1.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
2.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
3.
Algoma District
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Algoma District is a district and census division in Northeastern Ontario in the Canadian province of Ontario. The district seat has been Sault Ste, as the population grew and the northern and northwestern boundaries of Ontario were determined by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, Algoma shrank. They rented a boxcar from the Algoma Central Railway to travel on excursions through this region, communities within these subdivisions are added in parentheses. Eastern white pine and occasional red pine dominate on the upper, steep south-facing slopes, white spruce, eastern white cedar, and balsam fir occupy the middle and lower slopes. A white spruce–balsam fir association, which includes white birch and black spruce, is prominent on the river terraces. Algoma Central Railway - Agawa Canyon Algoma University Fire Tower Lookout Fort St. Joseph National Historic Site High Falls of the Michipicoten River Mount Dufour Ski Resort Sault Ste, list of townships in Ontario Algoma Districts Historic Bridges Ontarios Algoma Country
4.
Cochrane District
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Cochrane District, Ontario is a district and census division in Northeastern Ontario in the Canadian province of Ontario. It was created in 1921 from parts of Timiskaming and Thunder Bay districts, in 2011, the population was 81,122. The land area of district is 141,270.41 square kilometres, making it slightly smaller than the US State of Michigan. Ben Nevis Gardiner List of townships in Ontario
5.
Missinaibi Lake
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Missinaibi Lake is a lake in Ontario, Canada, about 60 kilometres north of Chapleau. It is the source of the Missinaibi River, which rises from the lake, together with the Missinaibi River, Brunswick River, Brunswick Lake, Little Missinaibi River, and Little Missinaibi Lake, the shores and waters of the lake are part of the Missinaibi Provincial Park. The lake is also in the middle of the Chapleau Crown Game Preserve, there is a Hudsons Bay Company trading post located nearby. Ontario Parks - Missinaibi Provincial Park official website
6.
Chapleau Crown Game Preserve
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The Chapleau Crown Game Preserve is a fur bearing animal preserve area in Ontario, Canada, north-east of Lake Superior. It covers some 7,000 square kilometres in the Algoma and Sudbury Districts, all animals are protected from hunting and trapping in the preserve since its formation in 1925. The game preserve is bound by the Canadian National Railway to the north, the Chapleau River to the east, the Canadian Pacific Railway to the south, the border was changed slightly in 1930. It was moved a few miles east from Agate to Kapuskasing Station which today is known as Elsas. The area is the homeland of the Ojibwa and Cree people of Northern Ontario, where they would not only hunt and fish, several sites with pictographs still testify to their past presence, especially Fairy Point on Missinaibi Lake. The first Europeans were probably the coureurs des bois, looking for new fur trade territory, in the 17th and 18th century, the French and English traders visited the area. At the end of the 18th century, The Hudsons Bay Company and this marked decades of trade war in the area, until the two companies amalgamated in 1821. The HBC dominated the trade until the CPR line was built in 1885. This resulted in the influx of settlers, the Cree and Ojibwa of the area negotiated and signed the Robinson Superior Treaty and Treaty 9, which guaranteed their rights to hunt, fish, and trap on the area. By the early 20th century, both the Canadian Pacific and Canadian National Railways crossed the area and allowed access for prospecting, hunting. It was not long before the exploitation resulted in a depletion of wildlife, in particular, game and fur-bearing animals were over-hunted alarmingly. William McLeod, from Chapleau, Ontario, brought the issue to the attention of the Ontario Government and on May 27,1925, the Chapleau Crown Game Preserve was established. The creation of the Game Preserve was one, and only one, almost all of the recommendations were eventually enacted into law by the Government of Ontario. All hunting and trapping was and still is prohibited within the Game preserves boundaries and this left the First Nations of the area without a subsistence lifestyle, and resulted in ongoing conflict about their rights and access to hunting in the Game Preserve. The Brunswick House Band was relocated to a new reserve near Elsas on the line of the Canadian National Railway. In 1948 they were relocated to another new Reserve at Tophet on the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway east of Chapleau. They were again relocated in 1973 to yet another reserve at Duck Lake on Highway 101 three miles from Chapleau where they live today, wildlife abounds in the preserve, allowing many exceptional viewing opportunities. One canoe route starts south of the height of land at Wabatongushi Lake which is the headwaters on the Michipicoten River that flows to Lake Superior
7.
Moose River (Ontario)
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The Moose River is a Canadian river in the Hudson Plains ecozone of northern Ontario which flows 100 km northeast from the junction of the Mattagami and Missinaibi Rivers into James Bay. Its drainage basin is 108,500 km2 and it has a discharge rate of 1370 m3/s. Its full length is 547 kilometres if counted from the head of the Mattagami River and this river formed part of the water route to Lake Superior in the days of the fur trade. Moose Factory, located on Moose Factory Island near the mouth, was a fur trading post of the Hudsons Bay Company. Moosonee, on the bank of the river, is the northern terminus of the Polar Bear Express railway route which begins at Cochrane. This area plays a significant role in the cycle of waterfowl. At mile 142 of the Polar Bear Express railway route there is a settlement called Moose River. This settlement is just before a railway bridge that crosses Moose River and is a flag stop on the Polar Bear Express rail route. There is an Ontario Northland Railway bunkhouse that used to be a school, the Moose River bridge was built in the 1930s and the settlement was a much larger community at that time. Currently the Moose River stop at mile 142 is used for the residents of the settlement and as a pick-up and drop-off site for boaters
8.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
9.
Chapleau, Ontario
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Chapleau is a township in Sudbury District, Ontario, Canada. It is home to one of the worlds largest wildlife preserves, Chapleau has a population of 1,964 according to the Canada 2016 Census. The major industries within town are the mill, Tembec. Chapleau is located in central Northeastern Ontario, in the heart of the Canadian Shield, Chapleau is geographically isolated, the nearest cities are Sault Ste. Marie, Timmins, and Sudbury, but all are more than a drive away. Highway 129 links the town with Highway 101, running east to Timmins, Highway 129 also runs south, connecting with the Trans-Canada Highway, Highway 17 at Thessalon,227 km from Chapleau. Three First Nation reservations are located near the township, Chapleau Cree First Nation, Brunswick House First Nation, Chapleau Crown Game Preserve to the north of the town is, at over 7,000 square kilometres, the largest animal preserve in the world. Protected wildlife include moose, black bears, pygmy shrews, bald eagles, the preserve is a source of tourism, drawing nature-enthusiasts and fishermen to the township. All forms of hunting and trapping have been forbidden in the preserve since the 1920s, the result is an area with abundant wildlife. In fact, over 2,500 moose and over 2,000 black bears reside within the game preserve, logging does occur within the preserve, as does fishing. There are two parks and cottages located within the preserve. Chapleau experiences a continental climate. The first European settlement in the area was established in 1777 by the Hudsons Bay Company, the settlement was a fur trading post about 50 miles to Chapleaus north, on Big Missinabi Lake. In 1885 the Canadian Pacific Railway was built through the area, the CPR chose this as a division point, and the town was founded. It was named in honour of Sir Joseph-Adolphe Chapleau, lawyer, journalist, businessman, politician, after a fire in 1948, the government was prompted to construct a road to Chapleau to enable logging contractors to truck timber before it rotted. The Chapleau Road was completed on January 28,1949, in the early 1960s, Highway 101 was completed to link Chapleau with Timmins to the east, and Wawa to the west. At its largest, with large CPR and lumber operations, the town had a population of over 5000, however, the town has been gradually shrinking since 1950. In 1967, the Chapleau Centennial Museum was opened to showcase and it is located at 94 Monk Street
10.
James Bay
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James Bay is a large body of water on the southern end of Hudson Bay in Canada. Both bodies of water extend from the Arctic Ocean, of which James Bay is the southernmost part and it borders the provinces of Quebec and Ontario, islands within the bay are part of Nunavut. The James Bay watershed is the site of major hydroelectric projects. As with the rest of Hudson Bay, the waters of James Bay routinely freeze over in winter, although it is the last to freeze over in winter, and conversely the first to thaw in summer. Human presence along the shores of the bay can be traced back to the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the last ice age around 8,150 years ago, since contact with Europeans, the indigenous peoples along both shores of the bay were ethnically Cree peoples. The bay first came to the attention of Europeans in 1610 and it received its name in honour of Thomas James, a Welsh captain who explored the area more thoroughly in 1630 and 1631. James Bay is important in the history of Canada as one of the most hospitable parts of the Hudson Bay region despite its low human population, as a result, its corresponding importance to the Hudsons Bay Company and British expansion into Canada. Des Groseilliers accompanied Captain Zachariah Gillam on the ketch Nonsuch and they founded the first fur-trading post on James Bay. Their success, though lacking in minerals, was such that the company was chartered by Charles II on their return and this charter granted a complete trading monopoly of the whole Hudson Bay basin to the company. At the same time, the first English colony on what is now mainland Canada, Ruperts Land, was formed and it was, nevertheless, the gateway to British settlements in what would become Manitoba (Winnipeg, and as far west as the Rocky Mountains. James Bay represents the extent of the Arctic Archipelago Marine ecozone. While the coastal areas are primarily in the Hudson Plains, the northeastern coast bordering Quebec is in the Taiga Shield ecozone. This rocky and hilly eastern shore forms the edge of the Canadian Shield in Quebec. The western shore however is characterised by broad tundra lowlands that are an extension of the Hudson Bay Lowlands, a large portion of this area is part of the Polar Bear Provincial Park. Ringed seals are common elsewhere along James Bay and polar bears can be seen targeting the seals for prey, beluga whales within James Bay basin could be distinct from those found in Hudson Bay. Hundreds of rivers flow into James Bay, the geography of the region gives many of them similar characteristics. They tend to be wide and shallow near the Bay, whereas they are steeper and narrower farther upstream, for a larger list of waterways in the region, see list of Hudson Bay rivers. Hannah Bay is the southernmost bay of James Bay, here the Kesagami and Harricana Rivers flow into James Bay
11.
Cree language
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Despite numerous speakers within this wide-ranging area, the only region where Cree has any official status is in the Northwest Territories, alongside eight other aboriginal languages. Endonyms are Nēhiyawēwin ᓀᐦᐃᔭᐍᐏᐣ, Nīhithawīwin, Nehirâmowin, Nehlueun, Ilnu-Aimûn, Innu-Aimûn, Iyiniu-Ayamiwin, Iyiyiu-Ayamiwin, Ililîmowin, Inilîmowin, the Cree dialect continuum can be divided by many criteria. Dialects spoken in northern Ontario and the southern James Bay, Lanaudière, in several dialects, including northern Plains Cree and Woods Cree, the long vowels /eː/ and /iː/ have merged into a single vowel, /iː/. In the Quebec communities of Chisasibi, Whapmagoostui, and Kawawachikamach, see the table above for examples in the *kīla column. Very often the Cree dialect continuum is divided into two languages, Cree and Montagnais, Cree includes all dialects which have not undergone the *k > /tʃ/ sound change while Montagnais encompasses the territory where this sound change has occurred. These labels are useful from a linguistic perspective but are confusing as East Cree then qualifies as Montagnais. For practical purposes, Cree usually covers the dialects which use syllabics as their orthography, the term Naskapi typically refers to Kawawachikamach and Natuashish. The Cree dialects can be classified into nine groups. From west to east, This table is made to all possible consonant phonemes that may be included in a Cree language. Like many Native American languages, Cree features a complex polysynthetic morphology, a common grammatical feature in Cree dialects, in terms of sentence structure, is non-regulated word order. Word order is not governed by a set of rules or structure, instead. Subject, Verb, and Object in a sentence can vary in order, for example, SVO, VOS, OVS, obviation is also a key aspect of the Cree language. In a sense, the obviative can be defined as any third-person ranked lower on a hierarchy of discourse salience than some other discourse-participant. “Obviative animate nouns, are marked by ending –a, and are used to refer to persons who are more peripheral in the discourse than the proximate third person”. For example, Sam wâpam-ew Susan-a Sam see-3SG Susan-3OBV Sam sees Susan The suffix -a marks Susan as the obviative, or fourth person, another distinct feature of the Cree language is what could be understood as gender, similar to the French language’s genders of male and female nouns. Cree defines nouns as being animate or inanimate, there is no distinct rule governing the classification of animacy or inanimacy, rather, it is learned through immersive language acquisition. A Cree word can be long, and express something that takes a series of words in English. For example, the Plains Cree word for school is kiskinohamātowikamikw, both writing systems represent the language phonetically
12.
Pictogram
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A pictogram, also called a pictogramme, pictograph, or simply picto, and in computer usage an icon, is an ideogram that conveys its meaning through its pictorial resemblance to a physical object. Pictographs are often used in writing and graphic systems in which the characters are to a considerable extent pictorial in appearance, a pictogram may also be used in subjects such as leisure, tourism and geography. Some pictograms, such as Hazards pictograms, are elements of formal languages, pictograph has a rather different meaning in the field of prehistoric art, including recent art by traditional societies. Here it means art painted on surfaces, as opposed to petroglyphs that are carved or incised. Such images may or may not be considered pictograms in the general sense, early written symbols were based on pictographs and ideograms. Ancient Sumerian, Egyptian, and Chinese civilizations began to adapt such symbols to represent concepts, pictographs are still in use as the main medium of written communication in some non-literate cultures in Africa, the Americas, and Oceania. Pictographs are often used as simple, pictorial, representational symbols by most contemporary cultures, one example of many is the Rock art of the Chumash people, part of the Native American history of California. In 2011, UNESCOs World Heritage List added Petroglyph Complexes of the Mongolian Altai, because of their graphical nature and fairly realistic style, they are widely used to indicate public toilets, or places such as airports and train stations. Contemporary artist Xu Bing created Book from the Ground, a language made up of pictograms collected from around the world. A Book from the Ground chat program has been exhibited in museums, pictograms are used in many areas of modern life for commodity purposes, often as a formal language. In statistics, pictograms are chartsin which icons represent numbers to make it more interesting, a key is often included to indicate what each icon represents. All icons must be of the size, but a fraction of an icon can be used to show the respective fraction of that amount. For example, the table, can be graphed as follows, Key, =10 letters As the values are rounded to the nearest 5 letters. This is why road signs and similar material are often applied as global standards expected to be understood by nearly all. A standard set of pictographs was defined in the international standard ISO7001, other common sets of pictographs are the laundry symbols used on clothing tags and the chemical hazard symbols as standardized by the GHS system. Pictograms have been popularized in use on the web and in software, better known as icons displayed on a computer screen in order to help user navigate a computer system or mobile device
13.
Canadian Shield
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Composed of igneous rock resulting from its long volcanic history, the area is covered by a thin layer of soil. Human population is sparse, and industrial development is minimal, while mining is prevalent, the Canadian Shield is a physiographic division, consisting of five smaller, physiographic provinces, the Laurentian Upland, Kazan Region, Davis, Hudson and James. The shield extends into the United States as the Adirondack Mountains, the Canadian Shield is U-shaped and is a subsection of the Laurentia craton signifying the area of greatest glacial impact creating the thin soils. The Canadian Shield is more than 3.96 billion years old, the Canadian Shield once had jagged peaks, higher than any of todays mountains, but millions of years of erosion have changed these mountains to rolling hills. The Canadian Shield was the first part of North America to be elevated above sea level and has remained almost wholly untouched by successive encroachments of the sea upon the continent. It is the Earths greatest area of exposed Archean rock, the metamorphic base rocks are mostly from the Precambrian Supereon, and have been repeatedly uplifted and eroded. Today it consists largely of an area of low relief 300 to 610 m above sea level with a few monadnocks, during the Pleistocene Epoch, continental ice sheets depressed the land surface, scooped out thousands of lake basins, and carried away much of the regions soil. When the Greenland section is included, the Shield is approximately circular, bounded on the northeast by the northeast edge of Greenland and it covers much of Greenland, Labrador, most of Quebec north of the St. In total, the area of the Shield covers approximately 8,000,000 km2. The underlying rock structure also includes Hudson Bay, the Canadian Shield is among the oldest on earth, with regions dating from 2.5 to 4.2 billion years. The multitude of rivers and lakes in the region is caused by the watersheds of the area being so young. It has some of the oldest volcanoes on the planet and it has over 150 volcanic belts whose bedrock ranges from 600 to 1200 million years old. Each belt probably grew by the coalescence of accumulations erupted from numerous vents, many of Canadas major ore deposits are associated with Precambrian volcanoes. The Sturgeon Lake Caldera in Kenora District, Ontario, is one of the worlds best preserved mineralized Neoarchean caldera complexes, the Canadian Shield also contains the Mackenzie dike swarm, which is the largest dike swarm known on Earth. Mountains have deep roots and float on the denser mantle much like an iceberg at sea, as mountains erode, their roots rise and are eroded in turn. The rocks that now form the surface of the Shield were once far below the Earths surface, the high pressures and temperatures at those depths provided ideal conditions for mineralization. Although these mountains are now eroded, many large mountains still exist in Canadas far north called the Arctic Cordillera. This is a vast deeply dissected mountain range, stretching from northernmost Ellesmere Island to the northernmost tip of Labrador, the ranges highest peak is Nunavuts Barbeau Peak at 2,616 metres above sea level
14.
Hudson Bay
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Hudson Bay is a large body of saltwater in northeastern Canada with a surface area of 1,230,000 square kilometres. Hudson Bays southern arm is called James Bay, the Eastern Cree name for Hudson and James Bay is Wînipekw or Wînipâkw, meaning muddy or brackish water. Lake Winnipeg is similarly named by the local Cree, as is the location for the city of Winnipeg, Hudson Bay encompasses 1,230,000 square kilometres, making it the second-largest bay in the world. The bay is shallow and is considered an epicontinental sea. It is about 1,370 km long and 1,050 km wide, on the east it is connected with the Atlantic Ocean by Hudson Strait, on the north, with the Arctic Ocean by Foxe Basin, and Fury and Hecla Strait. Geographic coordinates, 78° to 95° W, 51° to 70° N. Hudson Bay is part of the North Atlantic Ocean, sometimes the Hudson Bay and Hudson Strait basins are considered part of the Arctic Ocean even though their waters flow predominantly to the Atlantic. Some sources describe Hudson Bay as a sea of the Atlantic Ocean. English explorers and colonists named Hudson Bay after Sir Henry Hudson who explored the bay beginning August 2,1610 on his ship Discovery. On his fourth voyage to North America, Hudson worked his way around Greenlands west coast and into the bay, Discovery became trapped in the ice over the winter, and the crew survived onshore at the southern tip of James Bay. When the ice cleared in the spring, Hudson wanted to explore the rest of the area and they left Hudson and others adrift in a small boat. No one knows the fate of Hudson or the crew members stranded with him, in 1668, Nonsuch reached the bay and traded for beaver pelts, leading to the creation of the Hudsons Bay Company which still bears the historic name. The HBC negotiated a trading monopoly from the British crown for the Hudson Bay watershed, called Ruperts Land, france contested this grant by sending several military expeditions to the region, but abandoned its claim in the Treaty of Utrecht. See Anglo-French conflicts on Hudson Bay, during this period, the Hudsons Bay Company built several forts and trading posts along the coast at the mouth of the major rivers. The strategic locations were bases for inland exploration, more importantly, they were trading posts with the indigenous peoples who came to them with furs from their trapping season. The HBC shipped the furs to Europe and continued to use these posts until the beginning of the 20th century, the port of Churchill is still an important shipping link for trade with Europe and Russia. HBCs trade monopoly was abolished in 1870, and it ceded Ruperts Land to Canada, starting in 1913, the Bay was extensively charted by the Canadian Governments CSS Acadia to develop it for navigation. This mapping progress led to the establishment of Churchill, Manitoba as a port for wheat exports in 1929. Due to a change in naming conventions, Hudsons Bay is now called Hudson Bay, as a result, the names of the body of water and the company are often mistaken for one another
15.
Moose Factory
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Moose Factory is a community in the Cochrane District, Ontario, Canada. It is located on Moose Factory Island, near the mouth of the Moose River and it was the first English-speaking settlement in Ontario and the second Hudsons Bay Company post to be set up in North America after Fort Rupert. On the mainland, across the Moose River, is the community of Moosonee. The settlement is mainly inhabited by the Cree, but the hospital which provides services to the people of the island. The term Factory refers to the jurisdiction of a factor of the Hudsons Bay Company, just as a rector presides over a rectory, a factor holds authority over a factory. The area was explored by Pierre-Esprit Radisson in the winter of 1670/71 from the base at Rupert House, in 1673, Charles Bayly of the Hudsons Bay Company established a fur-trading post originally called Moose Fort. Besides trading, it was intended to protect the companys interests from French traders to the south. The fort was profitable and had a impact on the fur trade in New France. So in 1686, Chevalier de Troyes led a contingent of French soldiers north on an expedition to raid HBC forts. The English defenders were caught by surprise and surrendered. The French captured Moose Fort and renamed it to Fort St. Louis, ten years later in 1696, the English recaptured it and burned it to the ground. No trace has remained of this original fort, the Hudsons Bay Company set up a new fort in 1730, one mile upstream from the old site, to accommodate Cree traders for whom travel to the other James Bay posts was too dangerous. Five years later, this one also was destroyed by a fire started in the kitchen. In 1821, when the Hudsons Bay Company merged with the rival North West Company, there were no longer any serious threats, thereafter it came to be known as Moose Factory. It became HBCs main base on James Bay, being the headquarters of the Southern Department. The Governor of Ruperts Land and Council met frequently there to plan for the years operations. In 1905, the Cree signed a treaty with the government that established the Factory Island Indian Reserve, around the same time, the Parisian furrier company Revillon Frères set up a trading post on the west bank of the Moose River. This post, first known as Moose River Post, grew into the town of Moosonee, in 1931, the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway was completed at Moosonee
16.
Michipicoten River
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This river is 113 km in length and drains an area of about 5,200 km2. The rivers name means big bluffs in Ojibwe and refers to the hills located near the rivers mouth. From the outlet of Dog Lake, the Michipicoten River flows south through a series of lakes, Manitowik. Then it flows mostly west to Lake Superior, there are four hydroelectric generating stations on this last section of the river. In the days of the fur trade, this river provided access to James Bay by way of the Missinaibi, pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers are believed to be the first non-natives to travel this route. A French fur trading post was built at the mouth in the early 18th century. The Hudsons Bay Company started building trading posts along the route in the 1770s, in 1781 Philip Turnor, HBCs first full-time surveyor, performed a detailed survey of the river, followed by many upgrades to the portages. After 1821, the Moose/Missinaibi/Michipicoten route became the supply route for HBCs Lake Superior District. The river once flowed over a 27 m succession of cascades known as Michipicoten High Falls, the falls were destroyed in 1907 by filling of a lake reservoir behind a newly constructed dam and hydroelectric plant. Magpie River Anjigami River Shikwamkwa River Jackpine River Hawk River Dog Lake Murray Creek Dog River Lochalsh River Wabatongushi Lake List of rivers of Ontario
17.
Wawa, Ontario
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Wawa is a township in the Canadian province of Ontario, located within the Algoma District and associated with Wawa Lake. Formerly known as the township of Michipicoten, after a river of that name. This area was first developed for fur trading, in the late 19th century, both gold and iron ore were found and mined, leading to the regions rise as the steel industry developed in Sault Ste. From 1900-1918 the Helen Mine had the highest production of ore of any mine in Canada. The township includes the communities of Michipicoten and Michipicoten River. These names are derived from the Ojibwe term for the river, Fort Michipicoten was constructed at the mouth of the Michipicoten River. It was at the junction of the fur trade route from Montreal westward. The town developed five miles upriver from here, French explorers reached the area by at least 1681, and militia built the post in either 1725 or 1727. By 1729, it was an outpost of Fort Kaministiquia in Vérendryes Postes du Nord, the site was on the south bank of the river, opposite the mouth of the Magpie River. When the British conquered Canada in 1763, this post was abandoned, four years later, it was re-opened on the same site by fur traders Alexander Henry the elder and Jean Baptiste Cadotte. The route from James Bay was explored by Edward Jarvis and Philip Turnor, in 1783, it was taken over by the North West Company, based in Montreal. In 1797, the Hudsons Bay Company built a rival post on the north bank, with the union of the two companies in 1821, the Lake Superior trade was diverted from Montreal to Hudson Bay via Michipicoten. This lasted until 1863, when the arrival of steamboats and railways made it unnecessary, from 1827, the fort was the headquarters of the Superior Division, and several annual meetings were held here. It was a centre for fishing, boat-building and small-scale manufacture and it also served as a base for missionaries and surveyors. It was closed in 1904 and gradually taken apart, by 1980 the site held little more than a grassy clearing, some foundation stones, and the remains of the dock. Wawas history is rich in mining, forestry, and the fur trade, mining attempts began as early as the late 1660s. William Teddy discovered gold on Wawa Lake in 1897, the population of Wawa village quickly grew with 1,700 claims staked in 1898. However, most gold production stopped by 1906, beginning in 1914 with the completion of the Algoma Central Railway, gold production commenced again from 22 prospects
18.
Hudson's Bay Company
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The Hudsons Bay Company, commonly referred to as The Bay, is a Canadian retail business group. HBCs head office is in the Simpson Tower in Toronto, Ontario, the company is listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange under the symbol HBC. It was once the worlds largest landowner, with the area of the Hudson Bay watershed, known as Ruperts Land, having 15% of North American acreage. From its long-time headquarters at York Factory on Hudson Bay, the company controlled the fur trade throughout much of the English, undertaking early exploration, its traders and trappers forged relationships with many groups of aboriginal peoples. Its network of trading posts formed the nucleus for later official authority in areas of Western Canada. By the mid-19th century, the company evolved into a business selling everything from furs to fine homeware. They quickly introduced a new type of client to the HBC – one that shopped for pleasure and not with skins, in July 2008, HBC was acquired by NRDC Equity Partners, which also owns the upmarket American department store Lord & Taylor. From 2008 to 2012, the HBC was run through a company of NRDC, Hudsons Bay Trading Company. Since 2012, the HBC directly oversees its Canadian subsidiaries Hudsons Bay and Home Outfitters, on 29 July 2013, the HBC announced its takeover of Saks, Inc. operator of the Saks Fifth Avenue brand. The merger was completed on 3 November 2013, in September 2015, HBC acquired the German department store chain Galeria Kaufhof and its Belgian subsidiary from Metro Group for $3.2 billion U. S. In May 2016, HBC announced it would expand to the Netherlands by taking over up to 20 former Vroom & Dreesmann sites by 2017, v&D was an historic Dutch department store chain that went bankrupt and shut down in early 2016. HBC said the expansion would cost CAD $340 million and create 2,500 jobs in the stores, the Dutch stores would operate under the Hudsons Bay and Saks Off Fifth brands. In January 2016, HBC announced it would also expand deeper in the space with its acquisition of online flash sales site. In the 17th century the French had a de facto monopoly on the Canadian fur trade with their colony of New France. Assuming this was Hudson Bay, they sought French backing for a plan to set up a trading post on the Bay, despite this refusal, in 1659 Radisson and Groseilliers set out for the upper Great Lakes basin. A year later returned with premium furs, evidence of the potential of the Hudson Bay region. Subsequently, they were arrested for trading without a licence and fined, determined to establish trade in the Hudson Bay, Radisson and Groseilliers approached a group of businessmen in Boston, Massachusetts to help finance their explorations. The Bostonians agreed on the plans merits but their speculative voyage in 1663 failed when their ship ran into pack ice in Hudson Strait, boston-based English commissioner Colonel George Cartwright learned of the expedition and brought the two to England to raise financing
19.
Kenogami River
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The river is 320 kilometres in length and its name means long water in the Cree language. A portion of the headwaters have been diverted into the Lake Superior drainage basin. For a map showing the course, see this reference. The river begins at Longlac Bay on Long Lake at the community of Longlac, part of the municipality of Greenstone, the first inland post of the Hudsons Bay Company, named Henley House, was established at the confluence of the Kenogami River and Albany River in 1743. A new post was established in 1884 at Mammamattawa, Ontario at the confluence of the Kenogami River and it was known as the English River Post, as the Kenogami was also known as the English River. The former backed up the headwaters, while the latter controlled the outflow into the Aguasabon River. The diversion has shifted an average flow of 1,377 cubic feet per second from a basin of almost 4,400 square kilometres from James Bay to the Great Lakes Basin
20.
Fort Albany First Nation
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Fort Albany First Nation is a Cree First Nation reserve in Cochrane District in Northeastern Ontario, Canada. Situated on the shore of the Albany River, Fort Albany First Nation is only accessible by air or by winter road. The community is policed by the Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service, an Aboriginal-based service and it shares the Fort Albany 67 Indian Reserve with the Kashechewan First Nation. Fort Albany was one of the oldest and most important Hudsons Bay Company posts, the community of Fort Albany is accessible by air, by water and also by the winter road. The winter road is used during the months of early or late January to early or late March depending on the weather conditions. Air Creebec provides Fort Albany with daily flights, with connecting flights to Toronto and/or other points of travel. These arrangements are done in Timmins on Air Creebec, Air Canada, Thunder Air, Fort Albany is also accessible through the waters of James Bay and the Albany River. Moosonee Transportation Limited provides barge service by carrying supplies at least once or twice each summer by traveling up, freighter canoes can travel from Fort Albany to Calstock and return whenever the water levels are sufficient to make river travel possible. Outboard motors and canoes are used during the months for other activities such as hunting, trapping. During the winter months, skidoos are the main transportation around the community, there are pick-up trucks, vans, and all terrain vehicles owed by both businesses and individuals. The winter road was completed in the spring of 1974. It is also used extensively during the winter months and this road is maintained by contractors. The road links all the communities together, such as Attawapiskat, Moosonee, Moose Factory. Air Creebec transports passengers and provides services through Fort Albany Airport. The present passenger rate is $921.90 for a return trip to Timmins. These rates increase on an annual basis, seat sales are available, which are less expensive than the regular fare price. The seat sales have to be booked ten days in advance, Air Creebec also provides charter flights when required. Thunder Airlines tranports mail and provides passenger service and freight services
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Brunswick House First Nation
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Brunswick House First Nation is an Ojibway-Cree First Nation in the Canadian province of Ontario, located in the Sudbury District,157 kilometres northeast of Sault Ste Marie, Ontario. The First Nation have reserved for themselves the 9,054.2 hectares Mountbatten 76A Indian Reserve, as of June,2008, it had a registered population of 639 people, of which their on-Reserve population was 171 people. Brunswick House is policed by the Nishnawbe-Aski Police Service, an Aboriginal-based service, the Ontario government subsequently purchased reserve land from the federal government in 1928. In 1947, the government purchased a tract of land in Mountbatten Township from the Ontario government. The Band moved to its present reserve at Duck Lake 76B Indian Reserve after 642 acres of the Mountbatten 76A were exchanged in 1973 for an equivalent area of land closer to Chapleau, Ontario. Brunswick House First Nation elects their leaders through the Act Electoral System, consisting of a Chief, the current Chief is Kevin Tangie. Together with Councillors Jennifer Wesley, Majorie Tangie and Irene Redbreast, Lorraine Tangie, Brunswick House First Nation is a member of the Wabun Tribal Council, a Regional Chiefs Council, which in turn is member of the Nishnawbe Aski Nation, a Tribal Political Organization. Brunswick House First Nation NAN profile for Brunswick House AANDC profile for Brunswick House
22.
Canoeing
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Canoeing is a sport or recreational activity which involves paddling a canoe with a single-bladed paddle. In some parts of Europe canoeing refers to both canoeing and kayaking, with a canoe being called an Open canoe, an ancient mode of transportation, modern recreational canoeing was established in the late 19th century. In 1924, canoeing associations from Austria, Germany, Denmark and Sweden founded the Internationalen Representation for Kanusport, canoeing became part of the Olympic Games in the summer of 1936. The main form of sport was sprint canoe. Others include canoe polo, whitewater canoeing, canoe marathon, ICF canoe marathon, national canoe associations include the American, Canadian, British, Scottish, and Welsh. A recreational form of canoeing is canoe camping, others include a wide range of casual canoeing on lakes, rivers, ponds and streams
23.
Ontario Northland Railway
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The Ontario Northland Railway is a Canadian railway operated by the Ontario Northland Transportation Commission, a provincial Crown agency of the government of Ontario. An east-west secondary mainline connects Calstock with Cochrane, and a line extends from Swastika into the province of Quebec. The railways branch from Swastika to Rouyn-Noranda, including 40 kilometres of track in Quebec, is operated by a subsidiary, originally built to develop the Lake Timiskaming and Lake Nipissing areas, the railway soon became a major factor in the economic growth of the province. After decades of construction through the Canadian Shield, workers reached James Bay in 1932. While blasting the route through the shield, geologists discovered deposits of minerals such as gold, silver, copper. The railway also made it possible to exploit the resources of Northern Ontario. The railway was incorporated as the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway on March 17,1902, by the Temiskaming, the railway was to be a provincial Crown corporation overseen by the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway Commission. As it passed by Long Lake, near the 103 mile marker, the town of Cobalt grew out of the fortunes of silver taken from the grounds. By 1905, it reached New Liskeard in the Lake Timiskaming area, the railway reached Englehart in 1906 and Cochrane in 1909. In the next few years, several lines were built. In 1921, construction on a north to James Bay was started. In 1923, the new Conservative premier of Ontario, Howard Ferguson, halted further construction, for four years the terminus of the line remained at Fraserdale, near Abitibi Canyon, where the Abitibi Canyon Generating Station was being built on the Abitibi River. Between 1928 and 1930 the railway was extended north at a slow pace, the pace of construction was quickened in 1930 as a make-work project due to the depression. The extension to James Bay was opened on July 15,1932, the terminus of the railway was at the mouth of the Moose River near the old trading post of Revillon Frères. It was named Moosonee, from the Cree meaning at the moose, a name change for the railway was first proposed in 1942 by Arthur Cavanagh, who was chairman of the commission between 1940 and 1944. He noted that it would have the advantage of associating the railway with the province, a name change would also avoid confusion with the Texas and New Orleans Railway, which had the same initials. The Ontario railway often had boxcars misdirected in the United States, the railways name was changed to the Ontario Northland Railway on April 5,1946, when a bill amending the Temiskaming and Northern Ontario Railway Act received assent. Three new mines were opened in Northern Ontario in the 1960s, sherman Mine in Temagami was opened in 1968, Adams Mine in Kirkland Lake in 1963, and Kidd Creek Mine in Timmins in 1967
24.
Northern Ontario
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Northern Ontario is a primary geographic and administrative region of the Canadian province of Ontario, the other primary region being Southern Ontario. Most of Northern Ontario is situated on the Canadian Shield, a vast rocky plateau, the climate is characterized by extremes of temperature, extremely cold in winter and hot in summer. The principal industries are mining, forestry, and hydroelectricity, for some purposes, Northern Ontario is further subdivided into Northeastern and Northwestern Ontario. When the region is divided in this way, the three westernmost districts constitute Northwestern Ontario and the other districts constitute Northeastern Ontario, Northeastern Ontario contains two thirds of Northern Ontarios population. In the early 20th century, Northern Ontario was often called New Ontario, the provinces boundaries were provisionally expanded northward and westward in 1874, while the Lake of the Woods region remained subject to a boundary dispute between Ontario and Manitoba. This region was established as the District of Patricia, but was merged into the Kenora District in 1927. The Province of Canada began creating districts in sparsely populated Northern Ontario with the establishment of Algoma District. These districts had no function, they were created for the provision of judicial. Nipissing had no seat until 1895. Up until that date, registry office and higher court services were available at Pembroke in Renfrew County, Nipissing Stipendiary Magistrate and land registrar William Doran established his residence at North Bay in 1885. Following the hotly contested district town election in 1895, North Bay earned the right to become the seat in the new Provisional District of Nipissing. After the creation of the province of Ontario in 1867, the first district to be established was Thunder Bay in 1871 which until then had formed part of Algoma District. The Ontario government was reluctant to establish new districts in the north, Ontarios right to Northwestern Ontario was determined by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1884 and confirmed by the Canada Act,1889 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. By 1899 there were seven districts, Algoma, Manitoulin, Muskoka, Nipissing, Parry Sound, Rainy River. Five more northern districts were created between 1907 and 1922, Cochrane, Kenora, Sudbury, Temiskaming and Patricia, the Patricia District was then merged into the Kenora District in 1927. Districts are too sparsely populated to maintain a county government system, for example, districts have provincially maintained secondary highways instead of county roads. Geographically, the districts in Northern Ontario are Rainy River, Kenora, Thunder Bay, Cochrane, Timiskaming, Algoma, Sudbury, Nipissing andManitoulin. As well, for administrative purposes, the districts of Muskoka, the federal government continues to retain both more southerly districts in the service area of FedNor
25.
Oba River
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The Oba River is a river in Oyo and Osun States in Nigeria. It is the tributary of the Osun River. The landscape varies from wooded savanna in the north to rain forest in the south, most of the people who live along its length practice farming and fishing. The Ọba River is named for the goddess Ọba, one of the wives of Shango and his other wives were Ọshun and Ọya. According to legend Ọshun tricked Ọba into cutting off her ear and adding it to Shangos food, when Shango found what Ọba had done he, furious, scramed and Osun and Oba fled frightened, turning in the two rivers. That is why because the point of the rivers Osun. The Oba River is the tributary of the Osun River. It rises about 15 kilometres north of Ogbomosho in Oyo State, the river flows past Ogbomosho, where it is dammed. The Ogbomoso Reservoir on the Oba River was completed in 1964, the dam is fed by the Idekun, Eeguno, Akanbi Kemolowo, Omoogun and Yakun streams, and has a catchment area of 321 square kilometres. The Oba continues south from the dam until it joins the Oshun River just above the settlement of Odo Oba, settlements along its course from north to south include Apo, Iluju, Obada, Mosunmade, Otuokun, Bale, Olori and Olumoye. The river receives a left tributary just downstream from Obada and another tributary to the south of Olori. The second tributary flows past Ife Odan, the Ọba River joins the Ọshun River in a series of rapids. The two rivers meet at the end of the Asejire Reservoir. The climate in the part of the river around Ogbomoso has consistently high temperatures. The vegetation is derived savanna, between the savanna zone and the Ibadan region rain forests. A study published in 2014 found that the fish in the Ogbomoso Reservoir were infected with parasites that could cause a risk to human consumers, the Oba River is heavily polluted, at class V on the Prati scale. There is little or no dissolved oxygen in the water, sources of pollution include sewage and domestic and market waste, and includes much inert matter that is not readily biodegradable. The people along the length of the Oba River are mostly engaged in farming and fishing
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International Union for Conservation of Nature
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The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
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National park
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A national park is a park in use for conservation purposes. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns, although individual nations designate their own national parks differently, there is a common idea, the conservation of wild nature for posterity and as a symbol of national pride. An international organization, the International Union for Conservation of Nature, although Yellowstone was not officially termed a national park in its establishing law, it was always termed such in practice and is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. The first area to use national park in its legislation was the USs Mackinac Island. Australias Royal National Park, established in 1879, was the third official national park. In 1895 ownership of Mackinac Island was transferred to the State of Michigan as a state park, as a result, Australias Royal National Park is by some considerations the second oldest national park now in existence. The largest national park in the meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park. According to the IUCN,6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006, IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park. National parks are almost always open to visitors, in 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. In 1810, the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a sort of property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation, but no authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877, John Muir is today referred to as the Father of the National Parks due to his work in Yosemite. He published two articles in The Century Magazine, which formed the base for the subsequent legislation. President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on July 1,1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley, according to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for use, resort. Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation, a public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was a heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone at its establishment six years later was put under national control, in 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States first national park, being also the worlds first national park. In some European countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed, such as Drachenfels, Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory
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Ontario Parks
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Ontario Parks is the branch of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry that administers the provincial parks in Ontario, Canada. The Ontario Parks system covers over 78,000 square kilometres, the Ontario Parks system is often used as the model for other parks systems in North America. This can be attributed to its balance of recreation, preservation. Many parks in Ontario also offer a Natural Heritage Education program, the Ontario Parks system began its long and rough history in 1893 with the creation of Algonquin Park, originally designed to protect loggers interests from settlement. In the 1970s the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources was formed, currently, Ontario Parks does not have full agency status, but is a branch of the Natural Resource Management Division of the MNR. The history of Ontarios provincial parks stretches for over 100 years, here are some of the milestones from the past century plus,1893 – Algonquin Park is created as a public park and forest reservation, fish and game preserve, health resort and pleasure ground. 1894 – Rondeau becomes Ontarios second provincial park,1913 – The Parks Act sets aside land not suitable for agriculture or settlement. 1954 – Ontario still has only 8 provincial parks, Algonquin, Quetico, Long Point, Rondeau, Presqule, Ipperwash, Lake Superior, a Division of Parks is created within the Department of Lands and Forests. This heralds a new and aggressive program to create parks, primarily on the Great Lake. 1960 – There are now 72 provincial parks in Ontario, hosting over 5 million visitors annually,1967 – Ontario introduces a new policy that divides parks into specific categories, or classes, with compatible sets of uses. 1970 – Polar Bear, Ontarios largest provincial park at 24,000 square kilometres, is created,1978 – Ontario Provincial Parks, Planning and Management Policies are approved by Cabinet giving Ontario one of the worlds leading parks planning systems. 1983 – The new land use planning system leads to the announcement of 155 new parks to be designated,1985 – There are now 220 parks in Ontario encompassing over 5.5 millions hectares of land. 1993 – Ontario celebrates the centennial of the parks system. 1996 – The provincial parks system adopts a new operating model where revenue generated by parks can be reinvested in the parks system. This is symbolized by a new name, Ontario Parks,1996 – Ontario Parks partners with the Natural Conservancy of Canada to create Legacy 2000, a program to protect significant natural areas. Under this agreement more than 11,000 hectares are secured,1999 – Ontarios Living Legacy is announced. This land use strategy identifies 378 new protected areas, including 61 new parks and 45 parks additions, Ontarios Living Legacy will protect over 2.4 million hectares of land, including additions to the provincial parks system of over 900,000 hectares. 2001 – Ontario now has a total of 280 provincial parks encompassing 7.1 million hectares or almost 9 percent of the provinces area, over 9 million visitors annually enjoy Ontario Parks
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
31.
Alsek River
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The Alsek River is a wilderness river flowing from Yukon into Northern British Columbia and into Alaska. It enters the Gulf of Alaska at Dry Bay, most of the Alsek Rivers basin is within protected wilderness areas and National Parks. The Alsek and its tributary, the Tatshenshini River, are part of the Canadian Heritage Rivers System. The Alsek starts at the confluence of the Dezadeash River and Kaskawulsh River in Kluane National Park, after flowing south into the northwestern tip of British Columbia, it is joined by the Tatshenshini River in Tatshenshini-Alsek Park. It reaches the Pacific Ocean at Dry Bay, in the Gulf of Alaska, south of Yakutat, Alaska, although the river is navigable by kayak or rubber raft in its northern reaches, it rapidly becomes unnavigable—for any but the most experienced and skilled kayakers—at Turnback Canyon. On older maps, the Alsek river is labeled as the Kaskawulsh, some Yukon First Nation elders also refer to the river as the Kaskawulsh. The river flows next to the Lowell glacier which has sometimes blocked off the river and created a lake behind it. The last such blockage took place in 1850, its release created a massive flood, the river carries a lot of silt from the Alsek lake/glacier, which contributes to the rivers low temperature. The Alsek and nearby East Alsek rivers were at one time connected, the Alsek glacier contacts the Grand Plateau Glacier, which faces the shoreline. Also in the general area are the Doame foothills and Doame River. The first known kayak descent of Turnback Canyon was by Walt Blackadar and he wrote about his trip for Sports Illustrated. I want any other kayaker or would-be expert to read my words well, despite this sincere warning from a man who apparently felt lucky to be alive, groups of expert kayakers have successfully run Turnback Canyon since then. A prominent mountain which overlooks the Alsek was named Mount Blackadar in his honor, the portion of the river inside Kluane National Park has been designated a Canadian Heritage River. In 1958, a magnitude 7.7 earthquake centered near Lituya bay significantly changed the lay of the land, the earthquake caused the Doame River and East Alsek River to join together. The Alsek and East Alsek rivers are a part of the Yakutat area limited entry set gillnet fishery, both rivers produce king, silver, and sockeye commercially. Chum and pink salmon can also be caught, but are not generally sought after due to their lack of worth/quality. These two rivers can be characterized as low volume fisheries, while the Alsek river in particular produces particularly high quality due to its low temperature. The Alseks silt content also prevents the sun from damaging the fish, the area also supports subsistence and sport fishing
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Athabasca River
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The Athabasca River originates from the Columbia Glacier of the Columbia Icefield in Jasper National Park in Alberta, Canada. The impressive and scenic Athabasca Falls is located upstream about 30 km from the Jasper townsite, the name Athabasca comes from the Woods Cree word aðapaskāw, which means there are plants one after another, likely a reference to the spotty vegetation along the river. Sekani, Shuswap, Kootenay, Salish, Stoney and Cree tribes hunted and fished along the river prior to the European colonization, david Thompson and Thomas the Iroquois travelled through Athabasca Pass in 1811. In 1862, the Athabasca Springs area was crossed during the Cariboo Goldrush by the Overlander Party. This river was designated a Canadian Heritage River for its importance to the fur trade, the river flows along icefields and through gorges, offering wildlife habitat on its shores and adjacent marshes. Its course is marked by rapids, impeding navigation southwest of Fort McMurray, the Athabasca River travels 1,231 km before draining into the Peace-Athabasca Delta near Lake Athabasca south of Fort Chipewyan. The cumulative drainage area is 95,300 km2, numerous communities are located on the banks of the Athabasca River, including Jasper, Brule, Entrance, Hinton, Whitecourt, Fort Assiniboine, Smith, Athabasca, Fort McMurray, and Fort MacKay. An independent study has concluded that the Athabasca River contains elevated levels of pollution downstream of the Athabasca oil sands, testing has shown this portion of the river contains mercury, lead and 11 other toxic elements. On October 31,2013, one of Obed Mountain coal mines pits failed, the plume of waste products then joined the Athabasca River, travelling downstream for a month before settling in Lake Athabasca near Fort Chipewyan, over 500 km away. Owing to its proximity to the Athabasca Oil Sands, the river has significant amounts of energy infrastructure constructed along its course. On June 6,1970, a pipeline operated by Great Canadian Oil Sands, the precursor to Suncor, the total spill volume was estimated by Great Canadian Oil Sands at approximately 1,190 barrels of oil. The Canadian Heraldic Authority named the position of Athabaska Herald after the river, Oil sands development contributes elements toxic at low concentrations to the Athabasca River and its tributaries
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Bloodvein River
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The Bloodvein River is a river in Canada. It flows west from northwest Ontario to the east side of Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba through the forests of the Canadian Shield. It is around 300 kilometres long, First Nation peoples have used the river for centuries, and their petroglyphs and rock paintings can be found on some shoreline cliffs. The river along with other rivers on the east side of Lake Winnipeg is part of a unique wilderness area untouched by major developments such as logging roads, mines. The Bloodvein River became Manitobas first Canadian Heritage River in 1987 and most of the river is within Atikaki Provincial Park and it is included on Canadas Tentative List for World Heritage sites and has the potential of being part of a United Nations World Heritage Site. The First Nation community of Bloodvein situated at the mouth is the major community along the river. The community is served by the Bloodvein River Airport, before the winter road was created, besides air, access to the community was only by the ferry the HMV Edgar Wood. Northern pike, walleye, channel catfish, whitefish, lake trout, sturgeon, chestnut lamprey List of rivers of Manitoba List of rivers of Ontario
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Boundary Waters
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This region is part of the Superior National Forest in northeastern Minnesota, and in Canada it includes La Verendrye and Quetico Provincial Parks in Ontario. Voyageurs National Park in Minnesota may also be considered part of the Boundary Waters, the name Boundary Waters is often used in the U. S. to refer specifically to the U. S. Wilderness Area protecting its southern extent, the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness, the Boundary Waters region is characterized by a vast network of waterways and bogs within a glacially-carved landscape of Precambrian bedrock covered in thin soils and boreal forests. The Boundary Waters is a destination for recreationalists pursuing camping, canoeing, fishing, as well as for those simply looking for natural scenery. The area is one of several regions of Minnesota. The following communities are located anywhere from two to twenty miles from the waters, Ely, Cook, Grand Marais, and Tofte in Minnesota. Protected areas in the Boundary Waters region in Minnesota include Superior National Forest, Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness, Voyageurs National Park, protected areas in Ontario include Quetico and La Verendrye provincial parks. International Boundary Waters Treaty Sigurd F. Olson Calvin Rustrum Friends of the Boundary Waters Wilderness Boundary Waters History Boundary Waters travel guide from Wikivoyage
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Clearwater River (Saskatchewan)
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Clearwater River is the name of a river in the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta. The Clearwater River totals 295 kilometres in length and rises in northwestern Saskatchewan in the northern forest region of the Precambrian Shield, from its headwaters at Broach Lake it flows southeast through Saskatchewan before it turns southwest at Careen Lake. It continues 108 kilometres beyond the Alberta border before it joins the Athabasca River at Fort McMurray and this section of the river in Fort McMurray is also more affectionately referred to as The Chant. From there the Clearwater’s waters reach the Mackenzie River and later the Arctic Ocean, from its headwaters in Broach Lake at 460 metres above sea level, the Clearwater drops about 150 metres to its junction with the Athabasca River. The upper part of the river flows over the Precambrian Shield, through rapids, over small waterfalls, more downstream, the river valley enters the Interior Plains and its channels are meandering along sandbars and small islands. The lower Clearwater in Alberta is characterized by high walls of limestone. Tributaries of the Clearwater River include Descharme River and McLean River in Saskatchewan, rock-paintings along the upper portion of the river, shapes and symbols on rock surfaces, suggest that this area was already inhabited 5,000 years ago. Before the European colonisation, it was native groups of Beaver, Cree, farther upstream, the Precambrian upper section was a barrier difficult to overcome by the traders. For almost 40 years, this was the overland connection for the fur trade in this area. The rivers fish species include, walleye, yellow perch, northern pike, lake trout, Arctic grayling, lake whitefish, cisco, white sucker, longnose sucker, to conserve the river’s value, the province of Saskatchewan has established the Clearwater River Provincial Park. The Saskatchewan section was granted Canadian Heritage River status in 1986, highway 955 crosses the river in the provincial park. List of rivers of Alberta List of rivers of Saskatchewan Athabasca oil sands Fish Species of Saskatchewan Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan Clearwater River Provincial Park
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Cowichan River
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The Cowichan River /ˈkoʊ. ɪtʃən/ is a moderately sized river in British Columbia, Canada. It originates in Cowichan Lake, flowing east towards its end at Cowichan Bay and its drainage basin is 795 square kilometres in size. The Cowichan River is popular in the summer for river tubing, people float from the weir to Little Beach which takes around two and half hours. About 7 kilometres after exiting Cowichan Lake, the river drops over Skutz Falls, below the falls, in the summer time, are swimming areas. Downstream, the flows through Marie Canyon, a popular kayaking run. The river is considered one of the finest trout fishing streams in British Columbia. The Cowichan River is the centre of a park, the Cowichan River Provincial Park. The park area is home to hundreds of species, small and large mammals, including the native Vancouver Island ermine, an endangered species. The Cowichan River was nominated as a Canadian Heritage River in 1999, the river is also the namesake of Cowichan Herald Extraordinary at the Canadian Heraldic Authority. Water from the river is used in the pulp and paper mill operated by Catalyst Paper in Crofton, Cowichan Valley Cowichan Tribes Lake Cowichan, a settlement at the origin of the Cowichan River
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Detroit River
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The Detroit River flows for 24 nautical miles from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie as a strait in the Great Lakes system and forms part of the border between Canada and the United States. The river divides the metropolitan areas of Detroit, Michigan and Windsor, the two cities are connected by the Ambassador Bridge, the Detroit–Windsor Tunnel and the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel. The rivers name comes from the French Rivière Détroit, meaning River of the Strait, the Detroit River has served an important role in the history of Detroit and is one of the busiest waterways in the world. The river travels west and south from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie, the river serves as an important transportation route connecting Lake Michigan, Huron, and Superior to the St. Lawrence Seaway and Erie Canal. When Detroit underwent rapid industrialization at the turn of the 20th century, in recent years, however, the ecological importance of the river has warranted a vast restoration effort, and the river today has a wide variety of economical and recreational uses. There are numerous islands in the Detroit River, and much of the portion of the river is incorporated into the Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge. The portion of the river in the city of Detroit has been organized into the Detroit International Riverfront, the Detroit River is designated an American Heritage River and a Canadian Heritage River — the only river to have this dual designation. The Detroit River flows for 24 nautical miles from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie, however, today, the Detroit River is rarely referred to as a strait, because bodies of water referred to as straits are typically much wider. The Detroit River is only 0.5 to 2.5 miles wide, the Detroit River starts on an east to west flow but then bends and runs north to south. The deepest portion of the Detroit River is 53 feet deep in the portion of the river. At its source, the river is at an elevation of 574 feet above sea level, the river drops only three feet before entering into Lake Erie at 571 feet. As the river contains no dams and no locks, it is navigable by even the smallest of vessels. The watershed basin for the Detroit River is approximately 700 square miles, since the river is fairly short, it has few tributaries. Its largest tributary is the River Rouge in Michigan, which is four times longer than the Detroit River. The only other major American tributary to the Detroit River is the much smaller Ecorse River, tributaries on the Canadian side include Little River, Turkey Creek and the River Canard. The discharge for the Detroit River is relatively high for a river of its size, the rivers average discharge is approximately 188,000 cubic feet per second, and the rivers flow is constant. The Detroit River forms an element of the international border between the United States and Canada. The river on the American side is all under the jurisdiction of Wayne County, Michigan, the largest city along the Detroit River is Detroit, and most of the population along the river lives in Michigan
