1.
Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. Educational methods include storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learners may also educate themselves. Education can take place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has an effect on the way one thinks, feels. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy, in most regions education is compulsory up to a certain age. Etymologically, the education is derived from the Latin ēducātiō from ēducō which is related to the homonym ēdūcō from ē-. Education began in prehistory, as trained the young in the knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation, story-telling passed knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be learned through imitation. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom, plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. The city of Alexandria in Egypt, established in 330 BCE, there, the great Library of Alexandria was built in the 3rd century BCE. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in CE476, after the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education, some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous, founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek, around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts, the Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age, formal education occurs in a structured environment whose explicit purpose is teaching students. Usually, formal education takes place in a environment with classrooms of multiple students learning together with a trained, certified teacher of the subject. Most school systems are designed around a set of values or ideals that govern all educational choices in that system, such choices include curriculum, organizational models, design of the physical learning spaces, student-teacher interactions, methods of assessment, class size, educational activities, and more
2.
Single-sex education
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Single-sex education, also known as single-gender education, is the practice of conducting education where male and female students attend separate classes or in separate buildings or schools. The practice was common before the century, particularly in secondary education. Single-sex education in many cultures is advocated on the basis of tradition as well as religion, recently, there has been a surge of interest and establishment of single-sex schools due to educational research. Motivations for single sex education range from religious ideas of sex segregation to beliefs that the sexes learn and behave differently, before the 19th century, single-sex schooling was most common. As such, mass education was introduced, and more and more schools were set up. Together with mass education, the practice of coeducation was universalized in many parts, increased secularization in the 20th century also contributed to the acceptance of mixed sex education. In 1917 coeducation was mandated in the Soviet Union, according to Cornelius Riordan, By the end of the nineteenth century, coeducation was all but universal in American elementary and secondary public schools. And by the end of the 20th century, this was largely true across the world, in the UK, Australia, and Ireland the tradition of single sex education remained quite strong until the 1960s. The 1960s and 1970s were a period of social changes. Wiseman shows that by 2003, only a few countries across the globe have greater than one or two percent single sex schools. Recently, however, there has been a resurgence of interest in single sex schools in modern societies across the globe, the topic of single-sex education is controversial. Advocates argue that it aids student outcomes such as test scores, graduation rates, one version of this argument holds that male-female brain differences favor the implementation of gender-specific teaching methods, but such claims have not held up to rigorous scrutiny. A systematic review published in 2005 covering 2221 studies was commissioned by the US Department of Education entitled Single-sex versus coeducational schooling, there is some support for the premise that single-sex schooling can be helpful, especially for certain outcomes related to academic achievement and more positive academic aspirations. For many outcomes, there is no evidence of benefit or harm. There is limited support for the view that single-sex schooling may be harmful or that coeducational schooling is more beneficial for the student, a UCLA report commissioned by the National Coalition of Girls’ Schools used data from a large national survey of U. S. They also argue that single-sex schooling does not adequately prepare students for adult workplaces and society, coeducational schools offer greater opportunity to break down sexist attitudes through purposeful interaction with the other sex. Coeducational schools are said to create greater feelings of safety. He further said that these authors provide no evidence for their claim that gender divisions are made even more salient in SS settings
3.
Dollar Academy
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Dollar, founded in 1818 by benefaction of trader John McNabb, is a co-educational day and boarding school in Scotland. The open campus occupies a 70-acre site in the centre of the town of Dollar in Central Scotland, the school is located at the foot of the Ochil Hills and surrounded by Clackmannanshire countryside. There are over 1250 pupils at Dollar Academy, making it the fourth largest independent school in Scotland, on a single campus, it is divided into three separate schools, the Prep School, the Junior School and the Senior School. Just 20% of the pupils are from overseas, representing less than 4% of the total school roll. Foreign pupils come from a range of countries, including France, Spain, Germany, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Moldova, as well as the United States, the remaining 80% of boarding students are British nationals. Dollar Academy has over 70 sports and recreational activities on offer to pupils after the school day, Dollar Academy has produced international competitors across many disciplines, most notably in rugby and shooting. Dollar Academy follows the Scottish education system, with pupils sitting a mixture of Intermediate 2 and National 5 examinations at the end of Form IV, most courses in Form VI are at Advanced Higher level and a number of pupils study the Scottish Baccalaureate. All standard subjects are on offer at Dollar Academy, the school also teaches Classical Studies, Latin, Greek and Mandarin. IT training is provided to all, and music, art, Dollar Academys CCF have won the Scottish Schools CCF skills competition several times and most recently in 2014 and 2016. Dollar Academys CCF was also the first Scottish CCF to win the Welbeck DSFC Cadet Leadership Challenge in 2013 and repeated this in 2014 and 2016. The CCF First Aid team is extremely successful winning the Scottish National every year since 2003. The school is also the only Scottish school in the last fifty years to win the Ashburton Shield at Bisley, the school has two main pipe bands, both of which have been very successful in competition. The A band won the Scottish Schools CCF Pipes and Drums competition every year from 2000 to 2012 and 2014 and 2015, in 2013, the band was placed first at the last Major of the season, the prestigious Cowal Gathering. The school day begins at 8,45 am, when pupils must be in Registration in their Form Tutor Groups to be registered at the beginning of each day, in each year there are around 7 or 8 such classes, each of about 17–25 pupils. On Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays pupils attend Morning Assembly from 9,00 am to 9,15 am and this consists of an academic parade, a hymn, a bible reading and a prayer, followed by announcements about the forthcoming days. On Tuesdays and Thursdays there is a registration and lessons begin at 9,05 am. There are five periods in the day, each lasting one hour, First period begins at 9,15 am and finishes and 10,15 am, and is followed by second period which ends at 11,15 am. Between 11,15 am and 11,30 am is morning break, third period is from 11,30 am to 12,30 am, and is followed by lunch, which finishes at 1,25 pm
4.
Oberlin College
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Oberlin College is a private liberal arts college in Oberlin, Ohio. The college was founded as the Oberlin Collegiate Institute in 1833 by John Jay Shipherd and it is the oldest coeducational liberal arts college in the United States and the second oldest continuously operating coeducational institute of higher learning in the world. The Oberlin Conservatory of Music, part of the college, is the oldest continuously operating conservatory in the United States, the College of Arts & Sciences offers more than 50 majors, minors, and concentrations. Oberlin is a member of the Great Lakes Colleges Association and the Five Colleges of Ohio consortium, both the college and the town of Oberlin were founded in northern Ohio in 1833 by a pair of Presbyterian ministers, John Jay Shipherd and Philo Stewart. The College was built on 500 acres of land donated by the previous owners, Titus Street, founder of Streetsboro, Ohio, and Samuel Hughes. Shipherd and Stewert named their project after Jean-Frédéric Oberlin, an Alsatian minister whom they both admired, the ministers vision was for both a religious community and school. Oberlins founders bragged that Oberlin is peculiar in that which is good, asa Mahan accepted the position as first President of the Oberlin Collegiate Institute in 1835, simultaneously serving as the chair of intellectual and moral philosophy and a professor of theology. The college had some difficult beginnings, and Rev. John Keep, a nondenominational seminary, Oberlins Graduate School of Theology, was established alongside the college in 1833. Oberlins role as an educator of African-American students prior to the Civil War, in 1844, Oberlin College graduated its first black student, George B. Vashon, who one of the founding professors at Howard University. The African Americans of Oberlin and those attending Oberlin College have experienced intense challenges and its African American and other students of color have used education and activism to influence the college, the town, and beyond. Their efforts have helped Oberlin remain committed to its values of freedom, social justice, the Colleges approach to African Americans was by no means perfect. Intensely anti-slavery, Oberlin was the college to admit black students in the 1830s. By the 1880s, however, with the fading of evangelical idealism, nonetheless, Oberlin graduates accounted for a significant percentage of African-American college graduates by the end of the 19th century. The college was listed as a National Historic Landmark on December 21,1965, for its significance in admitting African Americans, Oberlin is also the oldest coeducational institution in the United States, having admitted four women in 1837. These four women, who were the first to enter as full students, were Mary Kellogg, Mary Caroline Rudd, Mary Hosford, Mary Jane Patterson graduated in 1862 as the first black woman to earn a B. A. degree. Soon women were integrated into the college, and comprised from a third to half of the student body. The religious founders, especially evangelical theologian Charles Grandison Finney, saw women as morally superior to men
5.
Council of Trent
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The Council of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563 in Trento and Bologna, northern Italy, was one of the Roman Catholic Churchs most important ecumenical councils. Prompted by the Protestant Reformation, it has described as the embodiment of the Counter-Reformation. Four hundred years later, when Pope John XXIII initiated preparations for the Second Vatican Council, he affirmed the decrees it had issued, What was, still is. These addressed a range of subjects, including scripture, the Biblical canon, sacred tradition, original sin, justification, salvation, the sacraments, the Mass. The Council met for twenty-five sessions between 13 December 1545 and 4 December 1563, all in Trento, apart from the ninth to eleventh sessions held in Bologna during 1547, the consequences of the Council were also significant as regards the Churchs liturgy and practices. During its deliberations, the Council made the Vulgate the official example of the Biblical canon and commissioned the creation of a standard version, although this was not achieved until the 1590s. These, in turn, led to the codification of the Tridentine Mass, more than three hundred years passed until the next ecumenical council, the First Vatican Council, was convened in 1869. A few months later, on 31 October 1517, Martin Luther issued his 95 Theses in Wittenberg, after the Pope condemned in Exsurge Domine fifty-two of Luthers theses as heresy, German opinion considered a council the best method to reconcile existing differences. German Catholics, diminished in number, hoped for a council to clarify matters. Under Pope Clement VII, troops of the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor Charles V sacked Papal Rome in 1527, raping, killing, burning, stealing, saint Peters Basilica and the Sistine Chapel were used for horses. This, together with the Pontiffs ambivalence between France and Germany, led to his hesitation, Charles V strongly favoured a council, but needed the support of King Francis I of France, who attacked him militarily. This proposal met the opposition of the Pope for it gave recognition to Protestants, faced with a Turkish attack, Charles held the support of the Protestant German rulers, all of whom delayed the opening of the Council of Trent. In reply to the Papal bull Exsurge Domine of Pope Leo X, Martin Luther burned the document, in 1522 German diets joined in the appeal, with Charles V seconding and pressing for a council as a means of reunifying the Church and settling the Reformation controversies. Pope Clement VII was vehemently against the idea of a council, after Pope Pius II, in his bull Execrabilis and his reply to the University of Cologne, set aside the theory of the supremacy of general councils laid down by the Council of Constance. Pope Paul III, seeing that the Protestant Reformation was no longer confined to a few preachers, yet when he proposed the idea to his cardinals, it was almost unanimously opposed. Nonetheless, he sent nuncios throughout Europe to propose the idea, Paul III issued a decree for a general council to be held in Mantua, Italy, to begin on 23 May 1537. Martin Luther wrote the Smalcald Articles in preparation for the general council, the Smalcald Articles were designed to sharply define where the Lutherans could and could not compromise. The council was ordered by the Emperor and Pope Paul III to convene in Mantua on 23 May 1537 and it failed to convene after another war broke out between France and Charles V, resulting in a non-attendance of French prelates
6.
Dame school
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A Dame school was an early form of a private elementary school in English-speaking countries. They were usually taught by women and were located in the home of the teacher. Dame schools were first mentioned in literature in the 16th century and they were private schools at the lowest end of the spectrum. The establishments were quite varied—some functioned primarily as day care facilities overseen by illiterate women, around 1843, the quoted fee in Middlesex was 5s. A week while the school would charge 11s. There were also schools, run mainly by the Church of England. Many children just went to Sunday Schools that were run by every Christian denomination, after the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act in 1802, apprentices were guaranteed daily education for 4 years within the factory, but this did not apply to free children working there. The education provided by these schools ranged from basic to exceptional, an education in reading and religion was required for children by the Massachusetts School Law of 1642. This law was strengthened by the famous Old Deluder Satan Act. According to Puritan beliefs, Satan would assuredly try to keep people from understanding the Scriptures, Dame schools fulfilled this requirement if parents were unable to educate their young children in their own home. For a small fee, women, often housewives or widows, offered to take in children to whom she would teach a little writing, reading, basic prayers and these women received tuition in coin, home industries, alcohol, baked goods, and other valuables. Teaching materials generally included, and often did not exceed, a hornbook, primer, Psalter, both girls and boys were provided education through the dame school system. Dame schools generally focused on the four Rs of education-Riting, Reading, Rithmetic, in addition to primary education, girls in dame schools might also learn sewing, embroidery, and other graces. Most girls received their formal education from dame schools because of sex-segregated education in common or public schools during the colonial period. In the 18th and 19th centuries, some dame schools offered boys, the women running these elite dame schools taught reading, writing, English, French, arithmetic, and music, and dancing. Schools for upper-class girls were usually called female seminaries, finishing schools etc. rather than dame schools, the first school in Australia, started in 1789, was a Dame school in which children were taught basics by a convict, Isabella Rossen. gov williamsburgkids. com
7.
Quakers
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Quakers are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity, to differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were about 359,000 adult Quakers, in 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry, the first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They emphasized a personal and direct experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity, in the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Frys, and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, during and after the English Civil War many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered. Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith, the central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, in 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Foxs autobiography, Bennet was the first that called us Quakers and it is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66,2 or Ezra 9,4. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Foxs admonition, Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689, with the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women, Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing holy conversation in her children and husband. Quaker women were responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in meetings that regulated marriage. The persecution of Quakers in North America began in 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and they were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Light. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported, in 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged on Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony
8.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
9.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
10.
Nanjing University
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Nanjing University, or Nanking University, located in Nanjing, China, is one of the oldest and most prestigious institutions of higher learning in China. Before the eve of establishment of Peoples Republic of China in 1949, Nanjing University is a top comprehensive research university. It is a member of the C9 League and Yangtze Delta Universities Alliance and it is a national university directly under the Ministry of Education of China, largely funded by national and Jiangsu provincial governments, also with other income sources including donations. In 1403 Peking Guozijian was established, the publishing house of Nanking Imperial University had been a publishing centre for several hundred years. Wu Chengen and Zheng Chenggong studied there during the Ming dynasty, each time when Nanking became a non-capital city, the Nanking Imperial University was changed to be regional Nanking Academy. The Imperial Nanking University was changed to Nanking Academy in 1650 after Qing dynasty replaced Ming dynasty, the ancient school history was recognized during ROC. In 1954 the school authority controlled by CPC decided to set the starting to establish the modern new type school Sanjiang Normal College as the schools new founding year. The name was changed to Liangjiang Normal College in 1906, the school established the Chinas first faculty of modern gymnastics in 1916. The China Science Society, a major organization in the modern history of China. Its members established Academia Sinica which was moved to Taiwan. Numerous Chinese modern science pioneers, most of whom studied in America and some European countries such as Britain, France and Germany and it became the Chinese cradle of modern science. Among 81 academicians of Academia Sinica elected for the first time in 1948, more than half of the leading Chinese scientists whose works were published in scientific journals in the early period of Chinese modern science were graduates or academics of Nanjing University. Kuo Ping-wen, a university president, was appointed in 1919 after Jiang Qian. The school became the first higher learning institution in China to recruit coeducational students and it enrolled eight women students in the first year 1920, and in addition, more than 50 female auditing students were admitted. In 1921 the National Southeastern University was founded, and in 1923 Nanking Higher Normal School was merged into it, in the autumn of 1921, the Faculty of Business established in 1917 was moved to Shanghai to establish the first business school conferring degrees in China. The university consisted of five colleges at the time, Liberal Arts, Education, Agriculture, Engineering, the earliest modern scientific research laboratories and groups in China were established at the university. It integrated teaching and research, with status of independence and academic freedom. In October 1921, Hsuehheng Society was founded in the university which was the focus of the Hsuehheng School included the scholars Liu Yizheng, Liu Boming, Mei Guangdi, Wu Mi and they reinvigorated Confucian culture and humanism and published the monthly Critical Review in January 1922
11.
National Central University
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National Central University was founded in 1915 with roots from 258 CE in mainland China. After NCU in Nanking was renamed Nanjing University in 1949, NCU was re-established in Taiwan in 1962, the school was initially located in Miaoli, but was relocated to Zhongli in 1968, and developed into a comprehensive university. In 2001, NCU was selected by the Ministry of Education as one of the eleven research-oriented universities in Taiwan, the undergraduate population is represented by the Associated Students of National Central University. National Central University can trace its roots back to 258 CE, NCU was founded in the 4th year of ROC in Nanking, the new capital city of the early government of the Republic of China, and adopted its name in 1928. NCU moved to Chungking in 1937 when Sino-Japanese War broke out, the NCU Alumni Association in Taiwan applied for reinstatement of the university in three consecutive years starting from 1956 and was approved in 1958. After four years preparation, National Central University was reinstated in Taiwan in 1962, first as the National Central University Graduate Institute of Geophysics, in Miaoli County. In 1968, NCU moved to its current location in the Shuanglianpo district of Zhongli, Taoyuan County, in 1979, it was officially reestablished under its current name. In 2003, NCU and three other national universities established the University System of Taiwan cooperative partnership, now NCU is a research-oriented national comprehensive university. The universitys Taoyuan City campus is situated in the part of the island. The large, green campus, is some distance away from the busy downtown Zhongli. NCU is only half an hour away from the Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport, NCU Lulin Observatory is located near Yushan National Park, in southern part of Taiwan island. D. In total, the 8 colleges contain 19 undergraduate departments,48 graduate institutes, list of universities in Taiwan Nanking University Guozijian National Central University
12.
Ming dynasty
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The Ming dynasty was the ruling dynasty of China – then known as the Empire of the Great Ming – for 276 years following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming, described by some as one of the greatest eras of orderly government, although the primary capital of Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng, regimes loyal to the Ming throne – collectively called the Southern Ming – survived until 1683. He rewarded his supporters and employed them as a counterweight against the Confucian scholar-bureaucrats. One, Zheng He, led seven enormous voyages of exploration into the Indian Ocean as far as Arabia, the rise of new emperors and new factions diminished such extravagances, the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor during the 1449 Tumu Crisis ended them completely. The imperial navy was allowed to fall into disrepair while forced labor constructed the Liaodong palisade, haijin laws intended to protect the coasts from Japanese pirates instead turned many into smugglers and pirates themselves. The growth of Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch trade created new demand for Chinese products and produced an influx of Japanese. This abundance of specie remonetized the Ming economy, whose money had suffered repeated hyperinflation and was no longer trusted. While traditional Confucians opposed such a prominent role for commerce and the newly rich it created, combined with crop failure, floods, and epidemic, the dynasty collapsed before the rebel leader Li Zicheng, who was defeated by the Manchu-led Eight Banner armies who founded the Qing dynasty. The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty ruled before the establishment of the Ming dynasty, consequently, agriculture and the economy were in shambles, and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River. A number of Han Chinese groups revolted, including the Red Turbans in 1351, the Red Turbans were affiliated with the White Lotus, a Buddhist secret society. Zhu Yuanzhang was a peasant and Buddhist monk who joined the Red Turbans in 1352. In 1356, Zhus rebel force captured the city of Nanjing, with the Yuan dynasty crumbling, competing rebel groups began fighting for control of the country and thus the right to establish a new dynasty. In 1363, Zhu Yuanzhang eliminated his archrival and leader of the rebel Han faction, Chen Youliang, in the Battle of Lake Poyang, arguably the largest naval battle in history. Known for its ambitious use of ships, Zhus force of 200,000 Ming sailors were able to defeat a Han rebel force over triple their size, claimed to be 650. The victory destroyed the last opposing rebel faction, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in uncontested control of the bountiful Yangtze River Valley, Zhu Yuanzhang took Hongwu, or Vastly Martial, as his era name. Hongwu made an effort to rebuild state infrastructure. He built a 48 km long wall around Nanjing, as well as new palaces, Hongwu organized a military system known as the weisuo, which was similar to the fubing system of the Tang dynasty. With a growing suspicion of his ministers and subjects, Hongwu established the Jinyiwei, some 100,000 people were executed in a series of purges during his rule
13.
Yuan Mei
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Yuan Mei was a well-known poet, scholar, artist, and gastronome of the Qing Dynasty. Yuan Mei was born in Qiantang, Zhejiang province, to a family who had never before attained high office. He achieved the degree of jinshi in 1739 at the age of 23 and was immediately appointed to the Hanlin Academy. Then, from 1742 to 1748, Yuan Mei served as a magistrate in four different provinces in Jiangsu, however, in 1748, shortly after being assigned to administer part of Nanjing, he resigned his post and returned to his hometown to pursue his literary interest. In the decades before his death, Yuan Mei produced a body of poetry, essays. His works reflected his interest in Chan Buddhism and the supernatural, at the expense of Daoism, Yuan is most famous for his poetry, which has been described as possessing unusually clear and elegant language. His views on poetry as expressed in the Suiyuan shihua stressed the importance of personal feeling, in his later years, Yuan Mei came to be called Mister Suiyuan. Among his other collected works are treatises on passing the imperial examinations, throughout his lifetime, Yuan Mei travelled extensively throughout southern China, visiting Huangshan, Guilin, Tiantai, Wuyi and other famous mountains. On some of those visits, Yuan kept journal entries, representative of which is the You Guilin zhu shan ji, since he admired womens poetry, he also took several female students and helped them publish their work under their own names. The food writer Fuchsia Dunlop has described Yuan as China’s Brillat-Savarin, in a time when the taste among his contemporaries was for opulence and exotic display, Yuan stood for the orthodox style. Nowadays, he wrote, at the start of the feast the menu is about a hundred feet long and this is mere display, not gastronomy. After such a dinner Yuan returned home and cooked congee to appease his hunger and he instructed cooks do not fuss with the natural state of the food just to show that you are a clever cook. Birds nest is beautiful -- why shape it into balls, Yuan criticized his contemporary Li Liwengs magnolia pudding as created by artifice. Yuan also resented what he regarded as the corruption of Chinese food by Manchu cooks, yuans recipes and thoughts on cooking were published in his 1792 gastronomic manual and cookbook the Suiyuan Shidan. Yuan Mei, Eighteenth Century Chinese Poet, london, Allen & Unwin,1956 Mei Yuan, Yingzhong Wang and Yingzhi Wang, eds. 随园食单. J. P. Seaton, Translator, I Dont Bow to Buddhas, port Townsend, Copper Canyon Press,1997 ISBN 1-55659-120-9 J. D. Schmidt, Harmony Garden, The Life, Criticism, and Poetry of Yuan Mei, Routledge,2003. M. A. thesis, Arizona State University,2008, 随园食单 Chinese text Suiyuan Shidan English translation
14.
Qing dynasty
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It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
15.
Ginling Women's University
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Ginling College, sometimes also known by its Pinyin romanization as Jinling College or Jinling Womens College, is a womens college of Nanjing Normal University in Nanjing, China. It offers both bachelors and masters degrees and it offers six undergraduate majors, applied English, accounting, financial management, labor and social welfare, food science and engineering, and food quality and safety. Masters degrees are offered in science, agricultural products processing and storage. The school was closed from 1951 to 1987, when it was reestablished on its previous site, american architect and art historian Talbot Hamlin designed some of the buildings that were constructed in the 1919 to 1925 period. Wu, who became a figure in the Peoples Republic of China as a patriotic woman educator. However, it did not ultimately reopen until 1987, two years after her death, during the Nanking Massacre, the college, led by its acting principal Minnie Vautrin, harbored over 10,000 women trying to hide from the Japanese Imperial Army. Nanjing Normal University was founded on the campus of Ginling College in 1952, Jinling Girls High School in Taipei was founded by alumnae of Jinling Womens University in 1956. The Making of a Family Saga, Ginling College, thurston, Matilda S. Calder, Chester, Ruth Miriam. Terror in Minnie Vautrins Nanjing, Diaries and Correspondence, 1937-38, official site Ginling Association in America Ginling College, Biographical Note at the Smith College Archives
16.
Tao Xingzhi
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Tao Xingzhi, was a renowned Chinese educator and reformer in the Republic of China mainland era. He studied at Teachers College, Columbia University and returned to China to champion progressive education and his career in China as a liberal educator was not derivative of John Dewey, as some have alleged, but creative and adaptive. He then also returned to his humble roots, originally, he wrote to his beloved younger sister, I was a common Chinese, but gradually through ten years of life as a student, I developed a foreign, aristocratic tendency. Shanghai, the capital and center of modern/foreign China, he now found vulgar, rushed, then suddenly, like the Yellow River breaking its dikes. I woke up to the fact that I was being robbed of my Chineseness and he took to wearing a traditional scholars gown, and turned to mass education. He then reversed his name to the more form, xingzhi. He denounced false intelligentsia for drawing on second hand, foreign experience of which they had no authentic knowledge, in December 1921, Tao Hsing-chih and other educationists founded China Education Improvement Society and he was elected as secretary-general. Through the society the educationists promoted the forming of modern system in China. In August 1923, Tao and Y. C, james Yen organized a National Association of Mass Education Movements. At the height of its campaign in the 1920s, Yen estimated that the MEM had five million students. Tao went on to become the leading promoter of rural teachers education. In March 1927, Tao founded the Xiaozhuang Normal College in Nanjing to train teachers and educators, the school was closed in 1930 by the Nationalist government for political reasons. In the 1930s Tao wrote childrens literature, started the Life Education Association and he was in the United States when war with Japan broke out in 1937, but returned to China, where he was made a member of the Peoples Political Council. In 1939, he moved to Beibei, just outside Chongqing, Tao received monthly stipends from Feng Yuxiang and Zhang Zhizhong, both fellow Anhui natives. One of the pupils at the school was Li Peng, the son of Zhou Enlai. In 1946, after the Yucai School was harassed by the political police, fearing that he would meet the same fate as other intellectuals assassinated by right wing Nationalists, he worked frantically, leading to exhaustion and death. Zhou Enlai rushed to his home and called him a non-Party Bolshevik, Taos reputation was high for the next few years, but in the early 1950s he came under attack as a bourgeois liberal. In the 1980s, the Tao Xingzhi Study Society was founded by Song Enrong, in 2000, the college became the Nanjing Xiaozhuang University
17.
Peking University
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Peking University, is a major Chinese research university located in Beijing and a member of the C9 League. It is the first modern national university established in China, founded as the Imperial University of Peking in 1898 as a replacement of the ancient Taixue or Guozijian and it also served as the highest administration for education in China at the beginning of its founding. By 1920, it had become a center for progressive thought, Peking University is consistently ranked as the top higher learning institution in mainland China. In addition to academics, Peking University is especially renowned for its campus grounds, and the beauty of its traditional Chinese architecture. Throughout its history, the university has educated and hosted many prominent modern Chinese thinkers, including such as, Mao Zedong, Lu Xun, Gu Hongming, Mao Dun, Li Dazhao. Peking University was influential in the birth of Chinas New Culture Movement, May Fourth Movement, when it was established on July 3,1898, the school was known as the Imperial University of Peking. It was established to replace Taixue or Guozijian, or Imperial Academy, in 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution, the Imperial University was renamed National Peking University. Cai, inspired by the German model of freedom, recruited an intellectually diverse faculty that included Hu Shih, Chen Duxiu. In 1919, students of Peking University formed the bulk of the protesters of the May Fourth Movement, efforts by the Beiyang government to end the protests by sealing off the Peking University campus led to Cais resignation. In 1920, Peking University became the first Chinese university to accept female students, after the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, Peking University moved to Changsha and formed the Changsha Temporary University along with Tsinghua University and Nankai University. In 1938, the three schools moved again, this time to Kunming, and formed the National Southwestern Associated University, in 1946, after World War II, Peking University moved back to Beijing. At that time, the university comprised six schools, and an institute for humanities. The total student enrollment grew up to 3,000, in 1949, after the Peoples Republic of China was established, Peking University lost its national appellation to reflect the fact that all universities under the new socialist state would be public. In 1952, Mao Zedongs government re-grouped the countrys higher education institutions with individual institutions tending to specialize in a field of study. As a result, some arts and science faculties of Tsinghua University, at the same time, however, the university lost its Law, Medicine, Engineering and Agriculture schools. These schools and faculties were merged into other universities or to found new colleges. During the re-grouping, Yenching University was closed up, Peking University moved from downtown Beijing to the former Yenching campus. The first disturbances of the Cultural Revolution began at Peking University in 1966, in 2000, Beijing Medical University was merged back into Peking University and became the Peking University Health Science Campus
18.
Chien-Shiung Wu
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Chien-Shiung Wu was a Chinese-American experimental physicist who made significant contributions in the field of nuclear physics. Wu worked on the Manhattan Project, where she helped develop the process for separating uranium metal into uranium-235 and she is best known for conducting the Wu experiment, which contradicted the hypothetical law of conservation of parity. This discovery resulted in her colleagues Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen-Ning Yang winning the 1957 Nobel Prize in physics and her expertise in experimental physics evoked comparisons to Marie Curie. Her nicknames include the First Lady of Physics, the Chinese Madame Curie, Chien-Shiung Wu was born in the town of Liuhe in Taicang, Jiangsu province, China, on May 31,1912, the second of three children of Wu Zhong-Yi and Fan Fu-Hua. Accordingly, she had a brother, Chien-Ying, and a younger brother. Wu and her father were close and he encouraged her interests passionately, creating an environment where she was surrounded by books, magazines. Wu received her school education at Ming De School, a school for girls founded by her father. She left her hometown in 1923 at the age of 11 to go to the Suzhou Womens Normal School No.2 and this was a boarding school with classes for teacher training as well as for regular high school. Admission to teacher training was more competitive, as it did not charge for tuition or board, although her family could have afforded to pay, Wu chose the more competitive option, and was ranked ninth among around 10,000 applicants. In 1929 Wu graduated at the top of her class, and was admitted to the National Central University in Nanjing, according to the governmental regulations of the time, teacher-training college students wanting to move on to the universities needed to serve as schoolteachers for one year. In Wus case, this was only nominally enforced and she went to teach at the Public School in Shanghai, the president of which at the time was the philosopher Hu Shih, whose class she took. From 1930 to 1934, Wu studied at the National Central University, first in mathematics and she became involved in student politics. Relations between China and Japan were tense at this time, and students were urging the government to take a line with Japan. That being the case, she was not to neglect her studies. She led protests that included a sit-in at the Presidential Palace in Nanjing, for two years after graduation, she did graduate-level study in physics and worked as an assistant at the Zhejiang University. She became a researcher at the Institute of Physics of the Academia Sinica and her supervisor was Professor Gu Jing-Wei, who had earned her PhD abroad at the University of Michigan, and encouraged Wu to do the same. Wu was accepted by the University of Michigan, and her uncle, Wu Zhou-Zhi and she embarked for the United States with a female friend, Dong Ruo-Fen, a chemist from Taicang, on the SS President Hoover in August 1936. Her parents and uncle saw her off and she would never see her parents again
19.
Hui people
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According to a 2011 census, China is home to approximately 10.5 million Hui people, the majority of whom are Chinese-speaking practitioners of Islam, though some may practice other religions. Hui people are ethnically and linguistically similar to Han Chinese with the exception that most of them practice Islam, engendering distinctive cultural characteristics. For example, as Muslims, they follow Islamic dietary laws and reject the consumption of pork, the most common meat consumed in China, the Hui people are one of 56 ethnic groups recognized by China. The government defines the Hui people to include all historically Muslim communities not included in Chinas other ethnic groups, the Hui predominantly speak Chinese, while maintaining some Persian and Arabic phrases. In fact, the Hui ethnic group is unique among Chinese ethnic minorities in that it associates with non-Sinitic languages. The Hui people are concentrated in Northwestern China, but communities exist across the country, e. g. Beijing, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Hainan. After the establishment of the Peoples Republic, the term Hui applied to one of Chinas ten historically Islamic minorities, earlier the term referred to Chinese-speaking groups with Muslim ancestry. Practising Islam was not a criterion, use of the Hui category to describe foreign Muslims moving into China dates back to the Song dynasty. Hui people are of varied ancestry, many directly descending from Silk Road travelers and their ancestors include Central Asians, Arabs and Persians who married Hans. West Eurasian DNA is prevalent—6. 7% of Hui peoples maternal genetics have a West Eurasian origin, in subsequent centuries, they gradually mixed with Mongols and Hans, eventually forming the Hui. Nonetheless, included among Huis in Chinese census statistics are members of a few small non-Chinese speaking communities, a small Muslim minority among Yunnans Bai people are classified as Hui as well, as are some groups of Tibetan Muslims. Huihui was the generic term for Chinas Muslims during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Is thought to have its origin in the earlier Huihe or Huihu, although the ancient Uyghurs were not Muslims the name Huihui came to refer to foreigners, regardless of language or origin, by the time of the Yuan. and Ming Dynasties. By the aid of heaven we have pacified you, you are our slaves, yet you do not eat our food or drink. If you slaughter sheep, you will be considered guilty of a crime and he issued a regulation to that effect. All the Muslims say, if someone else slaughters we do not eat, the Chinese called Muslims, Jews and Christians in ancient times by the same name, Hui Hui. Christians were called Hui who abstain from animals without the foot, Muslims were called Hui who abstain from pork. Hui Hui is presently used almost exclusively for Muslims, but Jews were still called Lan mao Hui Hui which means Blue cap Hui Hui
20.
Salar people
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The Salar people are an ethnic minority of China who largely speak the Salar language, an Oghuz Turkic language. The Salar people numbered 104,503 people in the last census of 2000, there are also Salars in Xinjiang. They are an agricultural society and are predominantly Muslim. According to Salar tradition, they are the descendants of the Salur tribe, during the Tang dynasty, the Salur tribe dwelt within Chinas borders — later moving west towards Central Asia. The two brothers Haraman and Ahman, forefathers of the present day Salar tribe once lived in the Samarkand area and they were highly ranked at local Islamic mosques, thus led to prosecution from local king and rulers. The two brothers fled along with eighteen members of the tribe on a camel with water, soil. The group passed through the route of the Tian Shan mountain ranges. They arrived at the present Guide County, and twelve of them settled there, the remaining 28 travellers met up with the Haraman group at Ganjiatan, and travelled to the present Xunhua region. The group later found that the soil at the area was fertile, as time progressed, these Samarkand people intermarried with the local Tibetan, Hui, Han Chinese and Mongols, eventually forming the Salar group. The Koran the Salars brought on their journey to China is to this day still preserved in Xunhua at Jiezi Mosque, the Nanjing Museum has repaired the Koran to protect it from decay. The Salar clan leaders voluntarily capitulated to the Ming dynasty around 1370. The chief of the four upper clans around this time was Han Baoyuan, the other chief Han Shanba of the four lower Salar clans got the same office from the Ming government, and his clans were the ones who took Ma as their surname. The ethnogenesis of the Salar started from when they pledged alleigance to the Ming dynasty under their leader Han Bao, Han Baos father was Omar, and Omars father was Garaman, who led the Salars on their journey from Central Asia to China. The Kargan Tibetans, who next to the Salar, have mostly become Muslim due to the Salars. The Salar oral tradition recalls that it was around 1370 in which came from Samarkand to China. The Salars were permitted an enormous amount of autonomy and self-rule by the Ming dynasty, which gave them command of taxes, military, in the 1670s, the Kashgarian Sufi master Āfāq Khoja preached among the Salars, introducing Sufism into their community. Throughout the 1760s and 1770s, another Chinese Sufi master, Ma Mingxin, was spreading his version of Sufi teaching, many Salars became adherents of Jahriyya, or the New Teaching, as the Qing government officials dubbed it. While the external differences between the Khufiyya and the Jahriyya would look comparatively trivial to an outsider, the conflict between their adherents often became violent, sectarian violence between the Jahriyya and Khufiyya broke out repeatedly until the major episode of violence in 1781
21.
Uyghurs
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The Uyghurs are a Turkic ethnic group living in Eastern and Central Asia. Today, Uyghurs live primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in China and they primarily practice Islam, and are a physically diverse ethnic group ranging from Western Eurasian to a more East Asian appearance. An estimated 80% of Xinjiangs Uyghurs live in the portion of the region. Outside Xinjiang, the largest community of Uyghurs in China is in Taoyuan County, outside of China, significant diasporic communities of Uyghurs exist in the Central Asian countries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan, and in Turkey. Smaller communities are found in Afghanistan, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Canada, and the United States. Uyghur is often pronounced /ˈwiːɡər/ by English speakers, though an acceptable English pronunciation closer to the Uyghur peoples pronunciation of it is /uː. iˈɡʊər/, several alternate romanizations also appear, Uighur, Uygur, and Uigur. The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region provincial government recommends that the ethnonym, adopted in the early 20th century. The meaning of the term Uyghur is unclear, the Old Turkic inscriptions record a word uyɣur which was transcribed into Chinese as * > Huíhé in Tang dynasty annals. Later, in response to an Uyghur request, this was changed to > Huíhú in 788 or 809 as mentioned in the Old History of the Five Dynasties, the earliest record of an Uyghur tribe is from the Northern Wei. At that time the ethnonym * > Gaoche was used, and later, the first use of Uyghur as a reference to a political nation occurred during the interim period between the First and Second Göktürk Khaganates. The term Uyghur disappeared from records in the 15th century. Throughout its history, the term Uyghur has taken on an expansive definition. Initially signifying only a small coalition of Tiele tribes in Northern China, Mongolia, finally it was expanded into an ethnicity whose ancestry originates with the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 842, which caused Uyghur migration from Mongolia into the Tarim Basin. This fluid definition of Uyghur and the ancestry of modern Uyghurs create confusion about what constitutes true Uyghur ethnography. DNA analyses indicate that the peoples of central Asia such as the Uyghurs are all mixed Caucasian, the Uighurs are the people whom old Russian travellers called Sart, while Western travellers called them Turki, in recognition of their language. The Chinese used to call them Chan-tou but this term has dropped, being considered derogatory. As a matter of fact there was for centuries no national name for them, people identified themselves with the oasis they came from, the term Uyghur was not used to refer to any existing ethnic group in the 19th century, but to an ancient people. The inhabitants of Xinjiang were not called Uyghur before 1921/1934, westerners called the Turkic-speaking Muslims of the oases Turki, and the Turkic Muslims in Ili were known as Taranchi
22.
Sorbonne
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The Sorbonne is an edifice of the Latin Quarter, in Paris, France, which was the historical house of the former University of Paris. The name is derived from the Collège de Sorbonne, initiated during 1257 by the eponymous Robert de Sorbon as one of the first significant colleges of the medieval University of Paris. The university predates the college by about a century, and minor colleges had been founded already during the late 12th century, during the 16th century, the Sorbonne became involved with the intellectual struggle between Catholics and Protestants. The Collège de Sorbonne was suppressed during the French Revolution, reopened by Napoleon during 1808 and this was only one of the many colleges of the University of Paris that existed until the French revolution. After months of conflicts between students and authorities at the University of Paris at Nanterre, the administration closed that university on May 2,1968. Students at the Sorbonne campus in Paris met on May 3 to protest against the closure and the threatened expulsion of several students at Nanterre. More than 20,000 students, teachers and other endorsers marched towards the Sorbonne, still sealed off by the police, who charged, wielding their batons, as soon as the marchers approached. While the crowd dispersed, some began to make out of whatever was at hand, while others threw paving stones. The police then responded with tear gas and charged the crowd again, may 10 marked the Night of Barricades, where students used cars, wood, and cobblestones to barricade the streets of the Latin Quarter. Brutal street fighting ensued between students and riot police, most notably on Rue Gay-Lussac, early the next morning, as the fighting disbanded, Daniel Cohn-Bendit sent out a radio broadcast calling for a general strike. On Monday,13 May, more than one million workers went on strike, negotiations ended, and students returned to their campuses after a false report that the government had agreed to reopen them, only to discover police still occupying the schools. When the Sorbonne reopened, students occupied it and declared it an autonomous Peoples University, during 1970, the University of Paris was divided into thirteen universities, managed by a common rectorate, the Chancellerie des Universités de Paris, with offices in the Sorbonne. The building also houses the École Nationale des Chartes, the École pratique des hautes études, the Cours de Civilisation Française de la Sorbonne, nowadays, the use of the name refers more often to Panthéon-Sorbonne University for French public especially students in France. But, all Parisian universities like to refer as their ancestor, some alliances of universities use that name, like Sorbonne University. Listing of the works of Alexandre Falguière List of works by Henri Chapu La Sorbonne
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St. Paul's Co-educational College
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St. Pauls Co-educational College, is a Christian secondary school located at 33 MacDonnell Road, Mid-levels, Hong Kong. It follows the HKDSE and IBDP curriculum, and is one of the Round Square schools in Hong Kong, the school was founded in 1915. It became the first school in Hong Kong to enforce uniform dress code, until after World War II, it was a girls-only college. It is under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and it is regarded as one of the top schools in Hong Kong in terms of its excellent performance in academics, music and sports. The college was founded in 1915 as St. Pauls Girls College by the Anglican church, the schools motto is Faith, Hope and Love, derived from the Bible,1 Corinthians 13. In 1942, St. Pauls Girls College was closed due to Japanese occupation of Hong Kong. In 1945, the school re-opened after Japan surrendered, merging with St. Pauls College to become the first co-educational college in Hong Kong and it was officially renamed St. Pauls Co-educational College in 1950 when St. Pauls Boys College moved to Bonham Road. Since 2002, the College has been operated under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and it was one of the first subsidised schools to join the scheme. In 2011, and it was authorised as an IB World School, located in the Mid-levels, the campus is deprived of space. The school split into two sections after the moving of the primary school, taking up the space of the ex-Kennedy Road campus of the primary school. The original school building is called MacDonnell Road Campus, while the one at 26 Kennedy Road is named the Kennedy Road Campus, the MR Campus consists of the main building and the Li Chong Yuet Ming Building. The main building consists of Dr. Catherine Woo Wing, Dr. BM Kotewall Wing, the Annex building and it comprises currently 12 floors, including the roof structure, and two underground floors, which are only partially underground. Flooring system is based on the American style, similar to the Chinese style, Dr. Catherine Woo Wing was completed in 1927 and accorded Grade 2 historic building by Antiquities Advisory Board in 2010. It is socially, historically and architecturally significant, the building is a seven-storey red brick building of a C-shaped plan. Its design expresses features of Neo-Georgian style with adaptations to local climate, a redevelopment plan is underway to upgrade existing facilities. At present, the construction works concerning the library, green roof, Sir Robert Kotewall Hall, the LCYM building is a new wing which has been built at the original St. Pauls Co-educational College Primary School site. The building was completed in 2011 and comprises 13 floors and it includes the indoor games hall, cafeteria, lecture theatre, laboratories, and other facilities. The KR Campus is the school campus of St. Pauls Co-educational College Primary School
24.
Secondary school
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A secondary school is both an organization that delivers level 2 junior secondary education or level 3 secondary education phases of the ISCED scale, and the building where this takes place. Level 2 junior secondary education is considered to be the second, Secondary schools typically follow on from primary schools and lead into vocational and tertiary education. Attendance is compulsory in most countries for students between the ages 11 and 16, the systems and terminology remain unique to each country. School building design does not happen in isolation, schools need to accommodate students, staff, storage, mechanical and electrical systems, storage, support staff, ancillary staff and administration. The number of rooms required can be determined from the roll of the school. A general classroom for 30 students needs to be 55m2, or more generously 62m2, a general art room for 30 students needs to be 83m2, but 104 m2 for 3D textile work. A drama studio or a specialist science laboratory for 30 needs to be 90 m2, examples are given on how this can be configured for a 1,200 place secondary. The building providing the education has to fulfil the needs of, The students, the teachers, the support staff, the adminstrators. It has to should meet health requirements, minimal functional requirements- such as classrooms, toilets and showers, electricity, textbooks, Government accountants having read the advice then publish minimum guidelines on schools. These enable environmental modelling and establish building costs. Future plans are audited to ensure that standards are not exceeded. The UK government published this downwardly revised space formula in 2014 and it said the floor area should be 1050m² +6. 3m²/pupil place for 11- to 16-year-olds + 7m²/pupil place for post-16s. The external finishes were to be downgraded to meet a build cost of £1113/m², a secondary school, locally may be called high school, junior high school, senior high school. Sweden, gymnasium Switzerland, gymnasium, secondary school, collège or lycée Taiwan, Junior High School, Senior High School, Vocational High School, Military School, in Nigeria, secondary school starts from JSS1 until SSS3. Most students start at the age of 10 or 11 and finish at 16 or 17, Students are required to sit for the West African Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. To progress to university students must obtain at least a credit in Maths, English, in Somalia, secondary school starts from 9th grade until 12th. Students start it when they are around 14 to 15 years of age, Students are required to study Somali and Arabic, with the option of either English or Italian depending on the type of school. Religion, chemistry, physics, biology, physical education, textile, art, design, when secondary school has been completed, students are sent to national training camp before going to either college, or military training. In South Africa, high school begins at grade 8, Students study for five years, at the end of which they write a Matriculation examination
25.
Hong Kong
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Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China, is an autonomous territory on the Pearl River Delta of East Asia. Macau lies across the delta to the west, and the Chinese province of Guangdong borders the territory to the north. With a total area of 1,106 square kilometres. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during World War II until British control resumed in 1945, under the principle of one country, two systems, Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative, in addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of appropriate fields. Hong Kong is one of the worlds most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the worlds most competitive and freest economic entity. As the worlds 8th largest trading entity, its legal tender, Hong Kongs tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by simple taxation with a competitive level of corporate tax and supported by its independent judiciary system. However, while Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world and it has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the worlds longest life expectancy. Over 90% of the population use of well-developed public transportation. Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring areas of Mainland China. Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island, before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour, literally means Little Hong Kong)—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was a point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen. Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time, fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbours fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour, the name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926. Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric. As of 1997, its name is the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the Peoples Republic of China. This is the title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law. Hong Kong has carried many nicknames, the most famous among those is the Pearl of the Orient, which reflected the impressive nightscape of the citys light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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St. Paul's College, Hong Kong
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St. Pauls College is an Anglican day school for boys in Hong Kong. Established in 1851, it is the oldest continuously-operated school in Hong Kong, the college opened in 1851 with one tutor and nine pupils. Today, it has 1,200 pupils in the secondary section, St. Pauls comprises an all-boys primary school section and secondary section. The College Council enjoys a status in Hong Kong, in that it is a statutory body incorporated by a local ordinance. The aim of the college is to provide an education to Chinese youths in the English language upon Christian principles. St. Pauls College is one of the worlds earliest Anglo-Chinese schools and its founder, the Rev. Vincent John Stanton, was the first colonial chaplain of the former Colony of Hong Kong, appointed in 1843. In 1841, Rev. Stanton, raised funds in England to start an Anglo-Chinese school in Hong Kong, the Church of England Anglo-Chinese School opened for the purpose of teaching English to Chinese boys in 1849. St. Pauls College was officially founded in 1851, located at Glenealy in what is today the Central District, the school opened with James Summers as headmaster, Rev. Edward T. R. Moncrieff as tutor and nine boys. The number of students swelled to 33. Rev. Moncrieff, the only tutor at the time, travelled to India. The college was suspended from 1857 to 1862, Bishop Burden turned the building into a school mainly for English-speaking boys, which operated from 1873 to 1878. During this time, St. Pauls College and St. Josephs College competed in the earliest inter-school football matches played in the colony. The college again became an Anglo-Chinese school, under the headmastership of A. T, the college was suspended in 1899, and the building was used as a training school for Chinese Catechists under the leadership of Rev. P. A. The Church Missionary Society took over the building, and St. Pauls College reopened with Rev. A. D. Stewart as headmaster in 1909. Stewart highlighted the primitive facilities of the school at this time in his article about St. Pauls history, during this time, the enrolment soared to 300 and extensions became necessary. In 1911, the Wu Ting Fang Hall and St. Pauls Church were erected, in 1914, St. Pauls Girls School was founded by Rev. A. D. Stewarts sister, Kathleen Stewart. Headmaster Rev. A. D. Stewart retired and his brother Colonel E. G, in December 1941, the school closed abruptly when Japan invaded Hong Kong in the Pacific War. Col. Stewart, along with school staff and students
28.
Tsuen Wan Government Secondary School
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Tsuen Wan Government Secondary School is an English-language co-education secondary school located at 70 Hoi Pa Street, Tsuen Wan, Hong Kong. The school building consists of the hall, the wing, the classroom wing. Ms. Tang Suk Ching is the current principal of the school, the school was founded in 1961, as the earliest secondary school in the Tsuen Wan District. Today it is recognised as one of the schools in Hong Kong in terms of academic results. 11 September 1961 was a day to TWGSS. The first campus site was in the newly established Hoi Pa Street Government Primary School, in September 1963, however, due to the lack of classrooms available for S1-S3 levels, the school was separated into A. M. and P. M. session. 25 June 1964 was another day to our school because on that day, old boys. The opening ceremony of TWGSS was held on 25 November 1964 and his Excellency the Governor, Sir David Trench, was invited to be the Guest of Honour to mark the opening of the school. A historical plaque of the opening ceremony can be found on the wall of the main lobby. It reads, The school opened by His Excellency The Governor Sir David C. C, two survivors of the 2010 Manila hostage crisis, who were orphaned by the tragedy, were students of the school. Pine, Plum, Bamboo and Camphor dont divide us, We all are one, together on our way, With Scout and Guide and Monitor beside us, And Prefect too, our School well not betray. In work and play, at school, at home, and always, In all we do, Tsuen Wan Government Secondary School students are known for excelling in public examinations. Historically, more students at the school have received 10 A grades on the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination than at any secondary schools in Hong Kong. Out of over 572 secondary schools in Hong Kong, fewer than 30 have ever produced these so-called 10A students, in the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination, more than 30 students have received 5 As,4 As or 3 As between 2000 and 2010. The school received a high number of A grades and A-C grades per student. The stellar academic performance of the students has been reflected in its representation at many of the worlds best universities, TWGSS counts a total of 12 winners of the Hong Kong Outstanding Students Awards, ranking seventh among all secondary schools in Hong Kong. There are 4 houses, Bamboo, Camphor, Pine and Plum, more than 30 clubs and societies of academic, service, sports or other interests are also organized
29.
Education in Pakistan
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Article 25-A of Constitution of Pakistan obligates the state to provide free and compulsory quality education to children of the age group 3 to 16 years. The State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of five to sixteen years in such a manner as may be determined by law. The education system in Pakistan is generally divided into six levels, Preschool, primary, middle, high, intermediate, the literacy rate ranges from 96% in Islamabad to 28% in the Kohlu District. Literacy rates vary regionally, particularly by sex, in tribal areas female literacy is 9. 5%. Moreover, English is fast spreading in Pakistan, with more than 92 million Pakistanis having a command over the English language, on top of that, Pakistan produces about 445,000 university graduates and 10,000 computer science graduates per year. Despite these statistics, Pakistan still has one of the highest illiteracy rates in the world, only 87% of Pakistani children finish primary school education. The standard national system of education is inspired from the British system. Pre-school education is designed for 3–5 years old and usually consists of three stages, Play Group, Nursery and Kindergarten, after pre-school education, students go through junior school from grades 1 to 5. This is followed by middle school from grades 6 to 8, at middle school, single-sex education is usually preferred by the community, but co-education is also common in urban cities. The curriculum is usually subject to the institution, the eight commonly examined disciplines are Urdu, English, mathematics, arts, science, social studies, Islamic studies and sometimes computer studies. Provincial and regional languages such as Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto and others may be taught in their respective provinces, some institutes give instruction in foreign languages such as Turkish, Arabic, Persian, French and Chinese. The language of instruction depends on the nature of the institution itself, as of 2009, Pakistan faces a net primary school attendance rate for both sexes of 66 percent, a figure below estimated world average of 90 percent. Pakistans poor performance in the sector is mainly caused by the low level of public investment. Public expenditure on education has been 2.2 percent of GNP in recent years, in addition, the allocation of government funds is skewed towards higher education, allowing the upper income class to reap majority of the benefits of public subsidy on education. Lower education institutes such as primary schools suffer under conditions as the lower income classes are unable to enjoy subsidies. As a result, Pakistan has one of the lowest rates of literacy in the world, Secondary education in Pakistan begins from grade 9 and lasts for four years. After end of each of the years, students are required to pass a national examination administered by a regional Board of Intermediate. Upon completion of grade 9, students are expected to take a standardised test in each of the first parts of their academic subjects and they again give these tests of the second parts of the same courses at the end of grade 10
30.
Pakistan
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Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a federal parliamentary republic in South Asia on the crossroads of Central Asia and Western Asia. It is the sixth-most populous country with a population exceeding 200 million people, in terms of area, it is the 33rd-largest country in the world with an area covering 881,913 square kilometres. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistans narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, Pakistan is unique among Muslim countries in that it is the only country to have been created in the name of Islam. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and it is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with a similarly diverse geography and wildlife. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic, an ethnic civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh. The new constitution stipulated that all laws were to conform to the injunctions of Islam as laid down in the Quran. Pakistan has an economy with a well-integrated agriculture sector. The Pakistani economy is the 24th-largest in the world in terms of purchasing power and it is ranked among the emerging and growth-leading economies of the world, and is backed by one of the worlds largest and fastest-growing middle classes. The post-independence history of Pakistan has been characterised by periods of military rule, the country continues to face challenging problems such as illiteracy, healthcare, and corruption, but has substantially reduced poverty and terrorism and expanded per capita income. It is also a member of CERN. Pakistan is a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement, the name Pakistan literally means land of the pure in Urdu and Persian. It is a play on the word pāk meaning pure in Persian and Pashto, the letter i was incorporated to ease pronunciation and form the linguistically correct and meaningful name. Some of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan, the earliest known inhabitants in the region were Soanian during the Lower Paleolithic, of whom stone tools have been found in the Soan Valley of Punjab. The Vedic Civilization, characterised by Indo-Aryan culture, laid the foundations of Hinduism, Multan was an important Hindu pilgrimage centre. The Vedic civilisation flourished in the ancient Gandhāran city of Takṣaśilā, the Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander, prospering the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region. Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of education in the world. At its zenith, the Rai Dynasty of Sindh ruled this region, the Pala Dynasty was the last Buddhist empire, which, under Dharampala and Devapala, stretched across South Asia from what is now Bangladesh through Northern India to Pakistan. The Arab conqueror Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Indus valley from Sindh to Multan in southern Punjab in 711 AD, the Pakistan governments official chronology identifies this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid
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Muslim
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A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
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School
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A school is an institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools, the names for these schools vary by country but generally include primary school for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education. An institution where higher education is taught, is called a university college or university. In addition to these schools, students in a given country may also attend schools before. Kindergarten or pre-school provide some schooling to young children. University, vocational school, college or seminary may be available after secondary school, a school may also be dedicated to one particular field, such as a school of economics or a school of dance. Alternative schools may provide nontraditional curriculum and methods, there are also non-government schools, called private schools. Private schools may be required when the government does not supply adequate, Schools for adults include institutions of corporate training, military education and training and business schools. In homeschooling and online schools, teaching and learning take place outside of a school building. Schools are commonly organized in several different organizational models, including departmental, small learning communities, academies, integrated, and schools-within-a-school. The word school derives from Greek σχολή, originally meaning leisure and also that in which leisure is employed, the concept of grouping students together in a centralized location for learning has existed since Classical antiquity. Formal schools have existed at least since ancient Greece, ancient Rome ancient India, the Byzantine Empire had an established schooling system beginning at the primary level. According to Traditions and Encounters, the founding of the education system began in 425 AD. The sometimes efficient and often large government of the Empire meant that citizens were a must. Although Byzantium lost much of the grandeur of Roman culture and extravagance in the process of surviving, the Byzantine education system continued until the empires collapse in 1453 AD. Beginning in the 5th century CE monastic schools were established throughout Western Europe. Islam was another culture developed a school system in the modern sense of the word
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College
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College is an educational institution or a constituent part of one. A college may be a tertiary educational institution, a part of a collegiate or federal university. In ancient Rome a collegium was a club or society, a group of living together under a common set of rules. Aside from the educational context - nowadays the most common use of college - there are various other meanings also derived from the original Latin term. In the United States, college can be a synonym for university, in Singapore and India, this is known as a junior college. The municipal government of the city of Paris uses the sixth form college as the English name for a lycée. In some national education systems, secondary schools may be called colleges or have college as part of their title, in Australia the term college is applied to any private or independent primary and, especially, secondary school as distinct from a state school. Melbourne Grammar School, Cranbrook School, Sydney and The Kings School, there has also been a recent trend to rename or create government secondary schools as colleges. In the state of Victoria, some high schools are referred to as secondary colleges. Interestingly, the pre-eminent government secondary school for boys in Melbourne is still named Melbourne High School, in Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory, college is used in the name of all state high schools built since the late 1990s, and also some older ones. In New South Wales, some schools, especially multi-campus schools resulting from mergers, are known as secondary colleges. In Queensland some newer schools which accept primary and high school students are styled state college, in Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, college refers to the final two years of high school, and the institutions which provide this. In this context, college is an independent of the other years of high school. Here, the expression is a version of matriculation college. This is because these schools have traditionally focused on academic, rather than vocational, subjects. Some private secondary schools choose to use the college in their names nevertheless. Some secondary schools elsewhere in the country, particularly ones within the school system. In New Zealand the word normally refers to a secondary school for ages 13 to 17
34.
University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
35.
Pakistan Movement
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The first organised political movements were in Aligarh where another literary movement was led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan that built the genesis of the Pakistan movement. During the initial stages of the movement, it adopted the vision of philosopher Iqbal after addressing at the convention of the AIMLs annual session, Muhammad Ali Jinnahs constitutional struggle further helped gaining public support for the movement in the four provinces. Urdu poets such as Iqbal and Faiz used literature, poetry, feminists such as Sheila Pant and Fatima Jinnah championed the emancipation of Pakistans women and their participation in national politics. The Pakistan Movement was the result of a series of social, political, and intellectual transformations in Pakistani society, government, efforts and struggles of the Founding Fathers resulted in the creation of the democratic and independent government. In the following years, another nationally–minded subset went on to established a strong government, grievousness and unbalanced economic distribution caused an upheaval which led East Pakistan to declare independence as the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh in 1971. As the Mughal Empire quickly declined in power, the British Empire expanded quick to gain control of the subcontinent in the 1700s. The economic, social, public, and political influence of East India Company, the defeat of Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore, proved to be an event which led to the fall of Mysore Kingdom under the direct or indirect rule of the East India Company. All over the subcontinent, the British government took over the machinery, bureaucracy, universities, schools. During this time, Lord Macaulays radical and influential educational reforms led to the changes to the introduction and teaching of Western languages, history. Religious studies and the Arabic, Turkish, and Persian languages were completely barred from the state universities, traditional Hindu and Islamic studies were no longer supported by the British Crown, and nearly all of the madrasahs lost their waqf. Noting the sensitivity of this issue, Queen Victoria removed the East India Company and this tendency, had it continued for long, would have proven disastrous for the Muslim community. In justifying these actions, Macaulay argued that Sanskrit and Arabic were wholly inadequate for studying history, science. He stated, We have to educate people who cannot at present be educated by means of their mother-tongue and we must teach them some foreign language. The solution was to teach English, eventually, many Muslims barred their children to be educated at English universities which had proved to be disastrous for the Muslim communities. Very few Muslim families had their children sent at the English universities, during this time, Muslim reformer and educationist Sir Syed Ahmad Khan began to argue for the importance of the British education. Sir Syed was a jurist and a scholar who was knighted by the British Crown for his services to British Empire, witnessing this atmosphere of despair and despondency, Sir Syed launched his attempts to revive the spirit of progress within the Muslim community of British India. Despite harsh criticism from the Islamic orthodoxy, he helped convince many Muslim communities to realise that the fact was the source of progress. Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his movement for regeneration of the Indian Muslims and he tried to transform the Muslim outlook from a medieval one to a modern one
36.
Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization
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Sharization or Islamisation was the primary policy, or centerpiece of the government of General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the ruler of Pakistan from 1977 until his death in 1988. Zia has also called the person most responsible for turning Pakistan into a global center for political Islam. Pakistan had been carved out of British India as a separate Muslim-majority state, Zia-ul-Haq committed himself to enforcing his interpretation of Nizam-e-Mustafa, i. e. to establish an Islamic state and enforce sharia law. Zia established separate Shariat judicial courts and court benches to judge legal cases using Islamic doctrine, New criminal offenses, and new punishments, were added to Pakistani law. Interest payments for bank accounts were replaced by profit and loss payments, Zakat charitable donations became a 2. 5% annual tax. School textbooks and libraries were overhauled to remove un-Islamic material, offices, schools, and factories were required to offer praying space. Zia bolstered the influence of the ulama and the Islamic parties,10, 000s of activists from the Jamaat-e-Islami party were appointed to government posts to ensure the continuation of his agenda after his passing. Conservative ulama were added to the Council of Islamic Ideology, in 1984 a referendum gave Zia and the Islamization program,97. 7% approval in official results. However, there have been protests against the laws and their enforcement during, Womens and human rights groups opposed incarceration of rape victims under hadd punishments, new laws that valued womens testimony and blood money compensation at half that of a man. Religious minorities and human rights groups opposed the vaguely worded Blasphemy Law, how much success Zia had strengthening Pakistans national cohesion with state-sponsored Islamisation is disputed. Shia-Sunni religious riots broke out over differences in Islamic jurisprudence -- in particular, there were also differences among Sunni Muslims. Pakistan had been created in the name of Islam, the idea of Pakistan had received overwhelming popular support among Indian Muslims, especially those in the provinces of British India where Muslims were in a minority such as U. P. The Muslim League leadership, ulama and Jinnah had articulated their vision of Pakistan in terms of an Islamic state, Muhammad Ali Jinnah had developed a close association with the ulama. When Jinnah died, Islamic scholar Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani described Jinnah as the greatest Muslim after the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and he wanted to see the Muslims of the world united under the banner of Islam as an effective check against the aggressive designs of their enemies. The Objectives Resolution declared that sovereignty over the universe belongs to God Almighty. The president of the Muslim League, Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman, announced that Pakistan would bring together all Muslim countries into Islamistan-a pan-Islamic entity, other Muslims might have been expected to be sympathetic, even enthusiastic. But this assumed that other Muslim states would take the view of the relation between religion and nationality. However, Pakistans pan-Islamist sentiments were not shared by other Muslim governments at the time, nationalism in other parts of the Muslim world was based on ethnicity, language and culture
37.
Bedales School
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Bedales School is a co-educational, boarding and day independent school in the village of Steep, near the market town of Petersfield in Hampshire, England. It was founded in 1893 by John Haden Badley in reaction to the limitations of conventional Victorian schools, Bedales is one of the most expensive public schools in the UK. For the school year 2015/2016, boarders fees were £11,230 per term, Bedales is renowned for its liberal ethos, relaxed attitude, fashionable parents and famous alumni. Since 1899 the school has been on an 120-acre estate in the village of Steep, near Petersfield, Hampshire. The school was started in 1893 by John H Badley and Oswald B Powell after they had introduced to each other by Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson. Their wives, Amy Badley and Winifred Powell were a part of the team. A house called Bedales was rented just outside Lindfield, near Haywards Heath, in 1899 Badley and Powell purchased a country estate near Steep and constructed a purpose-built school, including state of the art electric light, which opened in 1900. The site has been developed over the past century, including the relocation of a number of historic vernacular timber frame barns. A preparatory school, Dunhurst, was started in 1902 on Montessori principles, the school was also well known and popular in some Cambridge and Fabian intellectual circles with connections to the Wedgwoods, Darwins, Huxleys, and Trevelyans. Bedales was originally a small and initimate school, the 1900 buildings were designed for 150 pupils, in the first half of the 20th century the progressive movement around Bedales attracted a community of artists, craftsmen and writers to live in Steep. Edward Thomas, a poet killed in World War I –, in the early 1920s Stanley Spencer made a number of drawings and paintings of activities at the school while staying with Muirhead Bone. Other important artistic connections include Edward Barnsley, Ernest Gimson, Ivon Hitchens, Alfred Hoare Powell, Bedales has educated boys and girls together since 1898. They dont want to be self-controlled, but one of the most valuable things that psychology has taught us is the importance of sublimation, and here is our chance. Adolescence is a time when it is natural to be active, the boy and girl see these first in their human counterparts, and if left to themselves will hardly look anywhere else. But it is now that they are ready for the beauty of poetry, music, painting, drawing, and above all the earth around them, children now see erotic films and posters and read erotic books at an age when we had not thought about such things. They hear erotic dance-music, with its imbecile sentimental words, wherever they go, the attitude of a city-bred boy of fourteen to a city-bred girl of fourteen is quite different from what it was ten years ago. The early Bedalian curriculum provided sound coverage of English and modern languages, science and design, while gardening, crafts, drama, academic standards in the early years oscillated through many phases of experimental syllabus. Eleven BACs are offered, Ancient Civilizations, Geography, PRE, English Literature, History, Art, Design, Dance, Classical Music, Theatre Arts, Outdoor Work is a unique aspect of the Bedales curriculum
38.
John Haden Badley
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John Haden Badley, author, educator, and founder of Bedales School, which claims to have become the first coeducational public boarding school in England in 1893. Born in Dudley, Worcestershire, West Midlands, England, son of Dr. James Payton Badley and he was the grandson of John Badley, one of the original 300 fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons. Early in life he saw the poverty and squalor of many working class in the Midlands, when fifteen he entered the Upper School at Rugby. These early experiences were very influential in shaping his ideas of education should not be. His autobiography describes a tea with Oscar Wilde at which they discussed the English Poets, here too his friendship with Edmund Garrett encouraged him to join the small minority of men who supported the womens movement for socio-political equality. In 1892 he married Garretts sister Amy who would be a partner until her death in 1956. A school, he felt, should be organized like a family and he felt that the training for social usefulness held equal importance with the fullest possible development of the individual. At Cambridge Badley became a lifelong socialist, influenced by the ideals of William Morris about art, but the decisive influence on the direction these ideas should take was Cecil Reddie founder of Abbotsholme School and arguably the originator of the modern British progressive school. He was, at the age of twenty-four, one of the first masters appointed, all Badleys initial ideas ― though their later development was quite different ― were taken from Reddie. For instance the curriculum was English based, not classical, and wide ― with science, art, music, French, German, Boys were not crammed for exams, there were no prizes and lessons were only in the mornings. Badley also copied many of the early organisational details too, right down to the earth closets which enabled him to return to the soil that which had taken from it. He claimed, in his own modesty, to owe much to Montessori, Pestalozzi, Fröbel, helen Parkhurst of the Dalton Plan would draw on his experience years later in New York City. In May 1899 this pioneering headmaster started building a new complex which serves the school today at Steep, Petersfield. Badley was a great educationalist, an able Classicist, tall handsome charismatic, leading through example and he created a marvellous example of the evolving school. While he would be called Chief for the rest of his life by students and staff alike, at the age of seventy he retired to Cholesbury, near Tring, after being headmaster of his school for forty-two years. Cholesbury is some 2½ miles from Spencers Green where the Badleys son, after the friend died he consented to have it released. Yet it was his last work that can be looked at as his opus, A Bible for Modern Readers in 1961. After his wifes death he returned to live his last years in the School grounds where he died, a favourite quotation was Labour, Art, Worship, Love, these make mens lives
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