1.
San Rafael, California
–
San Rafael is a city and the county seat of Marin County, California, United States. The city is located in the North Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area, as of the 2010 census the citys population is 57,713. What is now San Rafael was once the site of several Coast Miwok villages, Awani-wi, near downtown San Rafael, Ewu, near Terra Linda,14,1817, four years before Mexico gained independence from Spain. Mission San Rafael Arcángel was located a donkeys day walk to the mission below it, the mission and the city are named after the Archangel Raphael, the Angel of Healing. The mission was planned as a hospital site for Central Valley American Indians who had become ill at the cold San Francisco Mission Dolores. Father Luis Gil, who spoke several Native American languages, was put in charge of the facility, in part because of its ideal weather, San Rafael was later upgraded to full mission status in 1822. The mission had 300 converts within its first year, and 1,140 converts by 1828, the Mexican government took over the California missions in 1834, and Mission San Rafael was abandoned in 1844, eventually falling into ruin. The current mission was built in 1949 in the style of the original, the San Francisco and North Pacific Railroad reached San Rafael in 1879 and was linked to the national rail network in 1888. The United States Navy operated a San Pablo Bay degaussing range from San Rafael through World War II, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 22.4 square miles. 16.5 square miles of it is land and 6.0 square miles of it is water, south of the county is San Francisco. Peacock Gap Golf Course which is open to the public, there are several public parks in the city. The San Rafael shoreline has been filled to a considerable extent to accommodate land development. At certain locations such as Murphys Point, the sandstone or shale rock outcrops through the mud, San Rafael has a wide diversity of natural habitats from forests at the higher elevations to marshland and estuarine settings. Its marshes are home to the endangered species Salt Marsh Harvest Mouse, there are also riparian areas including the San Rafael Creek and Miller Creek corridors. San Rafael has a Mediterranean climate, with winter lows seldom reaching the freezing mark. The National Weather Service reports that August is usually the warmest month with a high of 80. 1°, December, the coldest month, has an average high of 55. 1° and an average low of 41. 0°. The highest temperature on record is 110°, recorded in June 1961, the highest temperature in recent years, 108°, occurred on July 23,2006. The record lowest temperature was 20° on December 22,1990, there are an average of 17.9 days annually with a high of 90° or more and 1.2 days with a high of 100° or more
San Rafael, California
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Mission San Rafael Arcángel, one of the city's most recognizable landmarks
San Rafael, California
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The Christopher B. Smith Rafael Film Center, seen in
American Graffiti.
San Rafael, California
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China Camp State Park
San Rafael, California
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Terra Linda High School
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
3.
Patron saint
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Catholics believe that patron saints, having already transcended to the metaphysical, are able to intercede effectively for the needs of their special charges. Historically, a practice has also occurred in many Islamic lands. With regard to the omnipresence of this belief, the late Martin Lings wrote. Traditionally, it has been understood that the saint of a particular place prays for that places wellbeing and for the health. Saints often become the patrons of places where they were born or had been active, professions sometimes have a patron saint owing to that individual being involved somewhat with it, although some of the connections were tenuous. Lacking such a saint, an occupation would have a patron whose acts or miracles in some way recall the profession and it is, however, generally discouraged in some Protestant branches such as Calvinism, where the practice is considered a form of idolatry. In Islam, the veneration or commemoration and recognition of saints is found in many branches of traditional Sunnism
Patron saint
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Saint Matthew the Apostle, depicted with an angel, is the patron saint of
Salerno, Italy, bankers and tax collectors
Patron saint
–
A branch of
Saint Honore Cake Shop, a
Hong Kong chain bakery, in Hong Kong.
Saint Honorius (Honoré) is the patron saint of bakers and confectioners.
4.
Raphael (angel)
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Raphael is an archangel of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam who in the Christian tradition performs all manners of healing. In Islam, Raphael is the fourth angel, in the Muslim tradition. Raphael is generally associated with the mentioned in the Gospel of John as stirring the water at the healing pool of Bethesda. Raphael is also an angel in Mormonism, as he is mentioned in the Doctrine. The angels mentioned in the Torah, the books of the Hebrew Bible, are without names. Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish of Tiberias, asserted that all the names for the angels were brought back by the Jews from Babylon. Raphael is named in several Jewish apocryphal books, and place upon him rough and jagged rocks, and cover him with darkness, and let him abide there for ever, and cover his face that he may not see light. And on the day of the judgment he shall be cast into the fire. Of archangels in the angelology of post-Exilic Judaism, only Michael, mentioned as archangel, the name of the angel Raphael appears only in the Biblical Book of Tobit. The Book of Tobit is considered deuterocanonical by Catholics, Orthodox, Raphael first appears disguised in human form as the travelling companion of Tobits son, Tobiah, calling himself Azarias the son of the great Ananias. During the course of the journey the archangels protective influence is shown in many including the binding of a demon in the desert of upper Egypt. After returning and healing the blind Tobit, Azarias makes himself known as the angel Raphael, one of the seven and he is venerated as Saint Raphael the Archangel. In the New Testament, only the archangels Gabriel and Michael are mentioned by name, and he that went down first into the pond after the motion of the water was made whole of whatsoever infirmity he lay under. Because of the role assigned to Raphael, this particular angel is generally associated with the archangel. On July 8,1497, when Vasco Da Gama set forth from Lisbon with his four ship fleet to sail to India, when the flotilla reached the Cape of Good Hope on October 22, the sailors disembarked and erected a column in the archangels honor. The little statue of St. Raphael that accompanied Da Gama on the voyage is now in the Naval Museum in Lisbon, Raphael is said to guard pilgrims on their journeys, and is often depicted holding a staff. He is also depicted holding or standing on a fish. The feast day of Raphael was included for the first time in the General Roman Calendar in 1921, with the 1969 revision of the General Roman Calendar, the feast was transferred to September 29 for celebration together with archangels Saints Michael and Gabriel
Raphael (angel)
–
Saint Raphael the Archangel by
Bartolomé Esteban Murillo
Raphael (angel)
–
Tobias and the Angel
Raphael (angel)
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Raphael, Palazzo Ducale, Venice, detail
Raphael (angel)
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Virgin Mary
5.
Archangel
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An archangel /ˌɑːrkˈeɪndʒəl/ is an angel of high rank. The word archangel itself is associated with the Abrahamic religions. The word archangel is derived from the Greek ἀρχάγγελος, Michael and Gabriel are recognized as archangels in Judaism, Islam and by most Christians. Protestants recognize Gabriel as an angel but consider Michael to be the only archangel, raphael—mentioned in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit—is also recognized in the Catholic and Orthodox churches. Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael are venerated in the Roman Catholic Church with a feast on September 29, the named archangels in Islam are Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrael. Jewish literature, such as the Book of Enoch, mentions Metatron as an archangel, called the highest of the angels, some branches of the faiths mentioned have identified a group of seven Archangels, but the actual angels vary, depending on the source. Gabriel, Michael, and Raphael are always mentioned, the other archangels vary, but most commonly include Uriel, in Zoroastrianism, sacred texts allude to the six great Amesha Spenta of Ahura Mazda. An increasing number of experts in anthropology, theology and philosophy, the Amesha Spentas of Zoroastrianism are likened to archangels. They individually inhabit immortal bodies that operate in the world to protect, guide, and inspire humanity. The Avesta explains the origin and nature of archangels or Amesha Spentas, to maintain equilibrium, Ahura Mazda engaged in the first act of creation, distinguishing his Holy Spirit Spenta Mainyu, the Archangel of righteousness. Ahura Mazda also distinguished from himself six more Amesha Spentas, who, along with Spenta Mainyu, then he oversaw the development of sixteen lands, each imbued with a unique cultural catalyst calculated to encourage the formation of distinct human populations. The Amesha Spentas were charged with protecting these holy lands and through their emanation, the Amesha Spentas as attributes of God are, Spenta Mainyu, lit. Immortality The Hebrew Bible uses the ter. מלאכי אלוהים, The Hebrew word for angel is malach, מלאכי י י, בני אלוהים and הקדושים to refer to beings traditionally interpreted as angelic messengers. Other terms are used in texts, such as העליונים. References to angels are uncommon in Jewish literature except in works such as the Book of Daniel, though they are mentioned briefly in the stories of Jacob. Daniel is the first biblical figure to refer to individual angels by name and it is therefore widely speculated that Jewish interest in angels developed during the Babylonian captivity. According to Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish of Tiberias, specific names for the angels were brought back by the Jews from Babylon, there are no explicit references to archangels in the canonical texts of the Hebrew Bible. In post-Biblical Judaism, certain angels came to take on a particular significance, though these archangels were believed to have rank amongst the heavenly host, no systematic hierarchy ever developed
Archangel
–
The Annunciation by
Paolo de Matteis
Archangel
–
Jacob wrestling with the Angel by
Gustave Doré 1885
Archangel
–
Guido Reni 's Archangel Michael Trampling Satan, 1636.
Archangel
–
Gabriel, Michael and Raphael, depicted in
stained glass in
St Ailbe's Church, a Catholic church in Ireland
6.
Spanish missions in California
–
The missions were part of a major effort by the Spanish Empire to extend colonization into the most northern and western parts of Spains North American claims. Following a long-term secular and religious policy of Spain in Latin America, Mexico achieved independence in 1821, taking Alta California along with it, but the missions maintained authority over native neophytes and control of vast land holdings until the 1830s. At the peak of its development in 1832, the mission system controlled an area equal to approximately one-sixth of Alta California. The Alta California government secularized the missions after the passage of the Mexican secularization act of 1833 and this divided the mission lands into land grants, which became many of the Ranchos of California. In the end, the missions had mixed results in their objectives, to convert, educate, today, the surviving mission buildings are the states oldest structures, and its most-visited historic monuments. Prior to 1754, grants of lands were made directly by the Spanish Crown. The missions were to be interconnected by a route which later became known as the Camino Real. The detailed planning and direction of the missions was to be carried out by Friar Junípero Serra, work on the coastal mission chain was concluded in 1823, completed after Serras death in 1784. Plans to build a mission in Santa Rosa in 1827 were canceled. The Santa Ysabel Asistencia had been founded in 1818 as a mother mission, in addition to the presidio and pueblo, the misión was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish sovereign to extend its borders and consolidate its colonial territories. Each frontier station was forced to be self-supporting, as existing means of supply were inadequate to maintain a colony of any size. California was months away from the nearest base in colonized Mexico, to sustain a mission, the padres required converted Native Americans, called neophytes, to cultivate crops and tend livestock in the volume needed to support a fair-sized establishment. The scarcity of imported materials, together with a lack of skilled laborers, compelled the missionaries to employ simple building materials, although the missions were considered temporary ventures by the Spanish hierarchy, the development of an individual settlement was not simply a matter of priestly whim. The padres blessed the site, and with the aid of their military escort fashioned temporary shelters out of tree limbs or driven stakes and it was these simple huts that ultimately gave way to the stone and adobe buildings that exist to the present. The first priority when beginning a settlement was the location and construction of the church, once the spot for the church had been selected, its position was marked and the remainder of the mission complex was laid out. The cuadrángulo was rarely a perfect square because the missionaries had no surveying instruments at their disposal and it was a doctrine established in 1531, which based the Spanish states right over the land and persons of the Indies on the Papal charge to evangelize them. It was employed wherever the indigenous populations were not already concentrated in native pueblos, the civilized and disciplined culture of the natives, developed over 8,000 year, was not considered. A total of 146 Friars Minor, mostly Spaniards by birth, were ordained as priests, sixty-seven missionaries died at their posts, while the remainder returned to Europe due to illness, or upon completing their ten-year service commitment
Spanish missions in California
–
A view of
Mission San Juan Capistrano in. At left is the façade of the first adobe church with its added espadaña; behind the campanario, or "bell wall" is the "Sacred Garden." The Mission has earned a reputation as the "Loveliest of the Franciscan Ruins."
Spanish missions in California
Spanish missions in California
–
The Missionaries as They Came and Went. Franciscans of the California missions donned gray
habits, in contrast to the brown that is typically worn today.
Spanish missions in California
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The first recorded baptisms in Alta California were performed in "The Canyon of the Little Christians."
7.
Baptism
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Baptism is a Christian sacrament of admission and adoption, almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally. The canonical Gospels report that Jesus was baptized—a historical event to which a degree of certainty can be assigned. Baptism has been called a sacrament and an ordinance of Jesus Christ. In some denominations, baptism is also called christening, but for others the word christening is reserved for the baptism of infants, Baptism has also given its name to the Baptist churches and denominations. The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the candidate to be immersed, in v.16, Matthew will speak of Jesus coming up out of the water. The traditional depiction in Christian art of John the Baptist pouring water over Jesus head may therefore be based on later Christian practice, other common forms of baptism now in use include pouring water three times on the forehead, a method called affusion. Martyrdom was identified early in Church history as baptism by blood, later, the Catholic Church identified a baptism of desire, by which those preparing for baptism who die before actually receiving the sacrament are considered saved. Today, some Christians, particularly Christian Scientists, Quakers, The Salvation Army, and Unitarians, do not see baptism as necessary, among those that do, differences can be found in the manner and mode of baptizing and in the understanding of the significance of the rite. Most Christians baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, much more than half of all Christians baptize infants, many others hold that only believers baptism is true baptism. Some insist on submersion or at least partial immersion of the person who is baptized, others consider that any form of washing by water, as long as the water flows on the head, is sufficient. The term baptism has also used to refer to any ceremony, trial, or experience by which a person is initiated, purified. The Greek verb baptō, dip, from which the verb baptizo is derived, is in turn hypothetically traced to a reconstructed Indo-European root *gʷabh-, the Greek words are used in a great variety of meanings. John the Baptist, who is considered a forerunner to Christianity, the apostle Paul distinguished between the baptism of John, and baptism in the name of Jesus, and it is questionable whether Christian baptism was in some way linked with that of John. Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the sacrament of baptism, though whether Jesus intended to institute a continuing, the earliest Christian baptisms were probably normally by immersion, complete or partial. Though other modes may have also been used, at the hour in which the cock crows, they shall first pray over the water. When they come to the water, the water shall be pure and flowing, that is, then they shall take off all their clothes. The children shall be baptized first, all of the children who can answer for themselves, let them answer. If there are any children who cannot answer for themselves, let their parents answer for them, after this, the men will be baptized
Baptism
–
Masaccio (1425–1426), Baptism of the Neophytes (it),
Brancacci Chapel,
Florence. This painting depicts baptism by
affusion, which continues in the East except for infants, but in the West it had dropped almost completely out of use by the 15th century. The artist may have chosen an archaic form for this depiction of baptism by
St. Peter.
Baptism
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Catacombs of San Callisto: baptism in a 3rd-century painting
Baptism
–
Christening photograph in
Orthodox Church. The moment of
Catechism.
8.
Secularization
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Secularization is the transformation of a society from close identification with religious values and institutions toward nonreligious values and secular institutions. The term secularization is also used in the context of the lifting of the restrictions from a member of the clergy. Secularization refers to the process in which religion loses social and cultural significance. As a result of secularization the role of religion in modern societies becomes restricted, in secularized societies faith lacks cultural authority, and religious organizations have little social power. Secularization has many levels of meaning, both as a theory and a historical process, social theorists such as Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, Max Weber, and Émile Durkheim, postulated that the modernization of society would include a decline in levels of religiosity. Study of this process seeks to determine the manner in which, or extent to which religious creeds, practices, the term also has additional meanings, primarily historical and religious. The 19th-century Kulturkampf in Germany and similar events in other countries also were expressions of secularization. In the 1960s there was a shift toward secularization in Western Europe, North America, Australia. At the most basic stages, this begins with a transition from oral traditions to a writing culture that diffuses knowledge. This first reduces the authority of clerics as the custodians of revealed knowledge, the issue of secularization is discussed in various religious traditions. The government of Turkey is a cited example, following the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate. This established popular sovereignty in a secular republican framework, in opposition to a system whose authority is based on religion, as one of many examples of state modernization, this shows secularization and democratization as mutually reinforcing processes, relying on a separation of religion and state. Some have therefore argued that Western and Indian secularization is radically different in that it deals with autonomy from religious regulation, considerations of both tolerance and autonomy are relevant to any secular state. John Sommerville outlined six uses of the secularization in the scientific literature. When discussing individual institutions, secularization can denote the transformation of a religious into a secular institution, examples would be the evolution of institutions such as Harvard University from a predominantly religious institution into a secular institution. When discussing mentalities, secularization refers to the transition from ultimate concerns to proximate concerns, E. g. individuals in the West are now more likely to moderate their behavior in response to more immediately applicable consequences rather than out of concern for post-mortem consequences. This is a personal religious decline or movement toward a secular lifestyle, when discussing populations, secularization refers to broad patterns of societal decline in levels of religiosity as opposed to the individual-level secularization of above. This understanding of secularization is also distinct from above in that it specifically to religious decline rather than societal differentiation
Secularization
–
Sociology
9.
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Francisco
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The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Francisco is an ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Catholic Church in the northern California region of the United States. It covers the City and County of San Francisco and the Counties of Marin, the Archdiocese of San Francisco was canonically erected on July 29,1853, by Pope Pius IX and its cathedral is the Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption. The first church in the Archdiocese of San Francisco is older than the Archdiocese itself, the mission church that stands today was completed in 1791 and attached next door is Mission Dolores Basilica. The Franciscans who founded the mission also are credited with naming the City and County of San Francisco, and the entire region, after their patron, Saint Francis of Assisi. The current auxiliary bishop of the archdiocese is William J. Justice and he had previously been Bishop of Oakland, California. The See of San Francisco is administered by the Archbishop of San Francisco and its suffragans include the Dioceses of Honolulu, Las Vegas, Oakland, Reno, Sacramento, Salt Lake City, San Jose, Santa Rosa, and Stockton. Peter Yorke Way and Starr King Way are off of Geary Street as it becomes Geary Boulevard. The lists of archbishops, coadjutor and auxiliary bishops and their terms of service, followed by other priests of this diocese who became bishops, Joseph Sadoc Alemany y Conill, O. P. Archbishop Edward Hanna served as the first chairman of the National Catholic Welfare Council from its founding in 1919 until his retirement in 1935, Archbishop John R. Quinn was president of the National Conference of Catholic Bishops and the United States Catholic Conference from 1977–1980. To date, no sitting Archibishop of San Francisco has been elevated to cardinal, montgomery died before Riordan and therefore never succeeded to the position of archbishop. J. Peter USA in 2015 Old Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Immaculate Conception — California Street and Grant Avenue, Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption —1001 Van Ness Avenue at OFarrell Street, destroyed by fire in 1962, the site is now studios of KRON-TV. Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption —1111 Gough at Geary Boulevard on Cathedral Hill, each county of the Archdiocese of San Francisco is divided into several deaneries, or parish groups. The CBA governs the terms of their employment, CL is an ecclesial association of Pontifical Right. Meetings are held weekly at St. Thomas More Church and the National Shrine of Saint Francis of Assisi, Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Francisco Official Site Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption Catholic San Francisco Article on the 40th Anniversary
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Francisco
–
The Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Assumption, as seen from the DePaul Campus of Sacred Heart Cathedral Preparatory
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Francisco
–
The coat of arms of the Archdiocese of San Francisco
10.
California Historical Landmark
–
California Historical Landmarks are buildings, structures, sites, or places in the state of California that have been determined to have statewide historical landmark significance. Historical significance is determined by meeting at least one of the criteria listed below, The first, last, only, associated with an individual or group having a profound influence on the history of California. California Historical Landmarks of #770 and above are listed in the California Register of Historical Resources. By contrast, a site, building, feature, or event that is of local significance may be designated as a California Point of Historical Interest. List of California Historical Landmarks by county National Historic Sites National Register of Historic Places listings in California — with links to list articles by county, los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monuments San Francisco Designated Landmarks Johnson, Marael. A Guide to California Roadside Historical Markers, official OHP—California Office of Historic Preservation website OHP, California Historical Sites searchpage — links to lists by county
California Historical Landmark
–
California State Capitol, a California Historical Landmark.
California Historical Landmark
–
Golden Capitol dome interior.
11.
Native Americans in the United States
–
In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
Native Americans in the United States
–
Pushmataha
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States
–
Charles Eastman
Native Americans in the United States
–
Wilma Mankiller
12.
Alta California
–
Alta California, founded in 1769 by Gaspar de Portolà, was a polity of New Spain and after the Mexican War of Independence in 1822, a territory of Mexico. The region included all of the states of California, Nevada, and Utah. Large areas east of the Sierra Nevada and San Gabriel Mountains were claimed to be part of Alta California, to the southeast, beyond the deserts and the Colorado River, lay the Spanish settlements in Arizona. The areas formerly comprising Alta California were ceded to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican–American War in 1848, two years later, California joined the union as the 31st state. Other parts of Alta California became all or part of the later U. S. states of Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. The Spanish explored the area of Alta California by sea beginning in the 16th century. During the following two centuries there were plans to settle the area, none of which were effectively carried out. Ultimately, New Spain did not have the resources nor population to settle such a far northern outpost. To ascertain the Russian threat a number of Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest were launched, the Spanish Crown funded the construction and subsidized the operation of the missions, with the goal that the relocation, conversion and enforced labor of Native people would bolster Spanish rule. The first Alta California mission and presidio were established by the Franciscan friar Junípero Serra, the following year,1770, the second mission and presidio were founded in Monterey. In 1773 a boundary between the Baja California missions and the Franciscan missions of Alta California was set by Francisco Palóu, the missionary effort coincided with the construction of presidios and pueblos, which were to be manned and populated by Hispanic people. The first pueblo founded was San José in 1777, followed by Los Ángeles in 1781, by law, mission land and property were to pass to the indigenous population after a period of about ten years, when the natives would become Spanish subjects. In the interim period, the Franciscans were to act as mission administrators who held the land in trust for the Native residents, the transfer of property never occurred under the Franciscans. As the number of Spanish settlers grew in Alta California, the boundaries, conflicts between the Crown and the Church and between Natives and settlers arose. State and ecclesiastical bureaucrats debated over authority of the missions and they advocated that the Natives owned property and had the right to defend it. Governor Diego de Borica is credited with defining Alta and Baja Californias official borders, Mexico won independence in 1822, and Alta California became a territory of Mexico. The Spanish and later Mexican governments rewarded retired soldados de cuera with large grants, known as ranchos, for the raising of cattle. Hides and tallow from the livestock were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century, the construction, ranching and domestic work on these vast estates was primarily done by Native Americans, who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses
Alta California
–
Map of N. America showing California when it was part of New Spain. Map dated 1789 from
Dobson's Encyclopedia.
Alta California
–
Mexico in 1838. From Britannica 7th edition
Alta California
–
Map of Mexico. S. Augustus Mitchell, Philadelphia, 1847. New California is depicted with a north-eastern border at the meridian leading north of the
Rio Grande headwaters.
13.
Sanatorium
–
A sanatorium is a medical facility for long-term illness, most typically associated with treatment of tuberculosis before antibiotics. A distinction is made between sanitarium and sanatorium. In 1863, Hermann Brehmer opened the Brehmersche Heilanstalt für Lungenkranke in Görbersdorf, Silesia, patients were exposed to plentiful amounts of high altitude, fresh air, and good nutrition. Tuberculosis sanatoria became common throughout Europe from the late-19th century onward, the Adirondack Cottage Sanitarium, established in Saranac Lake, New York, in 1885, was the first such establishment in North America. According to the Saskatchewan Lung Association, when the National Anti-Tuberculosis Association was founded in 1904, its members, accordingly, they took the Latin verb root sano, meaning to heal, and adopted the new word sanatorium. Switzerland used to have many sanatoria, as health professionals believed that clean, in Finland, a series of tuberculosis sanatoria were built throughout the country in isolated forest areas during the early 1900s. The most famous was the Paimio Sanatorium, completed in 1933 and it had both sun-balconies and a rooftop terrace where the patients would lie all day either in beds or on specially designed chairs, the Paimio Chair. In Portugal, the Heliantia Sanatorium in Valadares, was used for the treatment of tuberculosis between the 1930s and 1960s. In the early 20th century, tuberculosis sanatoria became common in the United States, in the early 1900s, Arizonas sunshine and dry desert air attracted many people suffering from tuberculosis, rheumatism, asthma, and numerous other diseases. Wealthier people chose to recuperate in exclusive TB resorts, while others used their savings to make the journey to Arizona, TB camps in the desert were formed by pitching tents and building cabins. During the tuberculosis epidemic, cities in Arizona advertised the state as a place for treatment of TB. Many sanatoriums in the state of Arizona were modeled after European away-from-city resorts of the time, boasting courtyards, each sanatorium was equipped to take care of about 120 people. The greatest area for sanatoriums was in Tucson, with over 12 hotel-style facilities in the city, by 1920, Tucson had 7,000 people who had come for treatment of tuberculosis. So many people came to the West that not enough housing was available for them all, in 1910, tent cities began to pop up in different areas, one was described as a place of squalor and shunned by most citizens. Many of the infected slept in the open desert, the first tuberculosis sanatorium for blacks in the segregated South was the Piedmont Sanatorium in Burkeville, Virginia. Waverly Hills Sanatorium, a Louisville, Kentucky, tuberculosis sanatorium, was founded in 1911 and it has become a mecca for curiosity seekers who believe it is haunted. Because of its dry climate, Colorado Springs was home to several sanatoria, a. G. Holley Hospital in Lantana, Florida was the last remaining freestanding tuberculosis sanatorium in the United States until it closed on July 2,2012. In 1907, Stannington Sanatorium was open in the North East of England to treat tuberculosis in children, the sanatorium was opened using funds raised by a local charity, the Poor Childrens Holiday Association, now the regions oldest childrens charity, Children North East
Sanatorium
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One of the remaining turrets of the Grunwald Sanatorium (now
Sokołowsko, Poland)
Sanatorium
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Postage stamp depicting the Paimio tuberculosis sanatorium, Finland, by Alvar Aalto
14.
Mexican secularization act of 1833
–
The Mexican secularization act of 1833 was passed twelve years after Mexico won independence from Spain in 1821. Mexico feared Spain would continue to have influence and power in California because most of the Spanish missions in California remained loyal to the Roman Catholic Church in Spain, as the new Mexican republic matured, calls for the secularization of the missions increased. The missions were part of the first major effort by Europeans to colonize the Pacific Coast region, the settlers introduced European fruits, vegetables, cattle, horses, ranching and technology into the Alta California region and to the Mission Indians. The El Camino Real road connected the missions from San Diego to Mission San Francisco Solano, in Sonoma, between 1683 and 1834, Jesuit and Franciscan missionaries established a series of religious outposts from todays Baja California and Baja California Sur into present-day California. José María de Echeandía, the first Mexican-born elected Governor of Alta California issued a Proclamation of Emancipation on July 25,1826. All Indians within the districts of San Diego, Santa Barbara. Those who wished to remain under mission tutelage were exempted from most forms of corporal punishment. In 1831, the number of Indians under missionary control in all of Upper-Alta California was about 18,683 and about 4,342 of garrison soldiers, free settlers, to that end, he appointed a number of comisionados to oversee the emancipation of the Indians. The Mexican government passed legislation on December 20,1827 that mandated the expulsion of all Spaniards younger than sixty years of age from Mexican territories, Spaniards could pose a threat to Mexico because Spain did not recognize Mexican independence and attempted to regain control over its former colony. Governor Echeandía nevertheless intervened on behalf of some Franciscans in order to prevent their deportation once the law took effect in California, in response, Father-Presidente Narciso Durán transferred the headquarters of the Alta California Mission System to Mission Santa Bárbara, where it remained until 1846. Governor Figueroa issued a regulation on August 9,1834 outlining the requirements for the distribution of property to each mission’s neophytes, among the provisions were that 5. To each head of a family and to all over 20 years old, plus 6. pro rata. one-half of the livestock and 7. Half or less of the chattels, tools, and seed. The ranchos made of former mission lands were divided into large land grants. This meant that the missions would hold only to the worship chapel, the residences of the priests. In some missions all of the buildings were lost and some mission buildings were divided. As the four to six soldiers assigned to guard each Mission were dismissed, Mission San Juan Capistrano was the very first to have land taken way, on August 9,1834 Governor Figueroa issued his Decree of Confiscation. Nine other settlements followed, with six more in 1835, San Buenaventura and Mission San Francisco de Asís were among the last to have land taken way, in June and December 1836
Mexican secularization act of 1833
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A map produced in 1920 shows the route of "El Camino Real" (not accurate in all segments), along with the 21
Alta California Franciscan missions.
Mexican secularization act of 1833
–
The ruins of Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad circa 1900.
Mexican secularization act of 1833
–
The original Mission San Francisco de Asís adobe structure is the smaller building at left, while the larger structure is a basilica completed in 1918 (the architectural style was influenced by designs exhibited at San Diego's
Panama-California Exposition in 1915).
Mexican secularization act of 1833
–
Mission San Juan Capistrano
15.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
16.
Bear Flag Revolt
–
In June 1846, a number of American immigrants in Alta California rebelled against the Mexican departments government. The immigrants had not been allowed to buy or rent land and had threatened with expulsion from California because they had entered without official permission. Mexican officials were concerned about a war with the United States coupled with the growing influx of Americans into California. The rebellion was soon overtaken by the beginning of the Mexican–American War, the name California Republic appeared only on the flag the insurgents raised in Sonoma. It indicated their aspiration of forming a government for California. The insurgents elected military officers but no structure was ever established. The flag featured an image of a California grizzly bear and became known as the Bear Flag and the revolt as the Bear Flag Revolt. Three weeks later, on July 5,1846, the Republics military of 100 to 200 men was subsumed into the California Battalion commanded by U. S. Army Brevet Captain John C. By 1845–46, Alta California had been neglected by Mexico for the twenty-five years since Mexican independence. The 1845 removal of Manuel Micheltorena, the latest governor to be sent by Mexico and forcefully ejected by the Californians, resulted in a divided government. The region south of San Luis Obispo was ruled by Governor Pio Pico with his capital in The Town of Our Lady the Queen of Angels of the Porciúncula River, Pico and Castro disliked each other personally and soon began escalating disputes over control of the Customhouse income. Decrees issued by the government in Mexico City were often acknowledged and supported with proclamations. By the end of 1845, when rumors of a force being sent from Mexico proved to be false. The relationship between the United States and Mexico had been deteriorating for some time, texas, which Mexico still considered to be its territory, had been admitted to statehood in 1845. Mexico had earlier threatened war if this happened, james K. Polk was elected President of the United States in 1844, and considered his election a mandate for his expansionist policies. Mexican law had long allowed grants of land to naturalized Mexican citizens, obtaining Mexican citizenship was not difficult and many earlier American immigrants had gone through the process and obtained free grants of land. The orders also required Californias officials not to land grants. All non-citizen immigrants, who had arrived without permission, were threatened with being forced out of California, Alta Californias Sub-Prefect Francisco Guerrero had written to U. S
Bear Flag Revolt
–
Pío Pico
Bear Flag Revolt
–
The Bear Flag
Bear Flag Revolt
–
US President James K Polk
Bear Flag Revolt
–
José Castro
17.
Kit Carson
–
Christopher Houston Kit Carson was an American frontiersman. The few paying jobs he had during his lifetime included mountain man, wilderness guide, Indian agent, Carson became a frontier legend in his own lifetime via biographies and news articles. Exaggerated versions of his exploits were the subject of dime novels, Carson left home in rural present-day Missouri at age 16 to become a mountain man and trapper in the West. In the 1830s, he accompanied Ewing Young on an expedition to Mexican California and he lived among and married into the Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes. In the 1840s, he was hired as a guide by John C, Fremonts expedition covered much of California, Oregon, and the Great Basin area. Fremont mapped and wrote reports and commentaries on the Oregon Trail to assist, Carson achieved national fame through Fremonts accounts of his expeditions. Under Fremonts command, Carson participated in the uprising against Mexican rule in California at the beginning of the Mexican-American War. S. government, in the 1850s, he was appointed as the Indian agent to the Ute Indians and the Jicarilla Apaches. During the American Civil War, Carson led a regiment of mostly Hispanic volunteers from New Mexico on the side of the Union at the Battle of Valverde in 1862. When the Confederate threat to New Mexico was eliminated, Carson led forces to suppress the Navajo, Mescalero Apache, Carson was breveted a Brigadier General and took command of Fort Garland, Colorado. He was there briefly, poor health forced him to retire from military life. Carson was married three times and had ten children, the Carson home was in Taos, New Mexico. Carson died at Fort Lyon, Colorado, of an aneurysm on May 23,1868. He is buried in Taos, New Mexico, next to his third wife Josefa Jaramillo, Carson was born in Kentucky on Christmas Eve,1809. His parents were Lindsay Carson and his wife, Rebecca Robinson. Lindsay had had five children by his first wife Lucy Bradley, Kit was their sixth, making him the eleventh of Lindsays offspring. Lindsay Carson had a Scots-Irish Presbyterian background and he was a farmer, a cabin builder, and a veteran of the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812. He fought Indians on the American frontier, losing two fingers on his hand in a battle with the Fox and Sauk Indians. The Carson family moved to Boones Lick, Howard County, Missouri, the family settled on a tract of land owned by the sons of Daniel Boone, who had purchased the land from the Spanish
Kit Carson
–
Kit Carson, circa 1860
Kit Carson
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Early photograph (possibly the first) of Kit Carson wearing a beaver hat
Kit Carson
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Mountain man Kit Carson and his favorite horse, Apache, from The Life and Adventures of Kit Carson, the Nestor of the Rocky Mountains by De Witt C. Peters. The book was Carson's first biography, and was printed in 1858.
Kit Carson
–
Jim Bridger
18.
Francisco de Haro
–
Francisco de Haro was the first Alcalde of Yerba Buena in Mexican Alta California. De Haro was born in Compostela, in the Viceroyalty of New Spain and he came to the Presidio of San Francisco as a soldier in 1819. De Haro became the first Alcalde of the pueblo of Yerba Buena in 1834 and he was instrumental in planning the street grid of the town along with Englishman William A. Richardson in 1835. In 1837, de Haro bought the Rancho Laguna de la Merced, and in strange turn of events, in 1838, Alcalde de Haro issued an arrest warrant for Jose Antonio Galindo for the murder of José Doroteo Peralta. De Haro served again as the fifth Alcalde from 1838-1839 and he commissioned the first survey of the settlement by Jean Jacques Vioget in 1839. De Haro married Emiliana Sánchez, who was the granddaughter of José Antonio Sanchez and she was the sister of Alcalde Francisco Sanchez and Alcalde José de la Cruz Sánchez. The marriage produced children, including a pair of twin sons. Kit Carson shot the 3 men at the direction of General John C, de Haro died on 28 November,1849 and is buried at the Mission Dolores cemetery in San Francisco. De Haro Street, in the Potrero Hill neighborhood of San Francisco, is named after him
Francisco de Haro
–
Grave of Francisco de Haro at Mission Dolores Cemetery, San Francisco, California
19.
Parish
–
A parish is a church territorial unit constituting a division within a diocese. A parish is under the care and clerical jurisdiction of a parish priest, who might be assisted by one or more curates. Historically, a parish often covered the same area as a manor. By extension the term refers not only to the territorial unit. In England this church property was technically in ownership of the parish priest ex-officio, the eighth Archbishop of Canterbury Theodore of Tarsus appended the parish structure to the Anglo-Saxon township unit, where it existed, and where minsters catered to the surrounding district. In the wider picture of ecclesiastical polity, a parish comprises a division of a diocese or see, parishes within a diocese may be grouped into a deanery or vicariate forane, overseen by a dean or vicar forane, or in some cases by an archpriest. Some churches of the Anglican Communion have deaneries as units of an archdeaconry, in the Roman Catholic Church, each parish normally has its own parish priest, who has responsibility and canonical authority over the parish. These are called assistant priests, parochial vicars, curates, or, in the United States, associate pastors, each diocese is divided into parishes, each with their own central church called the parish church, where religious services take place. An example is that of personal parishes established in accordance with the 7 July 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum for those attached to the form of the Roman Rite. Most Catholic parishes are part of Latin Rite dioceses, which cover the whole territory of a country. There can also be overlapping parishes of eparchies of Eastern Catholic Churches, the Church of England geographical structure uses the local parish church as its basic unit. The parish system survived the Reformation with the Anglican Churchs secession from Rome remaining largely untouched, Church of England parishes nowadays all lie within one of 44 dioceses divided between the provinces of Canterbury,30 and York,14. A chapelry was a subdivision of a parish in England. It had a status to a township but was so named as it had a chapel which acted as a subsidiary place of worship to the main parish church. In England civil parishes and their parish councils evolved in the 19th century as ecclesiastical parishes began to be relieved of what became considered to be civic responsibilities. Thus their boundaries began to diverge, the word parish acquired a secular usage. Since 1895, a council elected by public vote or a parish meeting administers a civil parish and is formally recognised as the level of local government below a district council. The parish is also the level of church administration in the Church of Scotland
Parish
–
St Margarete Parish Church in Berndorf, Austria; parish churches have been at the heart of local
Christian communities for centuries.
Parish
–
A small Roman Catholic parish church in Wróblik, Poland
Parish
–
Hasfield parish church in England
20.
Mission San Francisco Solano
–
Mission San Francisco Solano was the 21st, last and northernmost mission in Alta California. It was the only built in Alta California after Mexico gained independence from Spain. The difficulty of its beginning demonstrates the confusion resulting from change in governance. The California Governor wanted a robust Mexican presence on the Pacific coast from moving further inland, a young Franciscan friar from Mission San Francisco de Asis wanted to move to a location with a better climate and access to a larger number of potential converts. The Mission was successful given its short eleven year life but was smaller in number of converts, the mission building is now part of the Sonoma State Historic Park and is located in the city of Sonoma, California. José Altimira age 33, arrived from Barcelona, Spain to serve at Mission San Francisco de Asís in 1820, the mission was not thriving because of its climate and had established a medical asistencia in San Rafael to help the mission’s ill neophytes recover their health. California Governor Luis Argüello was interested in blocking the Russians at Bodega Bay, the legislature approved but the church authorities did not respond. Under the old Spanish regime, founding a new mission required the approval of both New Spains Bishop and the King’s Viceroy, beginning in 1823, while waiting for a response from the church authorities, Fr. Altimira, with escorts, began exploring north of the Bay for a suitable mission site. On July 4,1823 the soldiers placed a large cross on the place in the Sonoma Valley where they expected the ‘new’ Mission San Francisco de Asis to be established. Then they celebrated Mass to consecrate the location and they then returned south to begin gathering men and materials to begin construction. The area around the site was not empty. It was near the northeast corner of the territory of the Coast Miwok, Southern Pomo to the northwest, Wappo to the northeast, Suisunes, a detachment of soldiers from the Presidio of San Francisco would be provided to protect the Mission and guard the neophytes. Altimira with soldiers and neophytes primarily from Mission San Francisco de Asís returned to the Sonoma area near the end of August, Altimira decided there was a better place to build on the other side of the valley. Just after starting he received a letter from Father-President Sarria who refused Altimira permission to continue building, Altimira obeyed and the month of September saw continuing negotiations between California’s civil and religious leaders. On September 30 an agreement was reached, a new mission could be built, Altimira would be its minister but Mission San Francisco de Asís would not be closed and the San Rafael asistencia had already been designated as a full mission. Altimira had the opportunity to build his new mission at the location he chose, Altimira chose San Francisco Solano, a 17th-century Franciscan missionary to South America. His company of soldiers and neophytes set about building all the facilities needed in a California mission and his annual report for 1823 listed no baptisms, one marriage, one funeral, a population of 482 Indians and 1341 animals
Mission San Francisco Solano
–
Mission San Francisco Solano circa 1910
Mission San Francisco Solano
–
The Mission today
Mission San Francisco Solano
–
Stylized portrayal of the Mission
Mission San Francisco Solano
–
Fanega Measure
21.
USNS Mission San Rafael (AO-130)
–
SS Mission San Rafael was a Type T2-SE-A2 tanker built for the United States Maritime Commission during World War II. After the war she was acquired by the United States Navy as USS Mission San Rafael, later the tanker transferred to the Military Sea Transportation Service as USNS Mission San Rafael. She was a member of the Mission Buenaventura-class oiler and was named for Mission San Rafael Arcángel, edith S. Waterman, and delivered on 22 March 1944. Chartered to Los Angeles Tanker Operators, Inc. for operations on the same date and she remained in this capacity until 25 April 1946 when she was transferred to the Maritime Commission and laid up in the Maritime Reserve Fleet at Olympia, Washington. Acquired by the Navy on 21 October 1947 she was chartered to Union Oil Company for operations, transferred to the control of the newly created Military Sea Transportation Service on 1 October 1949 she was redesignated USNS Mission San Rafael. She remained with MSTS until 2 February 1955 when she was returned to MARAD and she was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 22 June 1955. Reacquired by the Navy on 20 June 1956 she was again placed in service with MSTS and was operated, under charter. She served until 20 August 1959 when she was returned to MARAD and laid up in the Maritime Reserve Fleet at Suisun Bay, reacquired by the Navy on 31 May 1960 she was placed in service with MSTS and operated, under charter, by Marine Transport Lines. Into 1969, she was serving with MSTS, carrying fuel to U. S. forces stationed overseas. The ships final disposition is unknown and this article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships
USNS Mission San Rafael (AO-130)
–
History
22.
Oiler (ship)
–
A replenishment oiler is a naval auxiliary ship with fuel tanks and dry cargo holds, which can conduct underway replenishment on the high seas. Several countries have used replenishment oilers, the US Navy hull classification symbol for this type of ship was AOR. Replenishment oilers are slower and carry fewer dry stores than the US Navys fast combat support ships, the development of the oiler paralleled the change from coal- to oil-fired boilers in warships. Though arguments related to fuel security were made against such a change, one of the first generation of blue-water navy oiler support vessels was the British RFA Kharki, active 1911 in the run-up to the First World War. Such vessels heralded the transition from coal to oil as the fuel of warships and removed the need to rely on, modern examples of the fast combat support ship include the large British Fort-Class, displacing and 669 ft in length, and the Australian HMAS Sirius. For smaller navies, such as the Royal New Zealand Navy, such ships are designed to carry large amounts of fuel and dry stores for the support of naval operations far away from port. Replenishment oilers are also equipped with extensive medical and dental facilities than smaller ships can provide. Such ships are equipped with multiple refueling gantries to refuel and resupply ships at a time. The process of refueling and supplying ships at sea is called underway replenishment, furthermore, such ships often are designed with helicopter decks and hangars. This allows the operation of rotary-wing aircraft, which allows the resupply of ships by helicopter and this process is called vertical replenishment. They may also carry man-portable air-defense systems for air defense capability. Kaiser-class oiler (United States Navy and Chilean Navy ex-USNS Andrew J
Oiler (ship)
–
The replenishment oiler
HMAS Sirius (right) providing fuel to the amphibious warfare ship
USS Juneau while both are underway
Oiler (ship)
–
A replenishment oiler at work
23.
World War II
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
24.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
25.
The Bancroft Library
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The Bancroft Library in the center of the Berkeley campus of the University of California, Berkeley, is the universitys primary special-collections library. It was acquired from its founder, Hubert Howe Bancroft, in 1905, the collection at that time consisted of 50,000 volumes of materials on the history of California and the North American West. It is the largest such collection in the world, the building the library is located in, the Doe Annex, was completed in 1950. The inception of the Bancroft Library dates back to 1859, looking through his stock he was agreeably surprised to find some 50 or 75 volumes. There was no fixed purpose at this time to collect a library, during his next visit to the eastern states, without special pains or search, he secured whatever fell under his observation in second-hand stores of New York, Boston and Philadelphia. He had collected in all not far from a 1,000 volumes and had begun to feel satisfied. When, however, I visited London and Paris, and rummaged the enormous stocks of second-hand books in the hundreds of stores of that class, my eyes began to open. And so it was, when the collection had reached one thousand volumes, I fancied I had them all, finally, special journeys were made to all parts of Europe, as well as the Americas, in the interest of his collection. And not only was every nook and corner of the world thus ramsacked, while his vague ideas of materials for writing a history gradually assumed more definite form, Bancroft had as yet no idea of writing a history himself. The bibliophile reached the determination to make his collection as complete as it was possible to make it. Neither time, nor money, nor personal attention would be spared, agents were appointed in all the leading book marts of the world, no book must be lost because of its high price, no opportunity was to be missed to obtain everything in existence on the subject. By buying up at auction in European cities individual collections, and even libraries, in 1869, it is reported that Bancroft held, including pamphlets, about 16,000 volumes. These were lodged on the floor of the Market Street building. Bancroft now decided to begin work, but the collecting went rapidly forward without interruption. He would erect on some convenient spot a fireproof library building, the library was moved to the building October 9,1881. There the library stood for years, when the question of State purchase was taken up, the Bancroft Library was said to contain from 50,000 to 60,000 volumes of books, pamphlets, maps and manuscripts. Prof. Joseph Cummings Rowell, Librarian of the State University, after personal examination. In 1887, a bill was presented in the State Legislature to purchase the library for the State for $250,000, but the proposition was quickly defeated
The Bancroft Library
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Bancroft Library, September 2010.
26.
Huell Howser
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The archive of his video chronicles offers an enhanced understanding of the history, culture, and people of California. He also voiced the Backson in Winnie the Pooh, Howser was born Huell Burnley Howser in Gallatin, Tennessee on October 18,1945 to Harold Chamberlain and Jewell Havens Howser. Howsers first name is a blend of his parents names Harold and Jewell and he received a B. A. in history from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, where he also served as student body president. After serving in the U. S. Marine Corps and on the staff of U. S. Howser was also a personality working for the University of Tennessee. After working in New York City as the host of WCBS-TVs Real Life show, Howser moved to Los Angeles, during 1982 and 1983, he served as weekend host and correspondent for Entertainment Tonight. In 1985, he joined KCET as a producer of Videolog, Californias Gold highlights small towns, landmarks, events, or places of interest throughout California that are not well known to the general public. Howser conducted informal, often impromptu, interviews with locals involved with the sites he visits and he also produced Californias Communities, Californias Golden Fairs, Downtown, Californias Water, Californias Green, Californias Golden Coast, Californias Golden Parks, Road Trip, Visiting. With Huell Howser, California Missions, Palm Springs, Our Neighborhoods, The Bench, articles written by Howser have appeared in Westways, the magazine of the Automobile Club of Southern California. In 1997, Howser featured prominently as himself alongside Tracey Ullman in character as Ruby Romaine in the Tracey Takes On, Howser spearheaded an unsuccessful effort to stop the demolition of buildings designed by Paul Williams at the Long Beach Naval Shipyard. He appeared in Who Killed the Electric Car. in his capacity as a reporter, witnessing the demolition, in 2011, Howser voiced the Backson in the post-credits scene of Walt Disney Animation Studioss feature film Winnie the Pooh. Howser lived in the historic El Royale apartments in Los Angeles, California and also had homes in Palm Springs, on June 29,2015, Howsers Twentynine Palms home became available for rentals and weddings. On September 3,2015, his Volcano-Top Saucer House in the Mojave Desert sold for $650,000, Howser mentioned that he was a Methodist during his episode covering the Nevada County Fair on Californias Golden Fairs. In 2003, Howser purchased the 1, 800-square-foot Volcano House, situated on a cinder cone just outside Barstow, along with 60 acres of desert. In 2010, Howser put his unusual Newberry Springs, California, in June 2012, The Panther, a student-run newspaper for Chapman University announced that Howser had donated the Volcano House to the school. On November 27,2012, The Sacramento Bee reported that Howser was retiring from making new shows, on January 7,2013, Howser died at his Palm Springs home at the age of 67. He had been battling cancer for years and his death certificate listed metastatic prostate cancer as the cause of death. Howsers body was cremated and his ashes were scattered at sea off the coast of Los Angeles County, on January 15,2013, a memorial was held for Howser, who said before his death that he did not want a funeral as he did not want attention. Howser donated his collection of Californias Gold episodes, as well as those of his other series
Huell Howser
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Howser at the
Nisei Week Grand Parade in
Los Angeles,
California on August 19, 2007
Huell Howser
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Huell Howser
Huell Howser
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Howser's image on a milk bottle
Huell Howser
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Howser riding in a tandem IndyCar race car at the 2009 Long Beach Grand Prix
27.
Chapman University
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Chapman University is a private, non-profit university located in Orange, California, United States. It is affiliated with the Christian Church, Chapman also operates Brandman University as a separate, fully accredited university within the Chapman University System. Founded as Hesperian College, in Woodland, California, the school classes on March 4,1861. Its opening was timed to coincide with the hour of Abraham Lincolns first inauguration, Hesperian admitted students of both sexes and all races. In 1920, the assets of Hesperian College were absorbed by California Christian College, in 1934, the school was renamed Chapman College, after the chairman of its board of trustees, C. C. In 1954, Chapman College moved to its present campus in the city of Orange, Chapman established a Residence Education Center Program to serve military personnel in 1958. This evolved into the Chapman University College, Chapman University is the largest private university in Orange County, and is ranked in the U. S. News and World Reports top-tier of western region colleges and universities. It comprises four schools and five colleges, including the Dale E and it offers 46 undergraduate and 17 graduate majors. Chapman College became Chapman University in 1991, in that year, Dr. James L. Doti became president of Chapman University. Dr. Doti has received the Horatio Alger Award and the Ellis Island Medal of Honor and he was honored by the Council for Advancement of Education as 2003 CEO of the Year. According to The Chronicle of Higher Education, Doti earned $1,542,270, Schmid College of Science and Technology has a plan for a 140,000 sq. ft. Center for Science & Technology on Chapmans main campus in Orange, opening in fall 2018. In 1959 Chapman University broke ground for Braden Hall, a dormitory on campus. It later became a co-ed dorm and was best known for its basketball court and it was torn down in 2007 and replaced in 2009 by the Sandhu Residence Center, which includes a cafeteria and rock climbing wall for students. Chapman co-produces the OC Channel in a partnership with KOCE, founded in 1977, the school is named after George L. Argyros, a Chapman alum and former U. S. Ambassador to Spain. Argyros has chaired the board of trustees of Chapman University since 1976, the business school was renamed in Argyros honor in 1999. The Argyros School offers undergraduate and graduate degrees in business, the MBA program has three lines, Executive, Professional, and Full Time. Chapmans Professional MBA Program is ranked #48 by Bloomberg/Businessweek and the Full Time program is currently ranked #83, building on its strength in undergraduate accounting, the school recently launched a one-year Master of Science in Accounting degree. In 2008, The Princeton Review ranked Chapman Business Schools undergraduate and graduate programs among its Top 25 programs in the country, the Argyros School of Business and Economics was officially nationally ranked as the 60th Best Undergraduate Bloomberg BusinessWeek Business School in 2014
Chapman University
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Williams Mall, with Memorial Hall (left) and Smith Hall (right)
Chapman University
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Chapman University
Chapman University
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Schmid Gate, built in 2005.
