 he was promoted to Chief of that facility and remained in that post until retirement in 2003, Klimuk is a graduate of the Gagarin Air Force Academy and the Lenin Military-Political Academy. He is the author of two books on human spaceflight, Beside the Stars, and Attack on Weightlessness, the official website of the city administration Baikonur - Honorary citizens of Baikonur
Pyotr Klimuk
–
Pyotr Ilyich Klimuk
16.
Salyut 6
–
Salyut 6, DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth flown as part of the Salyut programme. Launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket, the station was the first of the type of space station. Salyut 6 possessed several revolutionary advances over the earlier Soviet space stations and these included the addition of a second docking port, a new main propulsion system and the stations primary scientific instrument, the BST-1M multispectral telescope. The addition of the docking port made crew handovers and station resupply by unmanned Progress freighters possible for the first time. The early Salyut stations had no means of resupply or removing accumulated garbage, consequently, once the consumables launched with the station were used up, its mission had to be concluded and as a result, manned missions had a maximum duration of three months. Progress spacecraft could now bring fresh supplies and propellant and also be used to dispose of waste and these crews were responsible for carrying out the primary missions of Salyut 6, including astronomy, Earth-resources observations and the study of the effect of spaceflight on the human body. Following the completion of missions and the launch of its successor, Salyut 7, Salyut 6 was deorbited on 29 July 1982. The stations thermal regulation systems, which use of a sophisticated arrangement of insulation. In addition, Salyut 6 made use of environmental systems first used on Salyut 3, the most important feature on Salyut 6, however, was the addition of a second docking port on the aft end of the station, which allowed two spacecraft to be docked at once. This, in turn, allowed resident crews to receive shorter, visiting expeditions whilst they remained on board, in addition, it allowed Soyuz spacecraft that had exceeded their operating lifespan to be returned to Earth and replaced by fresh ones. Such handovers, with one expedition vacating the station only after the next had arrived, permitted the long sought-after aim of continuous occupation to move a step closer, some of the visiting expeditions were flown as part of the Intercosmos programme, with non-Soviet cosmonauts visiting the station. The rearward of the two ports was fitted with plumbing to allow the station to be refueled by unmanned Progress spacecraft. These freighters, which supplies and extra equipment to keep the station replenished, helped ensure that the crew were always able to carry out useful scientific work aboard the station. In all, twelve Progress flights delivered over 20 tonnes of equipment, supplies, the entire engine and fuel storage assembly was contained within an unpressurized bay at the rear of the station, which was the same diameter as the main pressurized compartment. However, the replacement of the Soyuz engine used on stations with the bay meant that the station kept a similar overall length to its predecessors. The main engines could not be fired if the rear docking port was in use, Salyut 6s propulsion system experienced a serious malfunction during the second crew residency in 1978 and was not usable again for the remainder of the stations lifespan. As a consequence, it was limited to firing its attitude control thrusters, after each crew residency ended, it was necessary for Progress and TKS spacecraft to boost the station into a high orbit so it wouldnt decay until the next residency began. The telescope could be operated only when Salyut 6 was on the side of the Earth
Salyut 6
–
Salyut 6
17.
Space station
–
A space station is distinguished from other spacecraft used for human spaceflight by lack of major propulsion or landing systems. Instead, other vehicles transport people and cargo to and from the station, as of September 2016 three space stations are in orbit, the International Space Station, which is permanently manned, Chinas Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2. Previous stations include the Almaz and Salyut series, Skylab, each crew member stays aboard the station for weeks or months, but rarely more than a year. Since the ill-fated flight of Soyuz 11 to Salyut 1, all manned spaceflight duration records have been set aboard space stations, the duration record for a single spaceflight is 437.7 days, set by Valeriy Polyakov aboard Mir from 1994 to 1995. As of 2016, four cosmonauts have completed single missions of over a year, Space stations have also been used for both military and civilian purposes. The last military-use space station was Salyut 5, which was used by the Almaz program of the Soviet Union in 1976 and 1977, Space stations have been envisaged since at least as early as 1869 when Edward Everett Hale wrote The Brick Moon. The first to give consideration to space stations were Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in the early 20th century. In 1929 Herman Potočniks The Problem of Space Travel was published, during the Second World War, German scientists researched the theoretical concept of an orbital weapon based on a space station. During the same time as von Braun pursued Potočniks ideas, the Soviet design bureaus – chiefly Vladimir Chelomeys OKB-52 – were pursuing Tsiolkovskys ideas for space stations, the work by OKB-52 would lead to the Almaz programme and to the first space station, Salyut 1. The developed hardware laid the ground for the Salyut and Mir space stations, the first space station was Salyut 1, which was launched by the Soviet Union on April 19,1971. Like all the space stations, it was monolithic, intended to be constructed and launched in one piece. As such, monolithic stations generally contained all their supplies and experimental equipment when launched, and were considered expended, and then abandoned, the earlier Soviet stations were all designated Salyut, but among these there were two distinct types, civilian and military. The military stations, Salyut 2, Salyut 3, and Salyut 5, were known as Almaz stations. This allowed for a crew to man the station continually, Skylab was also equipped with two docking ports, like second-generation stations, but the extra port was never utilized. The presence of a port on the new stations allowed Progress supply vehicles to be docked to the station. This concept was expanded on Salyut 7, which docked with a TKS tug shortly before it was abandoned. The later Salyuts may reasonably be seen as a transition between the two groups, unlike previous stations, the Soviet space station Mir had a modular design, a core unit was launched, and additional modules, generally with a specific role, were later added to that. This method allows for flexibility in operation, as well as removing the need for a single immensely powerful launch vehicle
Space station
–
The modular
International Space Station
Space station
–
Owen Garriott on EVA in 1973
Space station
–
Earth and the Mir station
Space station
–
ISS under construction
18.
Geoscience
–
Earth science or geoscience is a widely embraced term for the fields of science related to the planet Earth. Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science, there are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The Earth sciences can include the study of geology, the lithosphere, and the structure of the Earths interior, as well as the atmosphere, hydrosphere. Typically, Earth scientists use tools from geography, chronology, physics, chemistry, biology, Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earths crust and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology, geochemistry, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology, geophysics and geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earths core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere, geophysics is commonly used to supplement the work of geologists in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal geology, particularly in mineral and petroleum exploration. Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earths crust that is subject to soil formation processes, major subdisciplines include edaphology and pedology. Ecology covers the interactions between the biota, with their natural environment and this field of study differentiates the study of the Earth, from the study of other planets in the Solar System, the Earth being the only planet teeming with life. Hydrology is a study revolved around the movement, distribution, and quality of the water and involves all the components of the cycle on the earth. Sub-disciplines of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface hydrology, hydrogeology, watershed science, forest hydrology. Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth, atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth between the surface and the exosphere. Major subdisciplines include meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry, and atmospheric physics, plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the Earths crust. Beneath the Earths crust lies the mantle which is heated by the decay of heavy elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection and this convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics, plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the result of spreading, new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the mantle to the near surface, through fissures. Through subduction, oceanic crust and lithosphere returns to the convecting mantle, volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes
Geoscience
–
A
volcanic eruption is the release of stored energy from below the surface of Earth, originating from radioactive decay and gravitational sorting in the Earth's core and mantle, and residual energy gained during the Earth's formation
Geoscience
–
The
magnetosphere shields the surface of Earth from the charged particles of the
solar wind. It is compressed on the day (Sun) side due to the force of the arriving particles, and extended on the night side. Image not to scale.
19.
Tselinograd
–
Astana is the capital city of Kazakhstan. It is located on the Ishim River in the portion of Kazakhstan, within the Akmola Region. The 2014 census reported a population of 835,153 within the city limits, founded in 1830 as a settlement of Akmoly or Akmolinsky prikaz, it served as a defensive fortification for the Siberian Cossacks. In 1832 the settlement was granted a status and renamed Akmolinsk. On March 20,1961 the city was renamed Tselinograd to mark the evolution as a cultural. In 1992 it was renamed Akmola, the original name meaning a white grave. On December 10,1997 Akmola replaced Almaty as the capital of Kazakhstan, on May 6,1998 it was renamed Astana, which means the capital city in Kazakh. Modern Astana is a city, like Brasília in Brazil, Canberra in Australia. After Astana became the capital of Kazakhstan, the city changed its shape. The master plan of Astana was designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa, as the seat of the Government of Kazakhstan, Astana is the site of the Parliament House, the Supreme Court, the Ak Orda Presidential Palace and numerous government departments and agencies. It is home to many buildings, hotels and skyscrapers. Astana also has extensive healthcare, sports and education systems, the settlement of Akmoly, also known as Akmolinsky prikaz, was established on the Ishim River in 1830 as the seat of an okrug by a unit of the Siberian Cossacks headed by Fyodor Shubin. The name was given after a local landmark—Akmola literally means a white grave in Kazakh—although this theory is not universally accepted. In 1832, the settlement was granted town status and named Akmolinsk, the fairly advantageous position of the town was clear as early as 1863 in an abstract from the Geographic and Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire. It describes how picket roads and lines connected this geographic centre to Kargaly in the East, Aktau fort in the South, in 1838, at the height of the great national and liberation movement headed by Kenesary Khan, Akmolinsk fortress was burned. After the repression of the movement, the fortress was rebuilt. On 16 July 1863, Akmolinsk was officially declared an uyezd town, during the rapid development of the Russian capitalist market, the huge Saryarka areas were actively exploited by the colonial administration. To draft Regulation governing the Kazakh steppe the Government of the Russian Empire formed Steppe Commission in 1865, on 21 October 1868, Tsar Alexander II signed a draft Regulation on governing Turgay, Ural, Akmolinsk and Semipalatinsk Oblasts
Tselinograd
–
From top to bottom, left to right: Astana Downtown;
KazMunayGas headquarters;
Ishim River;
L.N.Gumilyov Eurasian National University; Triumph of Astana.
Tselinograd
–
Akmolinsk Fortress map
Tselinograd
–
KazMunayGas headquarters
Tselinograd
–
View of the governmental headquarters
20.
Hero of the Soviet Union
–
The title Hero of the Soviet Union was the highest distinction in the Soviet Union, awarded personally or collectively for heroic feats in service to the Soviet state and society. The award was established on May 5,1934, by the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union, earlier heroes were retroactively eligible for these items. A hero could be awarded the title again for a subsequent heroic feat with an additional Gold Star medal, an additional Order of Lenin was not given until 1973. The practice of awarding the title multiple times was abolished by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in 1988 during perestroika,44 foreign citizens were awarded the title. The title was given posthumously, though often without the actual Gold Star medal given. The title could be revoked only by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the total number of people who were awarded this title is 12,755. The great majority of them received it during World War II, sixty-five people were awarded the title for actions related to the Soviet-Afghan War, which lasted from 1979 until 1989. Valentina Grizodubova, a pilot, was the first woman to become a Hero of the Soviet Union for her international womens record for a straight-line distance flight. Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya, a Soviet partisan, was the first woman to become a Hero of the Soviet Union during World War II, in addition,101 people received the award twice. A second award entitled the recipient to have a bronze bust of his or her likeness with an inscription erected in his or her hometown. Two famous Soviet fighter pilots, Aleksandr Pokryshkin and Ivan Kozhedub were three times Heroes of the Soviet Union. A third award entitled the recipient to have his/her bronze bust erected on a pedestal in Moscow, near the Palace of the Soviets. The only individuals to receive the four times were Marshal Georgy Zhukov. The original statute of the Hero of the Soviet Union, however, did not provide for a fourth title, both Zhukov and Brezhnev received their fourth titles under controversial circumstances contrary to the statute, which remained largely unchanged until the award was abolished in 1991. Zhukov was awarded a time for his large accomplishments on the occasion of his 60th birthday on December 1,1956. There is some speculation that Zhukovs fourth Hero medal was for his participation in the arrest of Beria in 1953, brezhnevs four awards further eroded the prestige of the award because they were birthday gifts, on the occasions of his 60th, 70th, 72nd and 75th birthdays. Such practices halted in 1988 due to a decision of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, by the 1970s, the award had been somewhat devalued. Important political and military persons had been awarded on the occasions of their anniversaries rather than for any immediate heroic activity, all Soviet cosmonauts, starting from Yuri Gagarin, as well as foreign citizens who participated in Soviet cosmic program as cosmonauts, received Hero award for each flight
Hero of the Soviet Union
–
Gold Star Medal of the Hero of the Soviet Union
Hero of the Soviet Union
–
Marshal Georgy Zhukov (center) wearing three Hero of the Soviet Union medals and Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky (right) wearing two
Hero of the Soviet Union
–
Hero-Fortress of Brest
Hero of the Soviet Union
–
Hero-City of
Moscow
21.
Martial law in Poland
–
Thousands of opposition activists were jailed without charge and as many as 91 killed. Although martial law was lifted in 1983, many of the prisoners were not released until a general amnesty in 1986. Led by General of the Army Wojciech Jaruzelski and the Military Council of National Salvation usurped for itself powers reserved for wartime, the plan was presented to the government of the Soviet Union before the declaration in March 1981. Appearing on Polish television at 6,00 AM on December 13,1981, General Jaruzelski said, Today I address myself to you as a soldier, I address you concerning extraordinarily important questions. Our homeland is at the edge of an abyss, the achievements of many generations and the Polish home that has been built up from the dust are about to turn into ruins. State structures are ceasing to function, each day delivers new blows to the waning economy. /. / The atmosphere of conflicts, misunderstanding, hatred causes moral degradation, surpasses the limits of toleration. Strikes, the readiness to strike, actions of protest have become a norm of life, even school youth are being drawn into this. Yesterday evening, many buildings remained seized. The cries are voiced to physical reprisals with the reds, with people who have different opinions, the cases of terror, threats and moral vendetta, of even direct violence are on the rise. A wave of impudent crimes, robberies and burglaries is running across the country, the underground business sharks fortunes, already reaching millions, are growing. Chaos and demoralization have reached the magnitude of a catastrophe, people have reached the limit of psychological toleration. Many people are struck by despair, not only days, but hours as well are bringing forth the all-national disaster. /. / Citizens. The load of responsibility that falls on me on this moment in the Polish history is huge. It is my duty to take this responsibility - concerning the future of Poland, I declare, that today the Military Council of National Salvation has been formed. In accordance with the Constitution, the State Council has imposed martial law all over the country, I wish that everyone understood the motives of our actions. A military coup, military dictatorship is not our goal. /. / In longer perspective, the Military Council of National Salvation does not replace constitutional organs of power. Its only purpose is to keep the balance of the country, to create guarantees that give a chance to restore order. This is the way to bring the country out of the crisis
Martial law in Poland
–
The proclamation of martial law by the State Council
Martial law in Poland
–
A column of
T-55 tanks enters the town of
Zbąszynek while moving east towards the city of
Poznań, December 13, 1981
Martial law in Poland
–
A censored telegram, 1982
Martial law in Poland
–
Food, alcohol and cigarettes
rationing card
22.
Military Council of National Salvation
–
The Military Council of National Salvation was a military junta administering the Peoples Republic of Poland during the period of the martial law in Poland. The Polish court ruled that WRON was an unlawful criminal armed enterprise in violation of Polish constitution, the body was created on December 13,1981, and was dissolved on July 22,1983. It consisted of 21 members,15 generals, one admiral, among the most notable members were generals Wojciech Jaruzelski, Florian Siwicki, Michał Janiszewski and Czesław Kiszczak. One member, Lt. Col. Mirosław Hermaszewski, was included without his consent, the rather unfortunate lettering of the Polish acronym was immediately picked up by those that the regime sought to repress and widely used in a form of non-violent opposition, jokes. One saying was that orła wrona nie pokona - the crow cant defeat the eagle, WRON at Portal Wiedzy onet. pl Encyclopedia Tygodnik Powszechny. Między sprawiedliwością a wymiarem sprawiedliwości by Mateusz Szpytma
Military Council of National Salvation
–
"WRONa, WRONa über alles", a political leaflet caricature from the 1980s. The "crow" is wearing sunglasses much like
General Jaruzelski often did
23.
General
–
A general officer is an officer of high rank in the army, and in some nations air forces or marines. The term general is used in two ways, as the title for all grades of general officer and as a specific rank. It originates in the 16th century, as a shortening of captain general, the adjective general had been affixed to officer designations since the late medieval period to indicate relative superiority or an extended jurisdiction. Today, the title of General is known in countries as a four-star rank. However different countries use different systems of stars for senior ranks and it has a NATO code of OF-9 and is the highest rank currently in use in a number of armies. The various grades of general officer are at the top of the rank structure. Lower-ranking officers in military forces are typically known as field officers or field-grade officers. There are two systems of general ranks used worldwide. In addition there is a system, the Arab system of ranks. Variations of one form, the old European system, were used throughout Europe. It is used in the United Kingdom, from which it spread to the Commonwealth. The other is derived from the French Revolution, where ranks are named according to the unit they command. The system used either a general or a colonel general rank. The rank of marshal was used by some countries as the highest rank. Many countries actually used two brigade command ranks, which is why some countries now use two stars as their brigade general insignia, mexico and Argentina still use two brigade command ranks. As a lieutenant outranks a sergeant major, confusion arises because a lieutenant is outranked by a major. Originally the serjeant major was, exclusively, the commander of the infantry, junior only to the captain general, the distinction of serjeant major general only applied after serjeant majors were introduced as a rank of field officer. Serjeant was eventually dropped from both titles, creating the modern rank titles
General
–
Shang Jiang (
Republic of China Army)
General
–
General de Exército (
Brazilian Army)
General
–
Kenraali (collar and sleeve) (
Finnish Army)
General
–
Heneral (
Philippine Army)
24.
Order of Polonia Restituta
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The Order of Polonia Restituta is a Polish state order established 4 February 1921. The Marshal awarded the first recipients on 13 July 1921, the order became Polands main honour bestowed on foreigners, awarded by the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. After World War II both the Polish government-in-exile and the Communist Peoples Republic of Poland, aligned with the Warsaw Pact, awarded the order, despite communist control, the orders prestige remained safe and it was even given to many people who were hardly model communists. The order was saved from abuse as it was passed over in favor of more traditional communist awards. During this time, the Order of Merit of Poland became the award for foreigners. On 22 December 1990 the Polish government-in-exile returned the rights to its version of the order to the new Polish state, invalid awards have been revoked and today the remaining communist versions of the order hold the same status as any other issues. The new Polonia Restituta order use the ribbon as the old Saint Stanislaus order. Among Polish civilian awards, the order is only to the rarely awarded Order of the White Eagle. Historically the order entitled its recipient to a state pension, as such nominees for the award are evaluated by a special committee responsible for upholding the honor of the order. The Chapter of Polonia Restituta is composed of a Grand Master, upon becoming elected the President of Poland, the office-holder is automatically awarded the order and becomes the Grand Master of the Order Chapter. The names of new recipients are published in the Monitor Polski, the order has five classes, The badge of the order is a gold Maltese cross enamelled in white. The obverse central disc bears an eagle on red background. The reverse central disc bears the year 1918, the star of the order is an eight-pointed silver star with straight rays. The central disc is in white enamel, bearing the monogram RP and surrounded by a blue ring bearing the Latin words Polonia Restituta
Order of Polonia Restituta
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Commander's Cross of Polonia Restituta
Order of Polonia Restituta
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Grand Cross of the Order of Rebirth of Poland
Order of Polonia Restituta
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Knight's Cross
25.
Order of the Cross of Grunwald
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The Order of the Cross of Grunwald was conferred to Polish or the allied military for valour or merit in combat with Nazi Germany. After the end of the Second World War it continued to be awarded for outstanding merit in commanding or outstanding contribution to the development of the Polish Armed Forces and it was disestablished by the President of Poland via Parliament in 1992. Battle of Grunwald Grunwald Swords Madej, Kazimierz
Order of the Cross of Grunwald
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Cross 1st Class - Obverse
26.
Cross of Merit (Poland)
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The Cross of Merit is a Polish civil state award established on June 23,1923, to recognize services to the state. The Order has three grades, At the time of its establishment in 1923, the Cross of Merit was the highest civilian award in Poland and it was awarded to citizens who went beyond the call of duty in their work for the country and society as a whole. May be awarded twice in each grade to the same person, moses Schorr, Rabbi, Polish Historian, Politician, Bible Scholar, assyriologist and orientalist. Francis K. Czyzewski, b.1904 - d, Henri Strzelecki, co-founder of Henri Lloyd. Tomasz Miśkiewicz - for work with the immigrant and native Islamic Youth in 2006 Michal Kuleczka, & Chairman of Quo Vadis Leadership Conference. Lynch - CEO & Founder Lynka Michael Biegler - The German head coach of the Polish national handball team, thomas Gabriel Grasza Esq Postage Stamp & Coin Designer and Noted Canadian Polish Philatelist of Four Decades. Joanna Zawadzka - Community Activist living in Scotland, Director of Polish Cultural Festival Association
Cross of Merit (Poland)
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Current version of Gold Cross of Merit
27.
Aviator badge
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An aviator badge is an insignia used in most of the worlds militaries to designate those who have received training and qualification in military aviation. A United States Aviator Badge refers to three types of badges issued by the United States military, those being for Army, Air Force. In the modern military, Army and Air Force Aviator Badges are issued in three ratings, Basic, Senior, and Command/Master/Chief, the higher degrees are denoted by a star or star with wreath above the badge. Air Force regulations state that the basic rating denotes completion of specified training, the Naval Aviator Badge is issued in a single rating for the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. The first United States Aviator Badges were issued to members of the Air Service during World War I, the badges were issued in three degrees, Observer, Junior Aviator or Reserve Aviation Officer, and Senior Aviator. The Army Air Corps also issued a badge for balloon pilots, Enlisted Aviators wore their regular rank insignia and the Observers badge. There were 29 enlisted pilots before the American entry into World War I, the second enlisted aviator, William A. Lamkey, got a discharge and flew for Pancho Villa. The remaining enlisted pilots received commissions in 1917, there were 60 enlisted mechanics who were trained as pilots in France during the war, but they were used for ferrying duties and did not fly in combat. The recruiting and training of enlisted Aviators ended in 1933, during World War II, with the rise of the Army Air Forces, a second series of aviator badges were issued to include a design that has survived to the modern day. The Army Air Corps Pilot Badge was issued in three degrees, including Pilot, Senior Pilot, and Command Pilot, a polished silver colored version of these badges is currently used as the United States Air Force Pilot Badges. From August 1941 to November 1942, the Enlisted Aviator program was restarted, candidates had to be at least 18, possess a high school diploma, and have graduated at the top of their High School class. Graduates were rated as Flight Staff Sergeants or Flight Technical Sergeants and they were usually assigned to pilots of transport and auxiliary aircraft to free officer pilots to pilot the more prestigious fighters and bombers. Auxiliary pilots received their own wings to indicate their status. In November 1942 all enlisted pilots were promoted to Flight Officer rank, after the creation of the U. S. Air Force as a separate service in 1947, Army Aviation continued to a degree that warranted a new badge for Army Aviators. The result was the creation of the Army Aviator Badge, which is a version of the U. S. Air Force Pilot Badge. It comes in three grades, Basic, Senior, and Master, the Aviator and Senior Aviator Badges were approved on 27 July 1950 and the Master Aviator Badge was approved on 12 February 1957. In 1947, the U. S. Army Air Corps-cum-U. S, Army Air Forces became its own separate service as the U. S. Air Force. The U. S. Air Force currently issues several aviation badges including pilot, combat officer, air battle manager, flight surgeon, flight nurse, non-rated officer aircrew
Aviator badge
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Senior Army Aviator
Aviator badge
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United States Aviator Badge
Aviator badge
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Master Army Aviator
Aviator badge
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NOAA Aviator insignia
28.
Parachutist Badge
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It is difficult to assess which country was the first to introduce such award. During World War II most belligerent countries used such badges or awards, the School of Airborne Troops oversees different courses. The Military Parachute Trainee Badge is a badge created in 1965 and aimed at reservists, the laureates of the Badge could serve in airborne units and eventually train at the Airborne School for the Military Parachute Badge in a short course. Since the end of the conscription in France, the PMP Badge is awarded to soldiers in airborne units after a 4 weeks course. The Military Parachuting Initiation Badge was created in 1980 and aimed at military personnel outside of airborne units and it was awarded for four daytime jumps. The BIMP course was closed in 1994 for French personnel, the Military Parachute Badge is the standard course for every personnel in airborne units and all graduates of the école spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr. The Parachutist Monitor Badge is awarded to long-serving NCO in airborne units and its graduates can teach the basics of parachute jumping to trainees, act as technical advisors on parachute matters and be jumpmasters both in units or at the Airborne Schools. The Operational Free Fall Badge is awarded to graduates of courses in Military Free Fall techniques. All graduates must have at least finished the Military Parachute Course and have years of experience in airborne units. The Operational Free Fall Badge is part of the training for special forces. The High-altitude Parachute Instructor is awarded to long-serving NCO in airborne units wishing to become jumpmasters in Free Fall jumping, all graduates must have finished the Operational Free Fall course and serve some years in an airborne unit using HALO/HAHO techniques. There is no Airborne School in the Air Force, jump training is held at the Airborne School, the Military Parachuting Initiation Badge is awarded to graduates of a short course at the Airborne School, where the only students are Air Force cadets. It is awarded after four daytime jumps, the Military Parachute Badge is awarded to Air Force personnel, already graduates of the Airborne School, serving in the Fusiliers Commandos de lAir, the airborne infantry units of the Air Force. A minimum of 30 jumps is required for the award of the Air Force badge, the Special Parachute Badge is the Free Fall badge of the Air Force. It is awarded after long courses at both the Airborne School and the Fusiliers Commandos Training Squadron, the parachute course are done by the Defensie Para School. The Armed Forces of the Netherlands know 9 types of para wings, prerequisite,4 jumps, and normally the certificate was given for the so-called grensverleggende Activiteiten A brevet, Operational Parachutist, Static Line. Prerequisite,8 jumps, and the last 3 have to be done with gear and weapon, the course is done by members of 11th Airmobile Brigade and Royal Netherlands Marine Corps. SLS brevet, Operational Parachutist, Static Line, Square, the same as the A certificate, with the last one with gear and weapon, and the last one needs to be made at night
Parachutist Badge
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Paratrooper badges of various countries.
Parachutist Badge
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French Military Parachutist Badge
Parachutist Badge
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Polish "Odznaka Spadochronowa"
Parachutist Badge
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U.S. Army & Air Force Master Freefall Parachutist Badge
29.
Lower Silesia
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Lower Silesia is the northwestern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia, Upper Silesia is to the southeast. Throughout its history Lower Silesia has been under the control of the medieval Kingdom of Poland, the Kingdom of Bohemia and the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy from 1526. After 1945 the main part of the former Prussian Province of Lower Silesia fell to the Republic of Poland, Lower Silesia is located mostly in the basin of the middle Oder River with its historic capital in Wrocław. To the north, Lower Silesia originally stretched up to Świebodzin and Krosno Odrzańskie, the Barycz river forms the border with historic Greater Poland in the northeast, the Upper Silesian lands lie to the southeast. They are topographically divided into Western, Central and Eastern Sudetes, the adjacent Silesian Lowland includes the Silesian Lowlands and the Silesian-Lusatian Lowlands. The southern part of the Lowland includes The Sudeten Foreland, consisting of quite low Wzgórze Strzegomskie,232 m or 761 ft, Grupa Ślęży, Lower hills occur also in areas of Obniżenie Sudeckie, Świdnik, and Kotlina Dzierżoniowska. The eastern part of Silesian Lowland consists of the wide Silesian Lowlands, the eastern part includes also Równina Wrocławska with its surrounding lands, Równina Oleśnicka, Wysoczyzna Średzka, Równina Grodkowska and Niemodlińska. From the North, the lowlands are delimited by Wał Trzebnicki, consisting of hills that are 200 km long and over 150 m high, in comparison to neighboring lowlands, the range of hills includes, Wzgórza Dalkowskie, Wzgórza Trzebnickie, Wzgórza Twardogórskie, and Wzgórza Ostrzeszowskie. Obniżenie Milicko-Głogowskie, with Kotlina Żmigrodzka and Milicka, is located in the northern part, the region of the lowlands is coated with a thick layer of glacial elements that covers more diverse relief of the older ground. Generally flat and wide bottoms of the valleys are padded with river settlements, slopes of the hills over 180–200 m are coated with fertile clays and therefore, to begin with the Paleozoic era, they became the lands for people to settle and cultivate intensively. Later form of economy caused almost complete deforestation of the slopes, not only fertile grounds, but also mild climate is conductive to development of agriculture and market gardening. The annual average temperature of the Wrocław area is 9.5 °C, average temperature of the hottest month is 19 °C, and −0.5 °C of the coldest month. The average amount of rainfall is 500–620 millimetres, with its maximum in July, the snow layer disappears after 45 days. The winds, similar to those appearing in the West side of Poland, are West and Southwest, Sudeten rivers are characterized by changeable water rates, and high pollution resulting from large industrialization of the area. There is also the largest right-bank tributary of the area, Barycz, the other guite large rivers—Bóbr, Kwisa, and Lusatian Neisse—flow into Oder River beyond Lower Silesian borders. The majority of the rivers is regulated and their basins are improved, the characteristic feature of the lowlands landscape is the lack of lakes. The region of Legnica is the place where a dozen or so of small lakes survived. The largest one is Jezioro Kunickie, Jezioro Koskowickie, Jezioro Jaśkowickie, in contrast to the number of lakes, there are large groups of artificial ponds founded in Barycz basin, in the Middle Ages
Lower Silesia
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Śnieżka
Lower Silesia
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Silesian coat of arms, as drawn by
Hugo Gerard Ströhl (1851–1919)
Lower Silesia
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Traditional Silesian costumes
Lower Silesia
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Duchy of Silesia–Wrocław under the rule of
Henry I the Bearded (1201-1238)
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