1.
Saw
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A saw is a tool consisting of a tough blade, wire, or chain with a hard toothed edge. It is used to cut material, very often wood. The cut is made by placing the edge against the material and moving it forcefully forth. This force may be applied by hand, or powered by steam, water, an abrasive saw has a powered circular blade designed to cut through metal. Abrasive saw, A saw that cuts with a disc or band. Back, the edge opposite the toothed edge, fleam, The angle of the faces of the teeth relative to a line perpendicular to the face of the saw. Gullet, The valley between the points of the teeth, heel, The end closest to the handle. For example, a blade can cause excessive wobble, creating a wider-than-expected kerf. The kerf created by a blade can be changed by adjusting the set of its teeth with a tool called a saw tooth setter. Points per inch, The most common measurement of the frequency of teeth on a saw blade. It is taken by setting the tip of one tooth at the point on a ruler. There is always one point per inch than there are teeth per inch. Some saws do not have the number of teeth per inch throughout their entire length. Those with more teeth per inch at the toe are described as having incremental teeth, rake, The angle of the front face of the tooth relative to a line perpendicular to the length of the saw. In most modern serrated saws, the teeth are set, so that the kerf will be wider than the blade itself and this allows the blade to move through the cut easily without binding. The set may be different depending on the kind of cut the saw is intended to make, for example, a rip saw has a tooth set that is similar to the angle used on a chisel, so that it rips or tears the material apart. A flush-cutting saw has no set on one side, so that the saw can be flat on a surface. The set of the teeth can be adjusted with a tool called a saw set
2.
Crosscut saw
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A crosscut saw is any saw designed for cutting wood perpendicular to the wood grain. Crosscut saws may be small or large, with small teeth close together for fine work like woodworking or large for coarse work like log bucking, the cutting edge of each tooth is angled in an alternating pattern. This design allows each tooth to act like an edge and slice through the wood in contrast to a rip saw. Some crosscut saws use special teeth called rakers designed to clean out the cut strips of wood from the kerf, Crosscut saws generally have larger teeth than rip saws. Some saws, such as Japanese saws and those used by the ancient Egyptians, are designed to cut only on the pull stroke, western saws, on the other hand, are designed to cut on the push stroke. Larger saws used for forestry and logging work include both one-man and two-man saws, and both bucking and felling saws, a bucking saw generally has a straighter back and less of a pronounced curve on its cutting surface. A felling saw is generally less stiff than a bucking saw, felling saws are more often used to cut down standing trees, so the thinner, lighter design is easier to use without gravity holding the blade against the cut. The concave back of the saw makes it easier to place wedges, Crosscut saws also include smaller hand saws used in carpentry. All saws have cutting teeth, some may also have rakers, as the saw is pulled toward the operator, the cutters score the wood to the left and right of the width of the blade, cutting a channel downward into the wood. Many sawtooth patterns have four cutters, each cutter that cuts to the left of the blade is paired with another that cuts to the right of the blade, adjacent to the cutters there is generally a raker. The void on either side of the raker is known as the gullet, a raker is what does the actual removal of the wood that is being cut. The raker follows the cutters, paring the bottom of the kerf like a chisel or plane, as the raker pares the bottom of the kerf, a strip of wood is lifted upward, and curled forward into the gullet. As the saw is drawn out of the kerf, the wood that has accumulated in the gullets is allowed to fall out onto the ground, the cutting mechanics of the crosscut saw tooth has been described as a ‘knife like’ cutting action. The sharp bevelled cutting edges sever the wood perpendicular to the grain. Felling or bucking is a dangerous job. On top of that, both chainsaw and crosscut saws are dangerous in their own rights, a kit for crosscut saw work weighs much less than a kit for chainsaw work. A chainsaw kit includes fuel, oil, a few tools, the primary maintenance carried out on crosscut saws is sharpening, which requires a shop and a highly skilled filer. The primary maintenance on chainsaws is engine tuning, chain tensioning, Crosscut saws are unable to bore cut, a technique that a chainsaw operator uses constantly
3.
Miter joint
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A miter joint, sometimes shortened to miter, is a joint made by beveling each of two parts to be joined, usually at a 45° angle, to form a corner, usually a 90° angle. For woodworking, a disadvantage of a joint is its weakness. There are two variations of a splined miter joint, one where the spline is long and runs the length of the mating surfaces. Common applications include picture frames, pipes, and molding, for miter joints occurring at angles other than 90°, for materials of the same cross-section the proper cut angle must be determined so that the two pieces to be joined meet flush. To find the cut angle divide the angle at which the two meet by two. When a piece is beveled at both ends, such that the two attached pieces do not lie in the plane, a three-dimensional structure is obtained. In that case, it is necessary to either rotate the piece in its longitudinal axis or to tilt the saw blade before beveling the second end. It is always possible to close a structure constructed with pieces having non-circular cross section into a loop through properly matched miter joints, however, a three-dimensional loop from pieces with non-circular cross section need not close properly when attempting to miter it all the way round. In general, a twist occurs, causing the edges at the last joint to be misaligned
4.
Backsaw
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A backsaw is any hand saw which has a stiffening rib on the edge opposite the cutting edge, allowing for better control and more precise cutting than with other types of saws. Backsaws are normally used in woodworking for precise work, such as cutting dovetails, mitres, because of the stiffening rib, backsaws are limited in the depth to which they can cut. Backsaws usually have relatively closely spaced teeth, often little or no set. Backsaws include the tenon saw, the saw, and the sash saw1. Tenon and dovetail saws usually have a pistol grip style handle which may be open or closed at the bottom, note that not all mitre saws are backsaws, and the electric mitre saw has largely taken its place today. Tenon saw — a midsized backsaw, the saw derives its name from its use in the cutting of tenons for mortise and tenon joinery. Tenon saws are available with rip-filed teeth for rip cutting. Teeth are relatively fine, with 13 teeth per inch being a size for the saw. Sash saw — name that seems to have used in the 18th and 19th century for a smaller tenon saw. The term is used currently to refer to a thin. Dovetail saw — a small backsaw used to cut dovetails, although most dovetail saw teeth are set for cross-cutting, a rip saw tooth pattern is more efficient. These saws will usually have a number of teeth per inch with teeth sharpened to favor ripping operations. Gents saw or Gentlemans saw — a small dovetail saw with a straight turned handle, the name seems to have arisen from its use by the nineteenth century dilettante who would now be called a hobbyist but it is hard to find a nineteenth century reference to it. For example, in the section on tools in Every Man his own Mechanic, tenon, dovetail and sash saws are listed as a group but there is no mention of a gents saw. It is adapted for use in making joints in very small such as that in some musical instruments. Its distinguishing features are its size and turned handle. Razor saw — a very small backsaw having very finely pitched crosscut teeth, the Razor saw is used by hobbyists, notably Model aircraft, boat, and railroad enthusiasts. Razor saws typically use disposable blades, since their teeth are so small as to be impractical to re-sharpen, a razor saw is capable of making clean cuts in very soft woods like Balsa, which most other saws would tend to tear out
5.
Circular saw
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A circular saw is a power-saw using a toothed or abrasive disc or blade to cut different materials using a rotary motion spinning around an arbor. A hole saw and ring saw also use a motion but are different from a circular saw. Circular saws may also be used for the blade itself. Circular saws were invented in the late 18th century and were in use in sawmills in the United States by the middle of the 19th century. A circular saw is a tool for cutting many materials such as wood, masonry, plastic, or metal, in woodworking the term circular saw refers specifically to the hand-held type and the table saw and chop saw are other common forms of circular saws. Skil saw has become a trademark for conventional hand-held circular saws. The circular saw was invented around the end of the 18th century as a rip-saw to convert logs into lumber in sawmills and various claims have been made as to who invented the circular saw. Before the design was invented logs were sawn by hand using a pit saw or using powered saws in a sawmill using a saw with a reciprocating motion. The rotary nature of the circular saw requires more power to operate, the sound of the circular saw is different from the sound of an up-and-down saw and earned it the nickname buzz-saw. Sawmills first used smaller diameter circular saws to resaw dimension lumber such as lath and wall studs, as the technology advanced large diameter saw blades began to be used for the head saws and to cut clapboards. Claims to the invention of the circular saw include, A common claim is for a little-known sailmaker named Samuel Miller of Southampton, however the specification for this only mentions the form of the saw incidentally, probably indicating that it was not his invention. Gervinus of Germany is often credited with inventing the saw in 1780. Walter Taylor of Southampton had the contract for Portsmouth Dockyard. In about 1762 he built a saw mill where he roughed out the blocks and this was replaced by another mill in 1781. Descriptions of his there in the 1790s show that he had circular saws. Taylor patented two other improvements to blockmaking but not the circular saw and this suggests either that he did not invent it or that he published his invention without patenting it. Another claim is that it originated in Holland in the sixteenth or seventeenth century and this may be correct, but nothing more precise is known. This claim is now mostly discredited, the Barringer, Manners and Wallis factory in Rock Valley Mansfield, Nottinghamshire also claims to be the site of the invention
6.
Molding (decorative)
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Moulding, also known as coving, is a strip of material with various profiles used to cover transitions between surfaces or for decoration. It is traditionally made from solid milled wood or plaster, in classical architecture and sculpture, the molding is often carved in marble or other stones. A sprung molding has bevelled edges that allow mounting between two planes, with an open space behind the molding. Other types of molding are referred to as plain, at their simplest, moldings are a means of applying light- and dark-shaded stripes to a structural object without having to change the material or apply pigments. The contrast of dark and light areas gives definition to the object, imagine the vertical surface of a wall lit by sunlight at an angle of about 45 degrees above the wall. Adding a small overhanging horizontal molding to the surface of the wall will introduce a dark horizontal shadow below the molding, adding a vertical fillet to a horizontal surface will create a light vertical shadow. Other varieties of concave molding are the scotia and congé and other convex moldings the echinus, the torus, placing an ovolo directly above a cavetto forms a smooth s-shaped curve with vertical ends that is called an ogee or cyma reversa molding. Its shadow appears as a light at the top and bottom. Similarly, a cavetto above an ovolo forms an s with horizontal ends and its shadow shows two dark bands with a light interior. Together the basic elements and their variants form a vocabulary that can be assembled and rearranged in endless combinations. This vocabulary is at the core of classical architecture and Gothic architecture. Decorative moldings have been made of wood, stone and cement, recently moldings made of Expanded Polystyrene as a core with a cement-based protective coating have become popular. These moldings have environmental, health and safety concerns that were investigated by Doroudiani et al, there are a variety of common moldings, Astragal — A semi-circular molding attached to one of a pair of especially fire doors to cover the air gap where the doors meet. Baguette — Thin, half-round molding, smaller than an astragal, sometimes carved, when enriched with ornaments, it was also called chapelet. Bandelet — Any little band or flat molding, which crowns a Doric architrave and it is also called a tenia (from Greek ταινία an article of clothing in the form of a ribbon. Baseboard, base molding or skirting board — used to conceal the junction of a wall and floor, to protect the wall from impacts. A speed base makes use of a base cap molding set on top of a plain 1 thick board, see also, chin-beak Bed molding — a narrow molding used at the junction of a wall and ceiling. Bed moldings can be either sprung or plain, bolection — a molding which is raised, projecting proud of the face frame
7.
Abrasive saw
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An abrasive saw, also known as a cut-off saw or chop saw, is a power tool which is typically used to cut hard materials, such as metals, tile, and concrete. The cutting action is performed by a disc, similar to a thin grinding wheel. Technically speaking this is not a saw, as it not use regularly shaped edges for cutting. These saws are available in a number of configurations, including top, free hand. In the table top models, which are used to cut tile and metal. Table top saws are often electrically powered and generally have a built-in vise or other clamping arrangement, the free hand designs are typically used to cut concrete, asphalt, and pipe on construction sites. They are designed with the handles and motor near the operator, free hand saws do not feature a vise, because the materials being cut are larger and heavier. Walk-behind models, sometimes called flat saws are larger saws which use a stand or cart to cut into concrete floors as well as asphalt, abrasive saws typically use composite friction disk blades to abrasively cut through the steel. The disks are consumable items as they wear throughout the cut, the abrasive disks for these saws are typically 14 in in diameter and 7⁄64 in thick. Larger saws use 410 mm diameter blades, disks are available for steel and stainless steel. Abrasive saws can also use superabrasive blades, which last longer than conventional abrasive materials, superabrasive materials are more commonly used when cutting concrete, asphalt, and tile, however, they are also suitable for cutting ferrous metals. Since their introduction, portable cut-off saws have made many building site jobs easier, with these saws, lightweight steel fabrication previously performed in workshops using stationary power bandsaws or cold saws can be done on-site. Abrasive saws have replaced expensive and hazardous acetylene torches in many applications. In addition, these saws allow construction workers to cut concrete, asphalt. Angle grinder Cold saw Miter box Ring saw Madsen, David A, print Reading for Engineering and Manufacturing Technology
8.
Radial arm saw
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A radial arm saw is a cutting machine consisting of a circular saw mounted on a sliding horizontal arm. Invented by Raymond DeWalt in 1922, the radial arm saw was the tool used for cutting long pieces of stock to length until the introduction of the power miter saw in the 1970s. In addition to making length cuts, a radial arm saw may be configured with a blade to create cuts for dado. In addition some radial arm saws allow the blade to be turned parallel to the back fence, unlike most types of woodworking machinery, the radial arm saw has a clear genesis, it was invented by Raymond De Walt of Bridgeton, New Jersey. DeWalt applied for patents in 1923, which were issued in 1925, a saw which combines the sliding and compound features is known as a sliding compound miter saw or SCMS. Before the advent of the radial arm saw, table saws, table saws can easily rip stock, but it is awkward to push a long piece of stock widthwise through a table saw blade. In contrast, when a radial arm saw is used for crosscutting, the stock remains stationary on the table. During the late 1970s, the miter saw began to replace the radial arm saw. The radial arm saw can be safe when used by an inexperienced or untrained operator. Like the compound miter saw, the radial arm saw can make cuts with absolute precision. In the home shop the radial arm saw is an alternative to the table saw, both machines can rip, crosscut, do simple and compound miters, dado, mold or shape, make tenons, make open mortises, taper cut, and rabbet. The radial saw is perfectly efficient backed up against a wall, the saw tilts on all axis except vertical slope - see photo. If machining depth cuts, the radial arm saw allows one to see the progress, with the clamped and using the arm, the cuts are better machined and require no jig setup, the advantage is not widely needed however. Cutting full depth is less convenient, as the saw lowers into the table, top cutting machined saw table with differing axis designs are still made and sold. Power saws can cut off fingers. Furthermore, a blade will grab lumber with enough force to kick it through a wall. A new blade has less tendency to grab but still requires proper feeding, Radial arm saws are safer with a blade with a very low or negative hook angle, to inhibit overly fast feed rate, binding, and the blades tendency to try to climb the material. Also, a 10 deg. positive hook blade with a triple chip profile works well on the radial arm saw, if the saw climbs with this blade, the yoke roller bearings need to be adjusted and tightened
9.
Vacuum cleaner
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The dirt is collected by either a dustbag or a cyclone for later disposal. Specialized shop vacuums can be used to suck up both dust and liquids, although vacuum cleaner and the short form vacuum are neutral names, in some countries hoover is used instead as a genericized trademark, and as a verb. The name comes from the Hoover Company, one of the first, the device is also sometimes called a sweeper although the same term also refers to a carpet sweeper, a similar invention. The vacuum cleaner evolved from the carpet sweeper via manual vacuum cleaners, the first manual models, using bellows, were developed in the 1860s, and the first motorized designs appeared at the turn of the 20th century, with the first decade being the boom decade. In 1860 a carpet sweeper was invented by Daniel Hess of West Union, Iowa that gathered dust with a rotating brush, another early model was the Whirlwind, invented in Chicago in 1868 by Ives W. McGaffey. The bulky device worked with a belt driven fan cranked by hand that made it awkward to operate, a similar model was constructed by Melville R. Bissell of Grand Rapids, Michigan in 1876. The company later added portable vacuum cleaners to its line of cleaning tools, the end of the 19th century saw the introduction of powered cleaners, although early types used some variation of blowing air to clean instead of suction. One appeared in 1898 when John S. Thurman of St. Louis, thurmans system, powered by an internal combustion engine, traveled to the customers residence on a horse-drawn wagon as part of a door to door cleaning service. Corrine Dufour of Savannah, Georgia received two patents in 1899 and 1900 for another blown air system that seems to have featured the first use of an electric motor. In 1901 powered vacuum cleaners using suction were invented independently by British engineer Hubert Cecil Booth, Booth also may have coined the word vacuum cleaner. Kenneys was a stationary 4,000 lb. steam engine powered system with pipes and hoses reaching into all parts of the building. The first vacuum-cleaning device to be portable and marketed at the market was built in 1905 by Walter Griffiths. In 1906 James B. Kirby developed his first of many vacuums called the Domestic Cyclone It used water for dirt separation. In 1907 department store janitor James Murray Spangler of Canton, Ohio invented the first portable vacuum cleaner. Crucially, in addition to suction from a fan that blew the dirt and dust into a soap box and one of his wifes pillow cases. Their first vacuum was the 1908 Model O, which sold for $60, subsequent innovations included the beater bar in 1919, disposal filter bags in the 1920s, and an upright vacuum cleaner in 1926. In Continental Europe, the Fisker and Nielsen company in Denmark was the first to sell vacuum cleaners in 1910, the design weighed just 17.5 kg and could be operated by a single person. The Swedish company Electrolux launched the innovative Model V in 1921 that was designed to lie on the floor on two thin metal runners and this innovation, conceived by Electrolux founder Axel Wenner-Gren, became a standard feature on generations of future vacuum cleaners
10.
Mandrel
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Exhaust pipes for automobiles are frequently bent using a mandrel during manufacture. The mandrel allows the exhaust pipes to be bent into smooth curves without undesirable creasing, kinking, molten glass may be shaped in this way as well. Another type of mandrel is the chuck that a lathe uses to hold pieces of wood, in this way, rods can be threaded, furniture legs are turned to have æsthetic patterns, and irregularly-shaped objects can be given a round shape. There are several types of mandrels used with lathes, original expanding mandrels have a slightly tapered wedge that will expand to hold the item. The Xpandrel method of expanding mandrels was introduced in the mid-1990s and this method uses basic mechanical principles of deformation to achieve expansion of a non-tapered mandrel. Other commercial mandrels are very slightly tapered, and the hollow object slides down the taper until it sticks, the shop-made mandrel shown in the photo is designed to clamp a hollow tube or gear between the two tapered plugs. Mandrels of this type are usually set in the lathe on centers, the third type of mandrel discussed here is that which is used to hold circular saw blades, buffing wheels, and sanding discs onto drills, circular saws, and similar power tools. While most mandrels are driven by direct connection to a motor or engine, other mandrels are driven by attachment to a bearing-supported. Mandrels are also used in industrial composite fabrication such as in filament winding, during the manufacturing process, resin-impregnated filaments are wound around a mandrel to create a composite material structure or part. The structure is cured and the mandrel is removed, one problem with this type of process is that the mandrel can be very difficult to remove once the part has been cured. As a result, engineers have created a new type of mandrel that has the ability to change shape, when heated above a certain temperature, the mandrel becomes elastic and can be manipulated into the desired shape and then cooled to become rigid again in the new shape. It can then be used in the filament winding process, once the composite part is cured, the mandrel can be reheated until elastic and easily removed from the cured part. These types of mandrels can be used repeatedly, in the production of steel core used for flexible drives, the centre wire upon which the subsequent layers are wound is referred to as a Mandrel. This centre wire may itself be composed of either a wire or layers. A hole saw usually attaches to a mandrel, basically a drill bit with threads to secure the saw, metal machining utilizing the spinning process has been recorded as far back as ancient Egyptian times. In metal spinning, a wood or metal spinning mandrel is used and this method securely clamps the raw material and allows for accurate machining into the desired final form. Since the material is clamped internally, there is no interference to the operator from the assembly during production. The traversing mandrel was primarily employed by clockmakers and ornamental turners during this era, eventually the device was superseded by a mandrel-driven device called a leadscrew, which uses a train of gears that can be altered as required for the turning application
11.
Diamond tool
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A diamond tool is a cutting tool with diamond grains fixed on the functional parts of the tool via a bonding material or another method. As diamond is a material, diamond tools have many advantages as compared with tools made with common abrasives such as corundum. In Natural History, Pliny wrote When an adamas is successfully broken it disintegrates into splinters so small as to be scarcely visible and these are much sought after by engravers of gems and are inserted by them into iron tools because they make hollows in the hardest materials without difficulty. Diamond is the hardest material on the earth, much harder than corundum, Diamond also has high strength, good wear resistance, and a low friction coefficient. So when used as an abrasive, it has obvious advantages over many other common abrasives. Diamond can be used to make grinding tools, which have following advantages, High grinding efficiency, Low grinding force and this can decrease or avoid burns and cracks on the surface of the workpiece, and decrease the equipments wear and energy consumption. High wear resistance, Diamond grinding tools change in dimension is small and this can lead to good grinding quality and high grinding precision. Long lifespan, Long dressing period, This can greatly increase the work efficiency, Low comprehensive cost, The processing cost of each workpiece is lower. There are thousands of kinds of diamond tools and they can be categorized by their manufacturing methods and their uses. According to their methods or bond types, diamond tools can be categorized to the following way, Metal-bonded diamond tools. The functional parts of the tool are usually diamond segments and these tools include metal-bonded diamond saw blades, diamond grinding cup wheels, diamond core drill bits, etc. For metal-bonded diamond tools, the bond is one of the prime factors when selecting which tool to use for cutting or grinding a specific material, depending on how hard or abrasive the material is. The bond used dictates the rate at which the metallic powders wear down and expose new diamond crystals at the surface, different bond strengths are achieved by the alloy mix of metallic powders chosen and how much heat and pressure are applied to the sintered segment. Resin-bonded diamond tools, The tools bonding material is mainly resin powder, an example of this tool is the resin-bonded diamond polishing pads used in the construction industry. Plated diamond tools, This tool is made by fixing the diamonds onto the base via electroplating method or via CVD method. This tool can usually be made to good processing precision, ceramic-bonded diamond tools, The tools bonding material is usually glass and ceramic powder. This tool usually has the features of chemical stability, small elastic deformation. Polycrystalline Diamond, They are normally made by sintering many micro-size single diamond crystals at high temperature, PCD has good fracture toughness and good thermal stability, and is used in making geological drill bits
12.
Hacksaw
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A hacksaw is a fine-toothed saw, originally and principally made for cutting metal. They can also cut various materials, such as plastic and wood, for example, plumbers and electricians often cut plastic pipe. There are hand saw versions and powered versions, most hacksaws are hand saws with a C-shaped frame that holds a blade under tension. Such hacksaws have a handle, usually a pistol grip, with pins for attaching a narrow disposable blade, the frames may also be adjustable to accommodate blades of different sizes. A screw or other mechanism is used to put the blade under tension. Panel hacksaws forgo the frame and instead have a metal body. These saws are no commonly available, but hacksaw blade holders enable standard hacksaw blades to be used similarly to a keyhole saw or pad saw. Power tools including nibblers, jigsaws, and angle grinders fitted with metal-cutting blades, on hacksaws, as with most frame saws, the blade can be mounted with the teeth facing toward or away from the handle, resulting in cutting action on either the push or pull stroke. In normal use, cutting vertically downwards with work held in a bench vice, some frame saws, including Fret Saws and Piercing Saws, have their blades set to be facing the handle because they are used to cut by being pulled down against a horizontal surface. While saws for cutting metal had been in use for years, significant improvements in longevity and efficiency were made in the 1880s by George N. Clemson. Inc of Middletown, New York, United States, Clemson conducted tests which involved changing the dimensions, shapes of teeth, styles of set, and variable heat treatments of blades. Clemson claimed enormous improvements to the ability of blades and built a major industrial operation manufacturing hacksaw blades sold under the trade name Star Hack Saw. In 1898, Clemson was granted US Patent 601947, which details various improvements in the hacksaw, blades are available in standardized lengths,10 or 12 inches for a standard hand hacksaw. Junior hacksaws are 6 inches long, powered hacksaws may use large blades in a range of sizes, or small machines may use the same hand blades. The pitch of the teeth can be anywhere from fourteen to thirty-two teeth per inch for a hand blade, the blade chosen is based on the thickness of the material being cut, with a minimum of three teeth in the material. As hacksaw teeth are so small, they are set in a wave set, hacksaw blades are normally quite brittle, so care needs to be taken to prevent brittle fracture of the blade. Early blades were of steel, now termed low alloy blades. They avoided breakage, but also wore out rapidly, except where cost is a particular concern, this type is now obsolete
13.
Table saw
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A table saw or sawbench is a woodworking tool consisting of a circular saw blade, mounted on an arbor, that is driven by an electric motor. The blade protrudes through the surface of a table, which support for the material, usually wood. In a modern table saw, the depth of the cut is varied by moving the blade up and down, the higher the blade protrudes above the table, the deeper the cut that is made in the material. In some early table saws, the blade and arbor were fixed, the angle of cut is controlled by adjusting the angle of blade. Some earlier saws angled the table to control the cut angle, the general classes of table saws are benchtop, contractor, cabinet, and hybrid. Benchtop table saws, sometimes known as job-site saws, are lightweight and are designed to be placed on a table or other support for operation and they commonly have direct drive from a universal motor. They can be lifted by one person and carried to the job location and these saws often have parts made of steel, aluminum and plastic and are designed to be compact and light. Benchtop table saws are the least expensive and least capable of the three types, however, they can offer adequate capacity and precision for many tasks. The universal motor is not as durable or as quiet as a brushless AC motor, the top of a benchtop table saw is narrower than those of the contractors and cabinet saws, so the width of stock that can be ripped is reduced. Another restriction results from the top being smaller from the front of the tabletop to the rear and this results in a shorter rip fence, which makes it harder to make a clean, straight cut when ripping. Also, there is less distance from the front edge of the tabletop to the blade, benchtop saws are the smallest type of table saw and have the least mass, potentially resulting in increased vibration during a cut. Contractor table saws are heavier, larger and have a stand or base. The motor either is direct drive to the blade or hinges off the rear of the saw and drives the blade via one and this is the type often used by hobbyists and homeowners because standard electrical circuits provide adequate power to run it, and due to its low cost. Because the motor sometimes hangs off the rear of the saw on a pivot, cabinet table saws are heavy to minimize vibration and increase accuracy. A cabinet saw is characterized by having a closed base, cabinet saws usually have induction motors in the 3 to 5 hp range. For home use, this type of motor typically requires that a heavy-duty circuit be installed, the motor is enclosed within the cabinet and drives the blade with three parallel v-belts. In general, cabinet-mounted trunnions are easier to adjust than table-mounted trunnions, the American-style cabinet saws generally follow the model of the Delta Unisaw, a design that has evolved since 1939. Saws of this type are made in the USA, Canada, Taiwan
14.
Cutting
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Cutting is the separation of a physical object, into two or more portions, through the application of an acutely directed force. Implements commonly used for cutting are the knife and saw, or in medicine and science the scalpel, however, any sufficiently sharp object is capable of cutting if it has a hardness sufficiently larger than the object being cut, and if it is applied with sufficient force. Even liquids can be used to cut things when applied with sufficient force, cutting is a compressive and shearing phenomenon, and occurs only when the total stress generated by the cutting implement exceeds the ultimate strength of the material of the object being cut. Hence, the smaller the area, the force is needed to cut something. It is generally seen that cutting edges are thinner for cutting soft materials and this progression is seen from kitchen knife, to cleaver, to axe, and is a balance between the easy cutting action of a thin blade vs strength and edge durability of a thicker blade. Cutting has been at the core of manufacturing throughout history, for metals many methods are used and can be grouped by the physical phenomenon used. Chip forming - sawing, drilling, milling, turning etc, abrading - grinding, lapping, polishing, water-jet. Heat - flame cutting, plasma cutting, laser cutting, electrochemical - etching, electrical discharge machining. Every method has its limitations in accuracy, cost, and effect on the material, for example, heat may damage the quality of heat treated alloys, and laser cutting is less suitable for highly reflective materials such as aluminum. Laser cutting sheet metal produces flat parts and etches and engraves parts from complex or simple designs and it is used over other cutting options for its quick process and customizable abilities
15.
Abrasive
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An abrasive is a material, often a mineral, that is used to shape or finish a workpiece through rubbing which leads to part of the workpiece being worn away by friction. While finishing a material often means polishing it to gain a smooth, reflective surface, in short, the Ceramics which are used to cut, grind and polish other softer materials are known as Abrasives. Abrasives are extremely commonplace and are used extensively in a wide variety of industrial, domestic. This gives rise to a variation in the physical and chemical composition of abrasives as well as the shape of the abrasive. Common uses for abrasives include grinding, polishing, buffing, honing, cutting, drilling, sharpening, lapping, and sanding. Files are not abrasives, they remove material not by scratching or rubbing, however, diamond files are a form of coated abrasive. Abrasives generally rely upon a difference in hardness between the abrasive and the material being worked upon, the abrasive being the harder of the two substances. Diamond, an abrasive, for instance occurs both naturally and is industrially produced, as is corundum which occurs naturally but which is nowadays more commonly manufactured from bauxite. However, even softer minerals like calcium carbonate are used as abrasives and these minerals are either crushed or are already of a sufficiently small size to permit their use as an abrasive. These grains, commonly called grit, have rough edges, often terminating in points which will decrease the area in contact. The abrasive and the material to be worked are brought into contact while in motion to each other. Abrasives may be classified as natural or synthetic. When discussing sharpening stones, natural stones have long been considered superior, many synthetic abrasives are effectively identical to a natural mineral, differing only in that the synthetic mineral has been manufactured rather than been mined. Impurities in the mineral may make it less effective. Natural abrasives are often sold as dressed stones, usually in the form of a rectangular block, a bonded abrasive is composed of an abrasive material contained within a matrix, although very fine aluminium oxide abrasive may comprise sintered material. This matrix is called a binder and is often a clay, a resin and this mixture of binder and abrasive is typically shaped into blocks, sticks, or wheels. The most usual abrasive used is aluminium oxide, also common are silicon carbide, tungsten carbide and garnet. Artificial sharpening stones are often a bonded abrasive and are available as a two sided block, each side being a different grade of grit
16.
Axe
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An axe is an implement that has been used for millennia to shape, split and cut wood, to harvest timber, as a weapon, and as a ceremonial or heraldic symbol. The axe has many forms and specialised uses but generally consists of an axe head with a handle, before the modern axe, the stone-age hand axe was used from 1.5 million years BP without a handle. It was later fastened to a wooden handle, the earliest examples of handled axes have heads of stone with some form of wooden handle attached in a method to suit the available materials and use. Axes made of copper, bronze, iron, and steel appeared as these technologies developed, axes are usually composed of a head and a handle. The axe is an example of a machine, as it is a type of wedge. This reduces the effort needed by the wood chopper and it splits the wood into two parts by the pressure concentration at the blade. The handle of the axe also acts as a lever allowing the user to increase the force at the cutting edge—not using the length of the handle is known as choking the axe. For fine chopping using an axe this sometimes is a positive effect. Generally, cutting axes have a shallow angle, whereas splitting axes have a deeper angle. Most axes are double bevelled, i. e, less common today, they were once an integral part of a joiner and carpenters tool kit, not just a tool for use in forestry. A tool of similar origin is the billhook, however, in France and Holland the billhook often replaced the axe as a joiners bench tool. Most modern axes have heads and wooden handles, typically hickory in the US and ash in Europe and Asia. Modern axes are specialised by use, size, and form, hafted axes with short handles designed for use with one hand are often called hand axes but the term hand axe refers to axes without handles as well. Hatchets tend to be small hafted axes often with a hammer on the back side, as easy-to-make weapons, axes have frequently been used in combat. Initially axes were tools of stone called hand axes, used without handles, axes made with ground cutting edges are known since the Neolithic period ending 4,000 to 2,000 BC. The first true hafted axes are known from the Mesolithic period, few wooden hafts have been found from this period, but it seems that the axe was normally hafted by wedging. Birch-tar and raw-hide lashings were used to fix the blade, the antler was hollowed out at one end to create a socket for the axehead. The antler sheath was then either perforated and a handle inserted into it or set in a made in the handle instead
17.
Blade
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A blade is the portion of a tool, weapon, or machine with an edge that is designed to puncture, chop, slice or scrape surfaces or materials. A blade may be made from a stone, such as flint, metal, ceramic. Blades are one of humanitys oldest tools, and continue to be used for combat, food preparation, during food preparation, knives are mainly used for slicing, chopping, and piercing. In combat, a blade may be used to slash or puncture, the function is to sever a nerve, muscle or tendon fibers, or blood vessel to disable or kill the adversary. Severing a major blood vessel typically leads to death due to exsanguination, shrapnel causes wounds via the fragments blade-like nature. Blades may be used to scrape, moving the blade sideways across a surface, a simple blade intended for cutting has two faces that meet at an edge. Ideally this edge would have no roundness but in practice all edges can be seen to be rounded to some degree under magnification either optically or with an electron microscope, force is applied to the blade, either from the handle or pressing on the back of the blade. The handle or back of the blade has a large area compared to the fine edge and this concentration of applied force onto the small edge area increases the pressure exerted by the edge. It is this pressure that allows a blade to cut through a material by breaking the bonds between the molecules/crystals/fibres/etc. in the material. This necessitates the blade being strong enough to resist breaking before the material gives way. The angle at which the meet is important as a larger angle will make for a duller blade while making the edge stronger. A stronger edge is likely to dull from fracture or from having the edge roll out of shape. The shape of the blade is also important, a thicker blade will be heavier and stronger and stiffer than a thinner one of similar design while also making it experience more drag while slicing or piercing. A splitting maul has a section to avoid getting stuck in wood where chopping axes can be flat or even concave. Similarly, pushing on a rope tends to squash the rope while drawing serrations across it sheers the rope fibres, drawing a smooth blade is less effective as the blade is parallel to the direction draw but the serrations of a serrated blade are at an angle to the fibres. Saw blade serrations, for wood and metal, are typically asymmetrical so that they cut while moving in only one direction. Fullers are longitudinal channels either forged into the blade or later machined/milled out of the blade though the process is less desirable. This loss of material necessarily weakens the blade but serves to make the lighter without sacrificing stiffness
18.
Bandsaw
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A bandsaw is a saw with a long sharp blade consisting of a continuous band of toothed metal stretched between two or more wheels to cut material. They are used principally in woodworking, metalworking, and lumbering, advantages include uniform cutting action as a result of an evenly distributed tooth load, and the ability to cut irregular or curved shapes like a jigsaw. The minimum radius of a curve is determined by the width of the band, most bandsaws have two wheels rotating in the same plane, one of which is powered, although some may have three or four to distribute the load. The blade itself can come in a variety of size and tooth pitch which enables the machine to be versatile and able to cut a wide variety of materials including wood, metal. Almost all bandsaws today are powered by an electric motor, line shaft versions were once common but are now antiques. Constant flexing of the blade over the wheels caused either the material or the joint welding it into a loop to fail, nearly 40 years passed before Frenchwoman Anne Paulin Crepin devised a welding technique overcoming this hurdle. She applied for a patent in 1846, and soon sold the right to employ it to manufacturer A. Perin & Company of Paris. Combining this method with new alloys and advanced tempering techniques allowed Perin to create the first modern band saw blade. The first American band saw patent was granted to Benjamin Barker of Ellsworth, Maine, the first factory produced and commercially available band saw in the U. S. was by a design of Paul Prybil. Power hacksaws were once common in the industries, but bandsaws. Many workshops in residential garages or basements and in light industry contain small or medium-sized bandsaws that can cut wood, metal, often a general-purpose blade is left in place, although blades optimized for wood or metal can be switched out when volume of use warrants. Most residential and commercial bandsaws are of the vertical type mounted on a bench or a cabinet stand, Portable power tool versions, including cordless models, are also common in recent decades, allowing building contractors to bring them along on the truck to the jobsite. Saws for cutting meat are typically of all steel construction with easy to clean features. The blades either have fine teeth with heat treated tips, or have plain or scalloped knife edges, bandsaws dedicated to industrial metal-cutting use, such as for structural steel in fabrication shops and for bar stock in machine shops, are available in vertical and horizontal designs. Typical band speeds range from 40 feet per minute to 5,000 feet per minute, although specialized bandsaws are built for friction cutting of hard metals, metal-cutting bandsaws are usually equipped with brushes or brushwheels to prevent chips from becoming stuck in between the blades teeth. Systems which cool the blade with cutting fluid are also common equipment on metal-cutting bandsaws, the coolant washes away swarf and keeps the blade cool and lubricated. Horizontal bandsaws hold the workpiece stationary while the blade swings down through the cut and this configuration is used to cut long materials such as pipe or bar stock to length. Thus it is an important part of the facilities in most machine shops, the horizontal design is not useful for cutting curves or complicated shapes
19.
Broaching (metalworking)
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Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool, called a broach, to remove material. There are two types of broaching, linear and rotary. In linear broaching, which is the common process, the broach is run linearly against a surface of the workpiece to effect the cut. Linear broaches are used in a machine, which is also sometimes shortened to broach. In rotary broaching, the broach is rotated and pressed into the workpiece to cut an axis symmetric shape, a rotary broach is used in a lathe or screw machine. In both processes the cut is performed in one pass of the broach, which makes it very efficient, Broaching is used when precision machining is required, especially for odd shapes. Commonly machined surfaces include circular and non-circular holes, splines, keyways, typical workpieces include small to medium-sized castings, forgings, screw machine parts, and stampings. Even though broaches can be expensive, broaching is usually favored over other processes used for high-quantity production runs. Broaches are shaped similar to a saw, except the height of the teeth increases over the length of the tool, moreover, the broach contains three distinct sections, one for roughing, another for semi-finishing, and the final one for finishing. Broaching is a machining process because it has the feed built into the tool. The profile of the surface is always the inverse of the profile of the broach. The rise per tooth, also known as the step or feed per tooth, determines the amount of material removed, the broach can be moved relative to the workpiece or vice versa. Because all of the features are built into the broach no complex motion or skilled labor is required to use it. A broach is effectively a collection of single-point cutting tools arrayed in sequence, cutting one after the other, the process depends on the type of broaching being performed. Surface broaching is very simple as either the workpiece is moved against a stationary surface broach, the process begins by clamping the workpiece into a special holding fixture, called a workholder, which mounts in the broaching machine. The broaching machine elevator, which is the part of the machine moves the broach above the workholder. Once through, the broaching machines puller, essentially a hook, the elevator then releases the top of the pilot and the puller pulls the broach through the workpiece completely. The workpiece is then removed from the machine and the broach is raised back up to reengage with the elevator, the broach usually only moves linearly, but sometimes it is also rotated to create a spiral spline or gun-barrel rifling
20.
Ceramic tile cutter
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Ceramic tile cutters are used to cut tiles to a required size or shape. They come in a number of different forms, from basic manual devices to complex attachments for power tools, snapping pressure varies widely, some mass-produced models exerting over 750 kg. The cutting wheel and breaking jig are combined in a carriage that travels along one or two beams to keep the carriage angled correctly and the cut straight, the beam may be height adjustable to handle different thicknesses of tiles. The base of the tool may have adjustable fences for angled cuts and square cuts, the scoring wheel is easily replaceable. The first tile cutter was designed to facilitate the work and solve the problems that masons had when cutting hydraulic mosaic or encaustic cement tiles, over the time the tool evolved, incorporating elements that made it more accurate and productive. The first cutter had a point to scratch the tiles. It was later replaced by the current tungsten carbide scratching wheel, another built-in device introduced in 1960 was the snapping element. It allowed users to snap the tiles easily and not with the bench and this was a revolution in the cutting process of the ceramic world. Tile nippers are similar to pairs of pincers, with part of the width of the tool removed so that they can be fit into small holes. They can be used to break off small edges of tiles that have been scored or nibble out small chips enlarging holes etc, a simple hand held glass cutter is capable of scoring smooth surface glazes allowing the tile to be snapped. The harder grades of ceramic tiles like fully vitrified porcelain tiles, stone tiles, the diamond blades are mounted in, - A angle grinder can be used for short, sometimes curved cuts. It can also be used for L shaped cuts and for making holes and it can be used dry and, more rarely, wet. Dedicated tile saws are designed to be used with water as a coolant for the diamond blade and they are available in different sizes. Adjustable fences for angled cuts and square cuts, fence stops for multiple cuts of exactly the same size. Hand tool Power tool Diamond tool Encaustic tile Porcelain tile Dimension stone Glass tiles Quarry tile
21.
Chainsaw
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A chainsaw is a portable, mechanical saw which cuts with a set of teeth attached to a rotating chain that runs along a guide bar. It is used in such as tree felling, limbing, bucking, pruning, cutting firebreaks in wildland fire suppression. Chainsaws with specially designed bar and chain combinations have been developed as tools for use in chainsaw art, specialized chainsaws are used for cutting concrete. Chainsaws are sometimes used for cutting ice, for example for ice sculpture, someone who uses a saw is a sawyer. The origin is debated, but a tool was made around 1830 by the German orthopaedist Bernhard Heine. This instrument, the osteotome, had links of a chain carrying small cutting teeth with the set at an angle. As the name implies, this was used to cut bone, the chain hand saw, a fine serrated link chain which cut on the concave side, was invented around 1783-1785. It was illustrated in Aitkens Principles of Midwifery or Puerperal Medicine, Jeffray claimed to have conceived the idea of the chain saw independently about that time but it was 1790 before he was able to have it produced. In 1806, Jeffray published Cases of the Excision of Carious Joints by H. Park, in this communication he translated Moreaus paper of 1803. Park and Moreau described successful excision of diseased joints, particularly the knee, Jeffray explained that the chain saw would allow a smaller wound and protect the adjacent neurovascular bundle. While a heroic concept, symphysiotomy had too many complications for most obstetricians but Jeffrays ideas became accepted, mechanised versions of the chain saw were developed but in the later 19th Century, it was superseded in surgery by the Gigli twisted wire saw. For much of the 19th century, however, the saw was a useful surgical instrument. The earliest patent for an endless chain saw was granted to Samuel J. Bens of San Francisco on January 17,1905. His intent being to fell giant redwoods, the first portable chainsaw was developed and patented in 1918 by Canadian millwright James Shand. After he allowed his rights to lapse in 1930 his invention was developed by what became the German company Festo in 1933. The company now operates as Festool producing portable power tools, in 1927, Emil Lerp, the founder of Dolmar, developed the worlds first gasoline-powered chainsaw and mass-produced them. World War II interrupted the supply of German chain saws to North America, so new manufacturers sprang up including Industrial Engineering Ltd in 1947, Ltd and part of Outboard Marine Corporation, the oldest manufacturer of chainsaws in North America. McCulloch in North America started to produce chainsaws in 1948, the early models were heavy, two-person devices with long bars
22.
Chisel
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The handle and blade of some types of chisel are made of metal or of wood with a sharp edge in it. Chiselling use involves forcing the blade into some material to cut it, the driving force may be applied by pushing by hand, or by using a mallet or hammer. In industrial use, a ram or falling weight drives a chisel into the material. A gouge, one type of chisel, serves - particularly in woodworking, woodturning, gouges most frequently produce concave surfaces. A gouge typically has a U-shaped cross-section, chisel comes from the Old French cisel, modern ciseau, Late Latin cisellum, a cutting tool, from caedere, to cut. Chisels have a variety of uses. Many types of chisel have been devised, each suited to its intended use. Different types of chisel may be constructed differently, in terms of blade width or length, as well as shape. They may have a wooden or plastic handle attached using a tang or socket, woodworking chisels range from small hand tools for tiny details, to large chisels used to remove big sections of wood, in roughing out the shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in woodcarving, one starts with a larger tool, one of the largest types of chisel is the slick, used in timber frame construction and wooden shipbuilding. There are many types of woodworking chisels used for specific purposes, such as, Butt chisel, short chisel with beveled sides and straight edge for creating joints. Carving chisels, used for designs and sculpting, cutting edges are many, such as gouge, skew, parting, straight, paring. Corner chisel, resembles a punch and has an L-shaped cutting edge, cleans out square holes, mortises and corners with 90 degree angles. Bevel edge chisel, can get into acute angles with its bevelled edges, flooring chisel, cuts and lifts flooring materials for removal and repair, ideal for tongue-and-groove flooring. Framing chisel, usually used with mallet, similar to a chisel, except it has a longer. Slick, a large chisel driven by pressure, never struck. Mortise chisel, thick, rigid blade with cutting edge and deep, slightly tapered sides to make mortises. Paring chisel, has a long blade ideal for cleaning grooves, skew chisel, has a 60 degree cutting angle and is used for trimming and finishing
23.
Coping saw
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A coping saw is a type of hand saw used to cut intricate external shapes and interior cut-outs in woodworking or carpentry. It is widely used to cut moldings to create coped rather than miter joints and it is occasionally used to create fretwork though it is not able to match a fretsaw in intricacy of cut, particularly in thin materials. Coping saw blades are always thicker and much coarser cutting than typical fretsaw blades, coping saws can however cut slight bends in the work, allowing circles to be cut if used carefully. The coping saw was most likely invented in middle of the 16th century following innovations in metallurgy, blades made of this material were strong and flexible thanks to rolling. This saw was used in combination with so called Chevalet du Marqueterie, invented in 1780. A coping saw consists of a thin, hardened steel blade, the blade is easily removed from the frame so that the blade can be passed through a drilled hole in the middle of a piece of wood. The frame is then re-attached to the blade and the cut starts from the middle of the piece, long cuts perpendicular to the edge of the material are possible but the shallow depth of the frame rather limits how far from the edge one may cut. The much deeper frame of the fretsaw is more useful for cutting away from the edge. The coping saw blade is installed with the teeth pointing towards the handle, unlike a hacksaw, which has the teeth pointed away from the handle, the coping saw cuts on the pull stroke. The coping saw blade is removable by partially unscrewing the handle, the blade is prevented from rotating by means of the short, steady bar provided where the blade is attached. Loosening the handle also allows the blade to be rotated relative to the frame as desired, carefully aligning the finger with the steady bars at the top and bottom of the blade ensures that the thin blade is straight and not twisted along its length. Retightening the handle tensions the blade and locks it at the angle relative to the frame. The short steady bar nearest the handle is held securely between finger and thumb while the handle is tightened to ensure the remains at the desired angle. Unlike the fretsaw the coping saw blade has holding pins which lock securely into the slots of the rotatable blade holders. The direction of the cut is quite easy to change because of the thinness of the blade, gentle curves are achieved by slowly turning the whole frame by means of the handle while continuing to cut steadily. When necessary, the blade can also be rotated with respect to the frame to make sharper curves in the material being cut, blade breakage is much rarer than with a fretsaw. A coping saw can also be used to cut through tubing and other metal objects. The thin blade tends to make cuts in thick materials unless skill is achieved through much practice on a wide variety of materials of varying thicknesses
24.
Countersink
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A countersink is a conical hole cut into a manufactured object, or the cutter used to cut such a hole. A common use is to allow the head of a bolt or screw. A countersink may also be used to remove the burr left from a drilling or tapping operation thereby improving the finish of the product, the basic geometry of a countersink inherently can be applied to the plunging applications described above and also to other milling applications. Therefore, countersinks overlap in form, function, and sometimes name with chamfering endmills, regardless of the name given to the cutter, the surface being generated may be a conical chamfer or a beveled corner for the intersection of two planes. A countersink may be used in tools, such as drills, drill presses, milling machines. A Dan Martin Style zero flute countersink is a tool with a cutting edge provided by a hole that goes through the side of the cone. The intersection of the hole and cone form the edge on the tool. The cone is not truly symmetrical as it is essential that the cone retreats away from the edge as the tool rotates providing clearance. If this does not occur the cutting edge will lack clearance and this clearance is referred to as cutting relief. The fluted countersink cutter is used to provide a heavy chamfer in the entrance to a drilled hole and this may be required to allow the correct seating for a countersunk-head screw or to provide the lead in for a second machining operation such as tapping. Countersink cutters are manufactured with six common angles, which are 60°, 82°, 90°, 100°, 110°, or 120°, with the two most common of those being 82° and 90°. Countersunk-head screws that follow the Unified Thread Standard very often have an 82° angle, throughout the aerospace industry, countersunk fasteners typically have an angle of 100°. A back countersink, also known as an inserted countersink, is a two piece countersink used on tough to reach areas. One component is a rod that is inserted into the hole in the workpieces, the other component is the cutter. This is comparable to types of back- machining, such as back-spotfacing, back-boring, back-counterboring, back-milling. The common theme is accomplishing machining operations on the far side of the workpiece from the spindle face and this reduces setup time and frustration in several ways. It can often be difficult to avoid chatter when cutting with countersink cutters, as usual in machining, the shorter and more rigid the setup, the better. Better-quality fluted countersink cutters sometimes have the flutes at an irregular pitching and this variation in pitching reduces the chance of the cutting edges setting up a harmonic action and leaving an undulated surface
25.
Diagonal pliers
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Diagonal pliers are pliers intended for the cutting of wire. The plane defined by the edges of the jaws intersects the joint rivet at an angle or on a diagonal. Instead of using an action as with scissors, diagonal pliers cut by indenting and wedging the wire apart. The jaw edges are ground to a symmetrical V shape, thus the two jaws can be visualized to form the letter X, as seen end-on when fully occluded. The pliers are made of tempered steel, and inductive heating and quenching are often used to harden the jaws. Diags or Dikes – as in the phrase a pair of dikes or hand me those dikes – is jargon used especially in the electrical industry, dike can also be used as a verb, such as in the idiom when in doubt, dike it out. It is also the used for hose clamping pliers that crush a hose. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, diagonal pliers are commonly referred to as snips, the handles of diagonal cutting pliers are commonly insulated with a dip-type or shrink fit electrically-insulating material for comfort and some protection against electric shock. Diagonal pliers are useful for cutting copper, brass, iron, aluminium, lower quality versions are generally not suitable for cutting tempered steel, such as piano wire, as the jaws are not hard enough. Attempting to cut such material will usually cause indentations to be made in the jaws, however higher quality side cutters can cut hardened steel, such as 2 mm piano wire. For electronics work, special diagonal cutters that are flush to the apex of the cutting edge on one side of the jaws are often used. These flush-cutting pliers allow wires to be trimmed flush or nearly flush to a solder joint and it is common for this type of diagonal cutter to be referred to by another name, such as flush cutter to distinguish it from symmetrical cutters. Some pliers for electrical work are fitted with wire-cutter blades either built into the jaws or on the handles just below the pivot, judging the quality of diagonal cutters
26.
Diamond blade
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A diamond blade is a saw blade which has diamonds fixed on its edge for cutting hard or abrasive materials. Diamond blades are available in different shapes, Circular diamond saw blades are the most widely used type of diamond blade, a diamond gang saw blade is a long steel plate with diamond segments welded onto it. Normally, tens or hundreds of diamond saw blades are used together to saw raw stone blocks. A diamond band saw blade is a closed steel band with diamonds fixed on one edge of the band. Diamond blades designed for specific uses include marble, granite, concrete, asphalt, masonry, general purpose blades are also available. Vacuum brazed diamond saws are manufactured by welding synthetic diamond particles to the edge of the circular saw blade in a vacuum brazing furnace. All of the particles are on the exterior cutting edge of the blade. Finer synthetic diamond grits will reduce the chipping of tile and burring of steel, larger diamond grits will provide a higher cutting speed, but will be more likely to cause chipping, burring, or cracking. Fire departments require blades to be made with a large diamond grit. An intermediate grit size is used by the production industry, sintered metal-bonded diamond blades are the most common type of blade. These blades consist of a core and diamond segments, which are made by combining synthetic diamond crystals with metal powder. The diamond segments are also known as the teeth of the blade. The steel core can vary in design, some cores have spaces between segments to provide cooling and slurry removal, while others have a single continuous rim for smoother cutting. The type of core that can be used depends on the type of materials that the blade is designed to cut. A wholly sintered diamond blade is made by putting the core, together with the diamonds. Consequently, the diameter of wholly sintered diamond blades is not very large, because it is participating in the sintering process, the steel core cannot be quenched, so the hardness and strength of the core are not very high. This means that these types of diamond blade may deform in high-load and high-intensity cutting processes, silver brazed and laser welded diamond blades do not have this weakness because their diamond segments and steel core are treated separately. Silver brazed diamond blades diamond segments are brazed to the core using a silver solder
27.
Drawknife
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A drawknife is a traditional woodworking hand tool used to shape wood by removing shavings. It consists of a blade with a handle at each end, the blade is much longer than it is deep. It is pulled or drawn toward the user, the drawknife in the illustration has a blade 23 centimetres although much shorter drawknives are also made. The blade is sharpened to a chisel bevel, traditionally, it is a rounded, smooth bevel. The handles can be below the level of the blade or at the same level, the thin blade lends itself to create complex concave or convex curves. Unlike a spokeshave, it not have a closed mouth to control chip formation. They are also a piece of equipment in hand-made cricket bats. The operator gently levers the blade to bite into the wood, one works from the centre of the piece to the end, not the entire length all at once. The operator then reverses the piece in the horse or vise and works from near centre to trim the fatter end to match the centre. Final work can be done by spokeshave, sanding block or lathe, when operated conventionally, that is blade bevel-side upward the drawknife takes deeper cuts and some novices may find it has a tendency to dive. When operated bevel-side down there is the advantage of removing less stock, the operator applies little leverage from centre and most leverage, so the blade bites deeper, thus removing more wood as they approach the end grain. The operator applies minimal, then most, then least force on the handles from centre toward the end grain, the work stock is reversed and same method repeated this time commencing a tiny distance away from centre so as to leave a coarse raised section. The coarse raised section where the two curves meet can be finished with a rasp, file, spokeshave or other tool. For very rapid and rough removal of stock, the blade is drawn toward the user, the operator immediately stops pulling, and uses the drawknife blade to lever upward so as to flick the splinter or splice out of the worked piece. This technique is advanced and may damage the worked piece and drawknife blade if due care is not observed, traditionally, the waste shavings, which are particularly durable, are used for basket weaving or for kindling. They also make excellent compost and plant bed material, large drawknives can be used to dress logs, and small sizes for carving and shaving. A common use of a drawknife is to create a roughly cylindrical billet of wood for turning on a pole lathe. Fifty million tent pegs were manufactured in the United Kingdom throughout World War II via the drawknife method, a pushknife is a similar tool, used by pushing, rather than pulling
28.
Drill bit
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Drill bits are cutting tools used to remove material to create holes, almost always of circular cross-section. Drill bits come in sizes and shape and can create different kinds of holes in many different materials. In order to create holes drill bits are attached to a drill, the drill will grasp the upper end of a bit called the shank in the chuck. Drill bits come in sizes, described in the drill bit sizes article. A comprehensive drill bit and tap size chart lists metric and imperial sized drill bits alongside the required screw tap sizes, there are also certain specialized drill bits that can create holes with a non-circular cross-section. While the term drill may refer to either a machine or a drill bit for use in a drilling machine. In this article, for clarity, drill bit or bit is used throughout to refer to a bit for use in a drilling machine, Drill bit geometry has several characteristics, The spiral in the drill bit controls the rate of chip removal. A fast spiral drill bit is used in high feed rate applications under low spindle speeds, the point angle, or the angle formed at the tip of the bit, is determined by the material the bit will be operating in. Harder materials require a larger point angle, and softer materials require a sharper angle, the correct point angle for the hardness of the material influences wandering, chatter, hole shape, and wear rate. The lip angle determines the amount of support provided to the cutting edge, a greater lip angle will cause the bit to cut more aggressively under the same amount of point pressure as a bit with a smaller lip angle. Both conditions can cause binding, wear, and eventual failure of the tool. The proper amount of lip clearance is determined by the point angle, the length of a bit determines how deep a hole can be drilled, and also determines the stiffness of the bit and accuracy of the resultant hole. While longer bits can drill deeper holes, they are flexible meaning that the holes they drill may have an inaccurate location or wander from the intended axis. Twist drill bits are available in lengths, referred to as Stub-length or Screw-Machine-length, the extremely common Jobber-length. Most drill bits for use have straight shanks. For heavy duty drilling in industry, bits with tapered shanks are sometimes used, other types shanks used include hex-shaped, and various proprietary quick release systems. The diameter-to-length ratio of the bit is usually between 1,1 and 1,10. Much higher ratios are possible, but the higher the ratio, the best geometry to use depends upon the properties of the material being drilled
29.
Emery cloth
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Emery cloth is a type of coated abrasive that has emery glued to a cloth backing. It is used for hand metalworking and it may be sold in sheets or in narrow rolls, typically 25 or 50 mm wide, often described as emery tape. The cloth backing makes emery cloth stronger in tension than sandpaper, emery paper, less commonly seen, has a paper backing and is usually a finer grit. Emery was considered a suitable abrasive for fitting work and the adjustment of steel parts for a perfect fit. It had the advantage that, unlike harder abrasives, it was not considered to embed abrasive traces in the polished components afterwards, emery was also used for cleaning, as a means of removing rust from polished steel components. Emery is rated on the average size, glued to the backing. Common sizes are, from coarse to fine,40,46,54,60,70,80,90,100,120,180,220,320, F, and FF. A46 or 54 grade cloth is used on roughly filed work, while 220 to 320 grit cloth will give a good polish
30.
File (tool)
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A file is a tool used to remove fine amounts of material from a workpiece. It is common in woodworking, metalworking, and other similar trade, most are hand tools, made of a case hardened steel bar of rectangular, square, triangular, or round cross-section, with one or more surfaces cut with sharp, generally parallel teeth. A narrow, pointed tang is common at one end, to which a handle may be fitted, a rasp is a form of file with distinct, individually cut teeth used for coarsely removing large amounts of material. Files have also developed with abrasive surfaces, such as natural or synthetic diamond grains or silicon carbide, allowing removal of material that would dull or resist metal. Relatedly, lapping is also ancient, with wood and beach sand offering a natural pair of lap. The Disston authors state, To abrade, or file, ancient man used sand, grit, coral, bone, fish skin, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age had various kinds of files and rasps. Archaeologists have discovered rasps made from bronze in Egypt, dating back to the years 1200–1000 BC, archaeologists have also discovered rasps made of iron used by the Assyrians, dating back to the 7th Century BC. During the Middle Ages files were already advanced, thanks to the extensive talents of blacksmiths. By the 11th century, there already existed hardened files that would seem quite modern even to todays eyes. For example, in the 13th century, ornamental iron work at Paris was done skillfully with the aid of files, but the process was a secret known only to a master craftsman. The Disston authors state, It was not until the fourteenth century, however, that those who practiced art in ironwork began to use tools, besides heat. This statement could mislead in the sense that stoning and lapping have never been rare activities among humans, but by the late Middle Ages, however, the transition was extensive. The Disston authors mention Nuremberg, Sheffield, and Remscheid as leading centers of production for files as well as tools in general, the activity in Remscheid reflects the metalworking spirit of the Rhine-Ruhr region in general rather than representing a single village of geniuses in isolation. Most files of the period were smithed by hand in a sequence in which the iron was forged, then the teeth were cut with a chisel, among the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci is a sketch of a machine tool for the cutting of files. Prior to the industrialization of machining and the development of parts during the 19th century. Component parts were roughly shaped by forging, casting, and by primitive machining operations and these components were then individually hand-fit for assembly by careful and deliberate filing. The potential precision of fitting is much higher than generally assumed. Locks, clocks, and firearms were manufactured in this way for centuries before the Industrial Revolution, machining in the mid-19th century was heavily dependent on filing, because milling practice was slowly evolving out of its infancy
31.
Fretsaw
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The fretsaw is a saw used for intricate cutting work which often incorporates tight curves. Although the coping saw is used for similar work, the fretsaw is capable of much tighter radii. Compared with the coping saw it has much shallower blades, which are usually extra-fine and this allows much tighter curves to be cut—with many blades even sharp corners are possible—but the blades are also much more fragile compared with that of a coping saw. Unlike the coping saw, the blade has an orientation in relation to the frame. This means that the fretsaw is less useful when cutting long narrow components, the fretsaw is similar in many respects to the scroll saw, which is essentially a powered fretsaw with a table. Blades between the two tools are usually interchangeable, and indeed scroll saws are often known as fret saws informally, the tool takes its name from its use in fretwork and ultimately from the French freter —a reference to the intricate patterns often created using this tool. To counter this the fretsaw is usually used with the handle aligned on an axis which reduces the effects of this torque. The effect may also be lessened with a frame, although this also reduces the size of components that may be worked. The blade is usually clamped into position using a pair of wingnuts, although wing nuts are usually intended for operation without tools it is often impossible to apply sufficient force purely by hand. Wingnut spanners greatly increase the torque that may be applied, ensuring that the blade is securely clamped, although traditionally intended for woodwork, metal cutting blades are readily available increasing the versatility of this saw. Spiral blades are available which have teeth on all sides of the blade. This can be useful when access is restricted due to the size of the component being worked, however, they also have a wider kerf and as such remove more material than a conventional blade. These alternative blades make the fretsaw suitable for many tasks traditionally performed by the piercing saw, although piercing saw blades are typically finer still than the finest fretsaw blade
32.
Froe
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A froe or shake axe is a tool for cleaving wood by splitting it along the grain. It is an L-shaped tool, used by hammering one edge of its blade into the end of a piece of wood in the direction of the grain, then twisting the blade in the wood by rotating the haft. A froe uses the haft as a lever to multiply the force upon the blade, by twisting one way or the other the direction of the split may be guided. Froes are used in combination with wooden mallets to split timber, to make planks, wooden shingles, or kindling, they are safer and more accurate to use than hatchets because the blade is not swung. The origin of the word “froe” is not clear, and some find it spelled “frow. ”One possibility of its roots can be found in the Old English word “fro, ” which meant “away. Froes are similar in form to axes, in that a froe is an L-shaped assembly of a blade head set at a right angle to a handle called a haft. A froe can be thought of as an axe which is sharpened along the top of a long, narrow, some froes are made of a single piece of metal with no perpendicular haft. Instead, the handle is the end of the blade which extends directly from the blade. These froes must be hammered through the piece of wood. A given froe can split a piece of wood no wider in its narrowest dimension than the length of the blade, that is. A froe is also unlike an axe or maul in that the froe can be placed exactly where the user would like the split to begin, with the exception of users with expert aim, axes and mauls cannot. This technique can be used with enough precision that regularity of measurements can be kept when cutting shingles, ground stakes, another use is to rive pieces of wood to be used for steam bending, as this wood follows the grain and is less prone to breakage. Hitting the narrow blade of a froe constantly soon damages a mallet and this is simply a short length of a thin log, still with the bark on it, with one end reduced with a drawknife to convenient diameter for a handle. It is rotated slightly in the hand with each blow, so as to even the wear, and although it wears out. When hammering the portion of the blade projecting from the wood. This commonly happens when the froe encounters a hidden knot in the wood, when making the first strike to set the froe into the wood, it is safer to hold the blade at the eye, where the handle meets the blade. This makes it impossible to strike your fingers with the froe club. Van Natta Forestry and Logging website
33.
Glass cutter
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A glass cutter is a tool used to make a shallow score in one surface of a piece of glass that is to be broken in two pieces. The scoring makes a split in the surface of the glass which encourages the glass to break along the score, regular, annealed glass can be broken apart this way but not tempered glass as the latter tends to shatter rather than breaking cleanly into two pieces. The greater the angle of the wheel, the sharper the angle of the V. The hone angle on most hand-held glass cutters is 120°, though wheels are made as sharp as 154° for cutting glass as thick as 0.5 inches and their main drawback is that wheels with sharper hone angles will become dull more quickly than their more obtuse counterparts. When properly lubricated a steel wheel can give a period of satisfactory service. In the Middle Ages glass was cut with a heated and sharply pointed iron rod, the red hot point was drawn along the moistened surface of the glass causing it to snap apart. Fractures created in this way were not very accurate and the pieces had to be chipped or grozed down to more exact shapes with a hooked tool called a grozing iron. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, starting in Italy, a diamond-tipped cutter became prevalent which allowed for precise cutting. Then in 1869 the wheel cutter was developed by Samuel Monce of Bristol, Connecticut, large sheets of glass are usually cut with a computer-assisted CNC semi-automatic glass cutting table. These sheets are then broken out by hand into the sheets of glass. Glass cutters are manufactured with wheels of varying diameters, one of the most popular has a diameter of 5.5 mm. The ratio between the arc of the wheel and the pressure applied with the tool has an important bearing on the degree of penetration, average hand pressure with this size wheel often gives good results. Cutting Computer numerical control Water jet cutter
34.
Grater
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A grater is a kitchen utensil used to grate foods into fine pieces. It was invented by François Boullier in the 1540s, originally to grate cheese, several types of graters feature different sizes of grating slots, and can therefore aid in the preparation of a variety of foods. They are commonly used to grate cheese and lemon or orange peel and they are commonly used in the preparation of toasted cheese, Welsh rarebit, and dishes which contain cheese sauce such as macaroni and cheese, cauliflower cheese. In Slavic cuisine, graters are used to grate potatoes, for preparation of, e. g. draniki. In tropical countries graters are used to grate coconut meat. In Indian subcontinent, grater is used for preparation of a popular dessert, graters produce shreds that are thinner at the ends than the middle. This allows the material to melt or cook in a different manner than the shreds of mostly uniform thickness produced by the grating blade of a food processor. Hand-grated potatoes, for example, melt together more easily in a potato pancake than food-processed potato shreds, in Jamaica, coconut graters are used as a traditional musical instrument in the performance of kumina, jonkanoo, and sometimes mento. The cheese grater was invented by François Boullier in the 1540s in France with the idea that hard cheeses could still be used, spiralizers are complex food-processing machines with grater-like mechanisms. These mechanisms rotate by the turn of a cluster to produce ribbons or noodles, comedian Mitch Hedberg performed a joke in which he stated that the negative name of cheese grater would be a sponge ruiner. Originally called Grate Man, the Shredder is known as the primary antagonist in the TMNT franchise, wisconsin sports fans are often called cheeseheads, and some wear cheese hats. In 2013, sports fans of Chicago and Minnesota replied to their rivals by wearing cheese graters, food processor – an appliance that sometimes has a grating blade Mandoline Oroshigane Surform Tamis
35.
Grinding wheel
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A grinding wheel is a wheel composed of an abrasive compound and used for various grinding and abrasive machining operations. Such wheels are used in grinding machines, the wheels are generally made from a composite material consisting of coarse-particle aggregate pressed and bonded together by a cementing matrix to form a solid, circular shape. Various profiles and cross sections are available depending on the usage for the wheel. They may also be made from a steel or aluminium disc with particles bonded to the surface. Today most grinding wheels are artificial composites made with artificial aggregates, Grinding wheels are consumables, although the life span can vary widely depending on the use case, from less than a day to many years. As the wheel cuts, it periodically releases individual grains of abrasive, typically because they grow dull, fresh grains are exposed in this wear process, which begin the next cycle. The rate of wear in this process is very predictable for a given application. There are five characteristics of a wheel, material, grain size, wheel grade, grain spacing. They are indicated by codes on the wheels label, the abrasive aggregate is selected according to the hardness of the material being cut. Aluminum oxide Silicon carbide Ceramic Diamond Cubic boron nitride Grinding wheels with diamond or CBN grains are called superabrasives, Grinding wheels with aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, or ceramic grains are called conventional abrasives. From 8 to 1200, determines the physical size of the abrasive grains in the wheel. A larger grain will cut freely, allowing fast cutting but poor surface finish, ultra-fine grain sizes are for precision finish work. From A to Z, determines how tightly the bond holds the abrasive, a to H for softer structure, I to P for moderately hard structure and Q to Z for hard structure. Grade affects almost all considerations of grinding, such as speed, coolant flow, maximum and minimum feed rates. Spacing or structure, from 1 to 16, density is the ratio of bond and abrasive to air space. A less-dense wheel will cut freely, and has an effect on surface finish. It is also able to take a deeper or wider cut with less coolant, how the wheel holds the abrasives, affects finish, coolant, and minimum/maximum wheel speed. To the right is an image of a straight wheel and these are by far the most common style of wheel and can be found on bench or pedestal grinders
36.
Hand saw
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In woodworking and carpentry, hand saws, also known as panel saws, fish saws, are used to cut pieces of wood into different shapes. This is usually done in order to join the pieces together and they usually operate by having a series of sharp points of some substance that is harder than the wood being cut. The hand saw is a bit like a saw, but with one flat. Handsaws have been around for thousands of years, Egyptian hieroglyphics exist depicting ancient woodworkers sawing boards into pieces. Ancient bow saws have been found in Japan, the cut patterns on ancient boards may be observed sometimes to bear the unique cutting marks left by saw blades, particularly if the wood was not smoothed up by some method. As for preservation of handsaws, twenty-four saws from eighteenth-century England are known to survive, materials for saw blades have varied over the ages. There were probably bronze saws in the time before steel making technology became extensively known, sometimes cultures developed two main types of saw teeth, the cross cut saw teeth and the rip saw teeth. These cut into the wood using different mechanisms, wood is composed of many long cells running length-ways. Rip saws, on the hand, are usually shaped so that they form a series of tiny chisel-like edges. The wood cells are contacted by the chisel and ripped apart from the bundle of other cells and it is common that people do not recognize the difference and use saws both ways. The cross-cut saw can cut in any direction but is slower than needs be when cutting with the grain. The development of saws was also affected by several factors, the first was the importance of wood to a society, the development of steel and other saw-making technologies and the type of power available. These factors were, in turn, influenced by the environment, such as the types of available, the types of trees nearby. Finally, the types of jobs the saws were to perform was also important in the development of the technology, saws can also be considered pull cut or push cut. Ancient Egyptian saws have been said to be pull cut, modern European saws generally have push cut handsaws. Japanese handsaws are usually pull-cut and are used today. In the 1930s, the Kulibert-Stanley Tool Company popularized an inexpensive saw, among Basques and Australians, traditional hand sawing has generated rural sports. The Basque variant is called trontzalaritza, types of saws Musical saws Saw set How to Sharpen a Saw Blade, article on how to sharpen a handsaw yourself
37.
Hole saw
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A hole saw, also known as a hole cutter, is a saw blade of annular shape, whose annular kerf creates a hole in the workpiece without having to cut up the core material. Hole saws typically have a drill bit at their center to keep the saw teeth from walking. The fact that a hole saw creates the hole without needing to cut up the core often makes it preferable to twist drills or spade drills for relatively large holes, the same hole can be made faster and using less power. The depth to which a hole saw can cut is limited by the depth of its cup-like shape, most hole saws have a fairly short aspect ratio of diameter to depth, and they are used to cut through relatively thin workpieces. However, longer aspect ratios are available for applications that warrant them, the saw consists of a metal cylinder, usually steel, mounted on an arbor. The cutting edge either has saw teeth formed in it or industrial diamonds embedded in it, the arbor can carry a drill bit to bore a centering hole. After the first few millimeters of cut, the mechanism may no longer be needed. The sloping slots in the cylinder wall help carry the dust out, the kerf of the cut is designed to be slightly larger than the diameter of the rest of the hole saw so that it does not get jammed in the hole. Holes saws for use with portable drills are available in diameters from 6 to 130 mm. The only limit on the length of the cylinder, and thus depth of the hole, is the need to remove the bit from the hole to clear dust, a 300 mm cylinder length is not uncommon, although shorter bits are usual. By breaking the core off from time to time and using a shank extension, saw teeth are used for most materials, such as wood, plastic, soft plaster, and metal. Diamond hole saws are used to bore holes in brick, concrete, glass, an adjustable hole saw consists of a number of thin metal saw blade-like strips, and a flat disc with a large number of grooves in one side and a shank on the other. By snapping the blades into different grooves on the disc, a saw of a wide variety of sizes can be constructed. Another type of adjustable hole saw, also called a cutter, is formed by having one. To cut out a hole of any size, the teeth need only be adjusted to the proper position and this type is available in sizes up to a foot and larger, and can be used to accurately cut large circles. Another advantage over drill bits is the wider size capability, the core plug often binds inside the hole saw, and often must be pried out after each hole is cut. Sometimes the prying is quite difficult, sometimes the core plug will twist apart mid-cut, creating a condition where the core inside the hole saw spins on the yet-uncut portion of the core still in the workpiece. This tends to stop the action of the saw, and if the workpiece is wood or plastic
38.
Knife
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A knife is a tool with a cutting edge or blade, hand-held or otherwise, with most having a handle. Some types of knives are used as utensils, including knives used at the dining table, many types of knives are used as tools, such as the utility knife carried by soldiers, the pocket knife carried by hikers and the hunting knife used by hunters. Knives are also used as a traditional or religious implement, such as the kirpan, some types of knives are used as weapons, such as daggers or switchblades. Some types of knives are used as sports equipment, Knives are also used in agriculture, food harvesting etc. the sickle, the scythe and even the combine harvester are knives. Knife-like tools were used at least two-and-a-half million years ago, as evidenced by the Oldowan tools. Originally made of rock, bone, flint, and obsidian, knives have evolved in construction as technology has, with blades being made from bronze, copper, iron, steel, ceramics, many cultures have their unique version of the knife. Due to its role as humankinds first tool, certain cultures have attached spiritual, most modern-day knives follow either a fixed-blade or a folding construction style, with blade patterns and styles as varied as their makers and countries of origin. The word knife possibly descends from an old Norse word knifr for blade, single-edged knives may have a reverse edge or false edge occupying a section of the spine. These edges are serrated and are used to further enhance function. The handle, used to grip and manipulate the blade safely, may include a tang, Knives are made with partial tangs or full tangs. The handle may include a bolster, a piece of heavy material situated at the front or rear of the handle, the bolster, as its name suggests, is used to mechanically strengthen the knife. Knife blades can be manufactured from a variety of materials, each of which has advantages and disadvantages, carbon steel, an alloy of iron and carbon, can be very sharp. It holds its edge well, and remains easy to sharpen, stainless steel is an alloy of iron, chromium, possibly nickel, and molybdenum, with only a small amount of carbon. It is not able to quite as sharp an edge as carbon steel. High carbon stainless steel is steel with a higher amount of carbon, intended to incorporate the better attributes of carbon steel. High carbon stainless steel blades do not discolor or stain, laminate blades use multiple metals to create a layered sandwich, combining the attributes of both. For example, a harder, more brittle steel may be sandwiched between a layer of softer, tougher, stainless steel to reduce vulnerability to corrosion. In this case, however, the part most affected by corrosion, pattern-welding is similar to laminate construction
39.
Laser
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A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term laser originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, the first laser was built in 1960 by Theodore H. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories, based on theoretical work by Charles Hard Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow. A laser differs from other sources of light in that it emits light coherently, spatial coherence allows a laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications such as laser cutting and lithography. Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over great distances, Lasers can also have high temporal coherence, which allows them to emit light with a very narrow spectrum, i. e. they can emit a single color of light. Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light as short as a femtosecond, Lasers are distinguished from other light sources by their coherence. Spatial coherence is typically expressed through the output being a narrow beam, Laser beams can be focused to very tiny spots, achieving a very high irradiance, or they can have very low divergence in order to concentrate their power at a great distance. Temporal coherence implies a polarized wave at a single frequency whose phase is correlated over a great distance along the beam. A beam produced by a thermal or other incoherent light source has an amplitude and phase that vary randomly with respect to time and position. Lasers are characterized according to their wavelength in a vacuum, most single wavelength lasers actually produce radiation in several modes having slightly differing frequencies, often not in a single polarization. Although temporal coherence implies monochromaticity, there are lasers that emit a broad spectrum of light or emit different wavelengths of light simultaneously, there are some lasers that are not single spatial mode and consequently have light beams that diverge more than is required by the diffraction limit. However, all devices are classified as lasers based on their method of producing light. Lasers are employed in applications where light of the spatial or temporal coherence could not be produced using simpler technologies. The word laser started as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, in the early technical literature, especially at Bell Telephone Laboratories, the laser was called an optical maser, this term is now obsolete. A laser that produces light by itself is technically an optical rather than an optical amplifier as suggested by the acronym. It has been noted that the acronym LOSER, for light oscillation by stimulated emission of radiation. With the widespread use of the acronym as a common noun, optical amplifiers have come to be referred to as laser amplifiers. The back-formed verb to lase is frequently used in the field, meaning to produce light, especially in reference to the gain medium of a laser. Further use of the laser and maser in an extended sense, not referring to laser technology or devices, can be seen in usages such as astrophysical maser
40.
Lawn mower
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A lawn mower is a machine utilizing one or more revolving blades to cut a grass surface to an even height. The most common source for lawn mowers is a small internal combustion engine. Smaller mowers often lack any form of propulsion, requiring power to move over a surface, walk-behind mowers are self-propelled, requiring a human only to walk behind. Larger lawn mowers are usually either self-propelled walk-behind types, or more often, are ride-on mowers, equipped so the operator can ride on the mower, a robotic lawn mower is designed to operate either entirely on its own, or less commonly by an operator by remote control. Two main styles of blades are used in lawn mowers, there are several types of mowers, each suited to a particular scale and purpose. The smallest types, unpowered push mowers, are suitable for residential lawns and gardens. Electrical or piston engine-powered push-mowers are used for residential lawns. The largest multi-gang mowers are mounted on tractors and are designed for large expanses of grass such as courses and municipal parks. The first lawn mower was invented by Edwin Budding in 1830 in Thrupp, just outside Stroud, in Gloucestershire, England. Buddings mower was designed primarily to cut the grass on sports grounds and extensive gardens, as an alternative to the scythe. Buddings first machine was 19 inches wide with a made of wrought iron. The mower was pushed from behind, cast-iron gear wheels transmitted power from the rear roller to the cutting cylinder, allowing the rear roller to drive the knives on the cutting cylinder, the ratio was 16,1. Another roller placed between the cylinder and the main or land roller could be raised or lowered to alter the height of cut. The grass clippings were hurled forward into a tray-like box and it was soon realized, however, that an extra handle was needed in front to help pull the machine along. Overall, these machines were similar to modern mowers. Two of the earliest Budding machines sold went to Regents Park Zoological Gardens in London and his machine was the catalyst for the preparation of modern-style sporting ovals, playing fields, grass courts, etc. This led to the codification of rules for many sports, including for football, lawn bowls, lawn tennis. It took ten years and further innovations to create a machine that could be drawn by animals
41.
Machete
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A machete is a broad blade used either as an implement like an axe, or in combat like a short sword. The blade is typically 32.5 to 45 centimetres long, in the Spanish language, the word is a diminutive form of the word macho, which was used to refer to sledgehammers. In the English language, an equivalent term is matchet, though it is commonly known. In the English-speaking Caribbean, such as Jamaica, Barbados, Guyana, and Grenada and in Trinidad and Tobago, in various tropical and subtropical countries, the machete is frequently used to cut through rain forest undergrowth and for agricultural purposes. It is common to see people using machetes for other jobs, such as splitting open coconuts, yard work, removing small branches and plants, chopping animals food, because the machete is common in many tropical countries, it is often the weapon of choice for uprisings. For example, the Boricua Popular Army are unofficially called macheteros because of the laborers of sugar cane fields of past Puerto Rico. Many of the killings in the 1994 Rwandan genocide were performed with machetes, Machetes were also a distinctive tool and weapon of the Haitian Tonton Macoute. In 1762, the Kingdom of Great Britain invaded Cuba in the Battle of Havana, and peasant guerrillas led by Pepe Antonio, the machete was also the most iconic weapon during the independence wars in that country, although it saw limited battlefield use. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, owner of the sugar refinery La Demajagua near Manzanillo and he proceeded to lead them, armed with machetes, in revolt against the Spanish government. The machete was a side arm and tool for many ethnic groups in West Africa. Machetes in this role are referenced in Chinua Achebes Things Fall Apart, some countries have a name for the blow of a machete, the Spanish machetazo is sometimes used in English. To strike with the edge is to chop. Throughout the Caribbean, the term refers to a laborers cutting tool. The Brazilian Armys Instruction Center on Jungle Warfare developed a machete with a blade 10 inches in length and a very pronounced clip point. This machete is issued with a 5-inch Bowie knife and a stone in the scabbard. Quite a lot of slashers have used it as a weapon in horror movies, the panga or tapanga is a variant used in East and Southern Africa. This name may be of Swahili etymology, not to be confused with the Panga fish, the panga blade broadens on the backside and has a length of 16 to 18 inches. The upper inclined portion of the blade may be sharpened, in the Philippines, the bolo is a very similar tool, but with the blade swelling just before the tip to make the knife even more efficient for chopping
42.
Mezzaluna
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A mezzaluna is a knife consisting of a single or double curved blade with a handle on each end. It is often used for chopping cheese, or, as a common alternative. Very large single blade versions are used for pizza. Common uses in Italy include preparation of a soffritto or a pesto, Mezzaluna means half moon in Italian, after the curved shape of the blade, and is the most common name used in the UK. Other names used include herb chopper or hachoir, which is its French name, mezzalunas may be found sold with a cutting board that has a shallow indentation in it, marketed as a herb chopper. It is also the name of a restaurant chain, both Ron Goldman and his friend, Michael Nigg, worked as waiters at Mezzaluna Trattoria, located at 11750 San Vicente Boulevard in the Brentwood neighborhood of Los Angeles. Nicole Brown Simpson was a frequent diner there
43.
Milling cutter
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Milling cutters are cutting tools typically used in milling machines or machining centres to perform milling operations. They remove material by their movement within the machine or directly from the cutters shape, milling cutters come in several shapes and many sizes. There is also a choice of coatings, as well as rake angle, shape, Several standard shapes of milling cutter are used in industry today, which are explained in more detail below. Flutes / teeth, The flutes of the bit are the deep helical grooves running up the cutter. The tooth cuts the material, and chips of material are pulled up the flute by the rotation of the cutter. There is almost always one tooth per flute, but some cutters have two teeth per flute, often, the words flute and tooth are used interchangeably. Milling cutters may have one to many teeth, with 2,3 and 4 being most common. Typically, the teeth a cutter has, the more rapidly it can remove material. So, a 4-tooth cutter can remove material at twice the rate of a 2-tooth cutter, helix angle, The flutes of a milling cutter are almost always helical. If the flutes were straight, the tooth would impact the material at once, causing vibration and reducing accuracy. Setting the flutes at an angle allows the tooth to enter the material gradually, typically, finishing cutters have a higher rake angle to give a better finish. Center cutting, Some milling cutters can drill straight down through the material and this is because the teeth of some cutters do not go all the way to the centre of the end face. However, these cutters can cut downwards at an angle of 45 degrees or so, a roughing cutter may have serrated teeth for breaking the chips of material into smaller pieces. These teeth leave a surface behind. A finishing cutter may have a large number teeth for removing material carefully, however, the large number of flutes leaves little room for efficient swarf removal, so they are less appropriate for removing large amounts of material. Coatings, The right tool coatings can have an influence on the cutting process by increasing cutting speed and tool life. Polycrystalline diamond is a hard coating used on cutters which must withstand high abrasive wear. A PCD coated tool may last up to 100 times longer than an uncoated tool, however the coating cannot be used at temperatures above 600 degrees C, or on ferrous metals
