1.
Ahu Tongariki
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Ahu Tongariki is the largest ahu on Easter Island. Its moai were toppled during the civil wars and in the twentieth century the ahu was swept inland by a tsunami. It has since restored and has fifteen moai including an 86 tonne moai that was the heaviest ever erected on the island. Ahu Tongariki is one kilometer from Rano Raraku and Poike in the Hotu-iti area of Rapa Nui National Park, all the moai here face sunset during Summer Solstice. Ahu Tongariki was the centre and capital of the Hotu Iti. Its moai were toppled during the civil wars. In 1960, a tsunami caused by an earthquake off the coast of Chile swept the Ahu Tongariki inland and this ahu is on the south coast of Rapa Nui, close to two previous volcanoes, Rano Raraku and Poike. Poike is one of the three extinct volcanoes that form Rapa Nui, which last erupted between 230,000 and 705,000 years ago. Rano Raraku is a crater formed of consolidated volcanic ash or tuff. Indeed, nearly half of the moai are still buried in the slopes of the Rano Raraku, the large, flat plain below Rano Raraku provided easy access to the tuff
2.
Rapa Nui people
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The Rapa Nui are the native Polynesian inhabitants of Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean. The easternmost Polynesian culture, the Rapa Nui people currently make up 60% of Easter Islands population and have a significant portion of their population residing in mainland Chile and they speak both the traditional Rapa Nui language and the primary language of the island, Spanish. At the 2002 census there were 3,304 island inhabitants—almost all living in the village of Hanga Roa on the sheltered west coast, as of 2011, Rapa Nuis main source of income derived from tourism, which focuses on the giant sculptures called Moai. Rapa Nui activists have been fighting for their right of self-determination and possession of the island, recent protests by the indigenous Rapa Nui on Easter Island against Chilean rule have led to violence against the Rapa Nui by the Chilean police. The Rapa Nui are believed to have settled Easter Island between 300 and 1200 CE, previously, the date of arrival was estimated to be around 700–800 CE, but more-recent evidence from radiocarbon dating supports an arrival date as late as 1200 CE. The Rapa Nui People have been found to be of Polynesian origin through genetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA of pre-historic skeletons, scholars believe that the Rapa Nui had early contact with South America due to the introduction of sweet potato and bottle gourd plants to Easter Island. The bottle gourd was previously thought to have introduced to Polynesia in ancient times by the Polynesians themselves. However, more-recent research found no evidence of its existing historically in Fiji, Samoa, the sweet potato also has South American origin and must have been transferred to Easter Island early to have become such a staple part of the Rapa Nui pre-contact diet. It is believed that there must have contact between the Rapa Nui and South America by 1200–1300 CE. Jacob Roggeveen was the first European to record contact with the Rapa Nui. Roggeveen allegedly set sail either in search of Juan Fernandez Islands or Davids Island and he remained on the island for about a week. Felipe González de Ahedo visited the Rapa Nui in 1770 and claimed the island for Spain on a document which the islanders wrote on in rongorongo, james Cook and Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse visited the island for a few days in 1774 and 1786 respectively. The Rapa Nui currently speak Spanish and the traditional Rapanui language, the Rapanui language, also known as Pascuan, is classified as an Eastern Polynesian language and is currently written in Latin script. Rapanui is a minority language, as most Rapa Nui people speak Spanish as their first language, Spanish is the most widely spoken language on Easter Island and the primary language of education and administration. It is believed that Rapanui is currently undergoing a shift towards more Spanish sentence structure, Rongorongo, a system of glyphs discovered in the 1800s, is believed to represent an older version of the Rapanui language. However, the decipherment of rongorongo is a process and it is not yet clear whether Rongorongo is a form of writing or some other form of cultural expression. The main stories of Rapa Nui mythology are that of Hotu Matua, believed to be the first settler of Easter Island, and the Tangata manu. The Tangata manu is the mythology of the Birdman religion and cult which had creator god Makemake, more recent Rapa Nui mythology includes the story of the epic battle between the Hanau epe and the Hanau momoko. The trans-Neptunian dwarf planet Makemake is named after this creator deity, the best known aspect of the Rapa Nui culture is the moai, the 887 human figures carved from rock between 1250 and 1500 CE and transported throughout Easter Island
3.
Easter Island
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Easter Island is a Chilean island in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle. Easter Island is famous for its 887 extant monumental statues, called moai, in 1995, UNESCO named Easter Island a World Heritage Site, with much of the island protected within Rapa Nui National Park. However, human activity, the introduction of the Polynesian rat, by the time of European arrival in 1722, the islands population had dropped to 2, 000–3,000 from an estimated high of approximately 15,000 just a century earlier. European diseases and Peruvian slave raiding in the 1860s further reduced the Rapa Nui population, Easter Island is one of the most remote inhabited islands in the world. Easter Island is a territory of Chile that was annexed in 1888. Administratively, it belongs to the Valparaíso Region, and, more specifically, according to the 2012 Chilean census, the island has about 5,800 residents, of whom some 60 percent are descendants of the aboriginal Rapa Nui. Easter Island is considered part of Insular Chile, the islands official Spanish name, Isla de Pascua, also means Easter Island. However, Norwegian ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl argued that Rapa was the name of Easter Island. William Churchill inquired about the phrase and was told there were three te pito o te henua, these being the three capes of the island. The phrase appears to have used in the same sense as the designation of Lands End at the tip of Cornwall. He was unable to elicit a Polynesian name for the island itself, according to Barthel, oral tradition has it that the island was first named Te pito o te kainga a Hau Maka The little piece of land of Hau Maka. However, there are two words pronounced pito in Rapa Nui, one meaning end and one navel, and the phrase can also mean the Navel of the World. This was apparently its actual meaning, French ethnologist Alphonse Pinart gave it the actual translation the Navel of the World, another name, Mata ki te rangi, means Eyes looking to the sky. Islanders are referred to in Spanish as pascuense, however it is common to refer to members of the community as Rapa Nui. Estimated dates of initial settlement of Easter Island have ranged from 300 to 1200, rectifications in radiocarbon dating have changed almost all of the previously posited early settlement dates in Polynesia. Rapa Nui is now considered to have settled in the narrower range of 700 to 1100 CE. Significant ecological impacts and major cultural investments in monumental architecture and statuary thus began soon after initial settlement, according to oral tradition, the first settlement was at Anakena. The island was most likely populated by Polynesians who navigated in canoes or catamarans from the Gambier Islands or the Marquesas Islands,3,200 km away
4.
Polynesia
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Polynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are termed Polynesians and they share many similar traits including the language family, culture, and beliefs. Historically, they were experienced sailors who used stars to navigate at night, the term Polynesia was first used in 1756 by French writer Charles de Brosses, and originally applied to all the islands of the Pacific. In 1831, Jules Dumont dUrville proposed a restriction on its use during a lecture to the Geographical Society of Paris, historically, these islands have also been referred to as the South Sea Islands. Polynesia is characterized by an amount of land spread over a very large portion of the mid. Most Polynesian islands and archipelagos, including the Hawaiian Islands and Samoa, are composed of volcanic islands built by hotspots, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Ouvéa, the Polynesian outlier near New Caledonia, are the unsubmerged portions of the largely sunken continent of Zealandia. At first, the Pacific plate was subducted under the Australian plate, the Alpine Fault that traverses the South Island is currently a transform fault while the convergent plate boundary from the North Island northwards is called the Kermadec-Tonga Subduction Zone. The volcanism associated with subduction zone is the origin of the Kermadec. Out of approximately 300,000 or 310,000 square kilometres of land, over 270,000 km2 are within New Zealand, the Zealandia continent has approximately 3,600,000 km2 of continental shelf. The oldest rocks in the region are found in New Zealand and are believed to be about 510 million years old, the oldest Polynesian rocks outside of Zealandia are to be found in the Hawaiian Emperor Seamount Chain, and are 80 million years old. Polynesia is generally defined as the islands within the Polynesian Triangle, geographically, the Polynesian Triangle is drawn by connecting the points of Hawaii, New Zealand and Easter Island. The other main island groups located within the Polynesian Triangle are Samoa, Tonga, there are also small Polynesian settlements in Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Caroline Islands, and in Vanuatu. An island group with strong Polynesian cultural traits outside of this triangle is Rotuma. The people of Rotuma have many common Polynesian traits but speak a non-Polynesian language, some of the Lau Islands to the southeast of Fiji have strong historic and cultural links with Tonga. However, in essence, Polynesia is a term referring to one of the three parts of Oceania. Some islands of Polynesian origin are outside the triangle that geographically defines the region. The Phoenix Islands and Line Islands, most of which are part of Kiribati, are geographically Polynesian islands, tracing Polynesian languages places their prehistoric origins in the Malay Archipelago, and ultimately, in Taiwan. Between about 3000 and 1000 BC speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island Southeast Asia, there are three theories regarding the spread of humans across the Pacific to Polynesia
5.
Rano Raraku
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Rano Raraku is a volcanic crater formed of consolidated volcanic ash, or tuff, and located on the lower slopes of Terevaka in the Rapa Nui National Park on Easter Island in Chile. It was a quarry for about 500 years until the eighteenth century. Rano Raraku is a record of moai design vocabulary and technological innovation. Rano Raraku is in the World Heritage Site of Rapa Nui National Park, the sides of Rano Raraku crater are high and steep except on the north and northwest, where they are much lower and gently sloping. The interior contains one of the islands three freshwater lakes, which is bordered by ngaatu or totora reeds. Some of the incomplete moai seem to have been abandoned after the carvers encountered inclusions of very hard rock in the material, others may be sculptures that were never intended to be separated from the rock in which they are carved. On the outside of the quarry are a number of moai and they are distinctive in that their eyes were not hollowed out, they do not have pukao and they were not cast down in the islands civil wars. For this last reason, they supplied some of the most famous images of the island and its beard and kneeling posture distinguish it from standard moai. The peculiar posture of this statue is known on Easter Island and is called tuku turi or simply tuku. It was the used by the men and women who formed the chorus in the festivals called riu. Typical also of the singers was the slightly backward inclination of the trunk, the head. Tukuturi is made of red scoria from Puna Pau, but sits at Rano Raraku and it is possibly related to the Tangata manu cult, in which case it would be one of the last moai ever made. It seems likely that this represents a riu singer and was made after the production of classic statues had ceased. Terevaka Rapa Nui National Park Easter Island P. E. Baker, preliminary Account of Recent Geological Investigations on Easter Island. Island at the Center of the World, New Light on Easter Island, J. R. Flenley, S. M. King, J. T. Teller, M. E. Prentice, J. Jackson, and C. The Late Quaternary Vegetational and Climatic History of Easter Island, journal of Quaternary Science 6, 85-115. Easter Island Archaeology, Ecology and Culture, british Museum Press, Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 0-7141-2504-0 http, //www. sscnet. ucla. edu/ioa/eisp/ Alfred Metraux Katherine Routledge, the Mystery of Easter Island, The Story of an Expedition
6.
Tonne
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The SI symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit itself in 1879. Its use is also official, for the metric ton, within the United States, having been adopted by the US National Institute of Standards and it is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period. Informal and non-approved symbols or abbreviations include T, mT, MT, in French and all English-speaking countries that are predominantly metric, tonne is the correct spelling. Before metrication in the UK the unit used for most purposes was the Imperial ton of 2,240 pounds avoirdupois, equivalent to 1,016 kg, differing by just 1. 6% from the tonne. Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages to designate a large cask. A full tun, standing about a high, could easily weigh a tonne. An English tun of wine weighs roughly a tonne,954 kg if full of water, in the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau, but these terms are now obsolete. The Imperial and US customary units comparable to the tonne are both spelled ton in English, though they differ in mass, one tonne is equivalent to, Metric/SI,1 megagram. Equal to 1000000 grams or 1000 kilograms, megagram, Mg, is the official SI unit. Mg is distinct from mg, milligram, pounds, Exactly 1000/0. 453 592 37 lb, or approximately 2204.622622 lb. US/Short tons, Exactly 1/0. 907 184 74 short tons, or approximately 1.102311311 ST. One short ton is exactly 0.90718474 t, imperial/Long tons, Exactly 1/1. 016 046 9088 long tons, or approximately 0.9842065276 LT. One long ton is exactly 1.0160469088 t, for multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events. When used in context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. *The equivalent units columns use the short scale large-number naming system used in most English-language countries. †Values in the equivalent short and long tons columns are rounded to five significant figures, ǂThough non-standard, the symbol kt is also sometimes used for knot, a unit of speed for sea-going vessels, and should not be confused with kilotonne. A metric ton unit can mean 10 kilograms within metal trading and it traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% of metal. In the case of uranium, the acronym MTU is sometimes considered to be metric ton of uranium, in the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent is a unit of energy, the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approximately 42 GJ
7.
Relief
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Relief is a sculptural technique where the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term relief is from the Latin verb relevo, to raise, to create a sculpture in relief is to give the impression that the sculpted material has been raised above the background plane. What is actually performed when a relief is cut in from a surface of stone or wood is a lowering of the field. The technique involves considerable chiselling away of the background, which is a time-consuming exercise. In other materials such as metal, clay, plaster stucco, ceramics or papier-mâché the form can be just added to or raised up from the background, and monumental bronze reliefs are made by casting. There are different degrees of relief depending on the degree of projection of the form from the field. There is also sunk relief, which was restricted to Ancient Egypt. However the distinction between high relief and low relief is the clearest and most important, and these two are generally the only used to discuss most work. Hyphens may or may not be used in all these terms, works in the technique are described as in relief, and, especially in monumental sculpture, the work itself is a relief. Reliefs are common throughout the world on the walls of buildings and a variety of settings. Relief is more suitable for depicting complicated subjects with figures and very active poses, such as battles. Most ancient architectural reliefs were painted, which helped to define forms in low relief. Rock reliefs are carved into solid rock in the open air. This type is found in cultures, in particular those of the Ancient Near East and Buddhist countries. A stele is a standing stone, many of these carry reliefs. The distinction between high and low relief is somewhat subjective, and the two are often combined in a single work. In particular, most later high reliefs contain sections in low relief, a low relief or bas-relief is a projecting image with a shallow overall depth, for example used on coins, on which all images are in low relief. Other versions distort depth much less and it is a technique which requires less work, and is therefore cheaper to produce, as less of the background needs to be removed in a carving, or less modelling is required
8.
Tuff
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Tuff is a type of rock made of volcanic ash ejected from a vent during a volcanic eruption. Following ejection and deposition, the ash is compacted into a rock in a process called consolidation. Tuff is sometimes called tufa, particularly used as construction material. Rock that contains greater than 50% tuff is considered tuffaceous, Tuff is a relatively soft rock, so it has been used for construction since ancient times. Since it is common in Italy the Romans used it often for construction, the Rapa Nui people used it to make most of the moai statues in Easter Island. Tuff can be classified as either sedimentary or igneous rocks and they are usually studied in the context of igneous petrology, although they are sometimes described using sedimentological terms. The material that is expelled in a volcanic eruption can be classified into three types, Volcanic gases, a mixture mostly of water vapour, carbon dioxide. Lava, the name of magma when it emerges and flows over the surface, and tephra, chunks of solid material of all shapes and sizes ejected and thrown through the air. Tephra is made when magma inside the volcano is blown apart by the expansion of hot volcanic gases. It is common for magma to explode as the gas dissolved in it comes out of solution as the pressure decreases when it flows to the surface and these violent explosions produce solid chunks of material that can then fly from the volcano. When these chunks are smaller than 2 mm in diameter they are called volcanic ash and it is made of small, slaggy pieces of lava and rock that have been tossed into the air by outbursts of steam and other gases. Among the loose beds of ash that cover the slopes of many volcanoes, in addition to true ashes of the kind described above, there are lumps of the old lavas and tuffs forming the walls of the crater, etc. In some great volcanic explosions nothing but materials of the kind were emitted. The ashes vary in size from large blocks twenty feet or more in diameter to the minutest impalpable dust, the large masses are called volcanic bombs, they have mostly a rounded, elliptical or pear-shaped form owing to rotation in the air before they solidified. Many of them have ribbed or nodular surfaces, and sometimes they have a crust intersected by many cracks like the surface of a loaf of bread, any ash in which they are very abundant is called an agglomerate. But many volcanoes stand near the sea, and the ashes cast out by them are mingled with the sediments that are gathering at the bottom of the waters, in this way ashy muds or sands or even in some cases ashy limestones are being formed. As a matter of fact most of the found in the older formations contain admixtures of clay, sand, and sometimes fossil shells. The showers of ashes often follow one another after longer or shorter intervals, the coarsest materials or agglomerates show this least distinctly, in the fine beds it is often developed in great perfection
9.
Basalt
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Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of basaltic lava exposed at or very near the surface of a planet or moon. Flood basalt describes the formation in a series of basalt flows. By definition, basalt is an igneous rock with generally 45-55% silica and less than 10% feldspathoid by volume. Basalt commonly features a very fine-grained or glassy matrix interspersed with visible mineral grains, the average density is 3.0 gm/cm3. Basalt is defined by its content and texture, and physical descriptions without mineralogical context may be unreliable in some circumstances. Basalt is usually grey to black in colour, but rapidly weathers to brown or rust-red due to oxidation of its mafic minerals into hematite, although usually characterized as dark, basaltic rocks exhibit a wide range of shading due to regional geochemical processes. Due to weathering or high concentrations of plagioclase, some basalts can be quite light-coloured and these phenocrysts usually are of olivine or a calcium-rich plagioclase, which have the highest melting temperatures of the typical minerals that can crystallize from the melt. Basalt with a texture is called vesicular basalt, when the bulk of the rock is mostly solid. Gabbro is often marketed commercially as black granite and these ultramafic volcanic rocks, with silica contents below 45% are usually classified as komatiites. Agricola applied basalt to the black rock of the Schloßberg at Stolpen. Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in silica and poor in sodium, included in this category are most basalts of the ocean floor, most large oceanic islands, and continental flood basalts such as the Columbia River Plateau. Basalt rocks are in some cases classified after their content in High-Ti and Low-Ti varieties. High-Ti and Low-Ti basalts have been distinguished in the Paraná and Etendeka traps and it has greater than 17% alumina and is intermediate in composition between tholeiite and alkali basalt, the relatively alumina-rich composition is based on rocks without phenocrysts of plagioclase. Alkali basalt is relatively poor in silica and rich in sodium and it is silica-undersaturated and may contain feldspathoids, alkali feldspar and phlogopite. Boninite is a form of basalt that is erupted generally in back-arc basins. Ocean island basalt Lunar basalt On Earth, most basalt magmas have formed by melting of the mantle. Basalt commonly erupts on Io, the third largest moon of Jupiter, and has formed on the Moon, Mars, Venus. The crustal portions of oceanic tectonic plates are composed predominantly of basalt, produced from upwelling mantle below, the mineralogy of basalt is characterized by a preponderance of calcic plagioclase feldspar and pyroxene
10.
Trachyte
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Trachyte is an igneous volcanic rock with an aphanitic to porphyritic texture. It is the equivalent of syenite. The mineral assemblage consists of essential alkali feldspar, relatively minor plagioclase, biotite, clinopyroxene and olivine are common accessory minerals. Chemically, trachyte contains 60 to 65% silica content, less SiO2 than rhyolite and these chemical differences are consistent with the position of trachyte in the TAS classification, and they account for the feldspar-rich mineralogy of the rock type. Trachytes usually consist mainly of sanidine feldspar, very often they have minute irregular steam cavities which make the broken surfaces of specimens of these rocks rough and irregular, and from this character they have derived their name. The trachytes are often described as being the equivalents of the plutonic syenites. Rhomb porphyry is an example with usually large porphyritic rhomb shaped phenocrysts embedded in a very fine-grained matrix, quartz is typically rare in trachyte, but tridymite is by no means uncommon. They often cover the surfaces of the larger feldspars or line the cavities of the rock. In the older trachytes, secondary quartz is not rare, of the mafic minerals present, augite is the most common. It is usually of pale color, and its small crystals are often very perfect in form. Olivine is unusual, though found in some trachytes, like those of the Arso in Ischia, basic varieties of plagioclase, such as labradorite, are known also as phenocrysts in some Italian trachytes. Dark brown varieties of augite and rhombic pyroxene have been observed but are not common, apatite, zircon and magnetite are practically always present as accessory minerals. Trachytes, being rich in potassium feldspar, necessarily contain considerable amounts of alkali. Occasionally minerals of the group, such as nepheline, sodalite and leucite, occur. In many trachytes, however, the phenocrysts are few and small, the ferromagnesian minerals rarely occur in large crystals, and are usually not conspicuous in hand specimens of these rocks. Sometimes granular augite or spongy riebeckite occurs in the groundmass, trachytes are well represented among the Cenozoic volcanic rocks of Europe. In the neighborhood of Rome, Naples and the island of Ischia trachytic lavas, trachytes are also found on the island of Pantelleria. In the United States, trachytes crop out extensively in the Davis Mountains, Chisos Mountains, in England there are Permian trachytes in the Exeter district, and Carboniferous trachytes are found in many parts of the central valley of Scotland
11.
Scoria
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Scoria is a highly vesicular, dark colored volcanic rock that may or may not contain crystals. It is typically dark in color, and basaltic or andesitic in composition, Scoria is relatively low in density as a result of its numerous macroscopic ellipsoidal vesicles, but in contrast to pumice, all scoria has a specific gravity greater than 1, and sinks in water. Scoria may form as part of a flow, typically near its surface, or as fragmental ejecta. Most scoria is composed of fragments, and may contain phenocrysts. The word scoria comes from the Greek σκωρία, skōria, rust, an old name for scoria is cinder. Scoria differs from pumice, another vesicular volcanic rock, in having larger vesicles and thicker vesicle walls, the difference is probably the result of lower magma viscosity, allowing rapid volatile diffusion, bubble growth, coalescence, and bursting. As rising magma encounters lower pressures, dissolved gases are able to exsolve, some of the vesicles are trapped when the magma chills and solidifies. Vesicles are usually small, spheroidal and do not impinge upon one another, volcanic cones of scoria can be left behind after eruptions, usually forming mountains with a crater at the summit. An example is Maungarei in New Zealand, which like Te Tatua-a-Riukiuta in the south of the city has been extensively quarried. Quincan, a form of Scoria, is quarried at Mount Quincan in Far North Queensland. Scoria has several characteristics that influence how it is used. It is somewhat porous, has high surface area and strength for its weight, Scoria is often used in landscaping and drainage works. It is also used in gas barbecue grills. Scoria can be used for high-temperature insulation, Scoria is used on oil well sites to limit mud issues with heavy truck traffic. It is also used as a traction aid on ice- and snow-covered roads, cinder Tuff Pumice Volcanoes List of rock types Rock
12.
Pumice
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Pumice, called pumicite in its powdered or dust form, is a volcanic rock that consists of highly vesicular rough textured volcanic glass, which may or may not contain crystals. Scoria is another vesicular volcanic rock that differs from pumice in having larger vesicles, thicker walls and being dark colored. Pumice is created when super-heated, highly pressurized rock is violently ejected from a volcano, the unusual foamy configuration of pumice happens because of simultaneous rapid cooling and rapid depressurization. The depressurization creates bubbles by lowering the solubility of gases that are dissolved in the lava, the simultaneous cooling and depressurization freezes the bubbles in a matrix. Eruptions under water are cooled and the large volume of pumice created can be a shipping hazard for cargo ships. Pumice is composed of highly microvesicular glass pyroclastic with very thin and it is commonly, but not exclusively of silicic or felsic to intermediate in composition, but basaltic and other compositions are known. Pumice is commonly pale in color, ranging from white, cream, blue or grey and it forms when volcanic gases exsolving from viscous magma form bubbles that remain within the viscous magma as it cools to glass. Pumice is a product of explosive eruptions and commonly forms zones in upper parts of silicic lavas. Pumice has a porosity of 90%, and initially floats on water. Scoria differs from pumice in being denser, with larger vesicles and thicker vesicle walls, it sinks rapidly. The difference is the result of the viscosity of the magma that forms scoria. When larger amounts of gas are present, the result is a variety of pumice known as pumicite. Pumice is considered a glass because it has no crystal structure, pumice varies in density according to the thickness of the solid material between the bubbles, many samples float in water. After the explosion of Krakatoa, rafts of pumice drifted through the Pacific Ocean for up to 20 years, in fact, pumice rafts disperse and support several marine species. In 1979,1984 and 2006, underwater volcanic eruptions near Tonga created large pumice rafts, there are two main forms of vesicles. Most pumice contains tubular microvesicles that can impart a silky or fibrous fabric, the elongation of the microvesicles occurs due to ductile elongation in the volcanic conduit or, in the case of pumiceous lavas, during flow. The other form of vesicles are subspherical to spherical and result from high pressure during eruption. Pumice is widely used to make concrete or insulative low-density cinder blocks
13.
Pukao
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Pukao are the hat-like structures or topknots formerly placed on top of some moai statues on Easter Island. They were all carved from a light red volcanic stone scoria. Pukao were not made until the 15th - 16th centuries and are later additions to the moai, the reason that pukao were made is not known though some theories exist. One such theory suggests that the placement of a pukao on top of the statue was an expression of power by the islanders. This has credibility because such a task at the time, and even now, was extremely difficult, there are other theories which suggest that the pukao serve as distinction between statues. Those moai with pukao are meant to be shown as more majestic and this distinction may have also directed islanders on which statues to perform various rituals at and which ones not to. Pukao are now believed to represent hair as it was custom for high ranking men to have long hair tied in bun on the top of their heads, in addition, some researchers associate the red color of pukao to be an indicator that they were important for ritual ceremonies. Pukao are cylindrical in shape with a dent on the underside to fit on the head of the moai and they fit onto the moai in such a way that the pukao protrudes forwards. Their size varies in proportion to the moai they were on, Pukao weigh up to 11 tons and the moai statue along with a pukao structure on top raised the statue to an average of 37 ft. The pukao was balanced as a piece on top of the head of a moai. They are believed to have been raised using ramps possibly requiring only several people, the ring-like indentations along the bottom and edges of the pukao support this theory as they postulate a ramp made out of logs being used to roll the pukao to the tops of moai statues. However, no one theory can be accepted as true as virtually any theorized method is plausible, to date, about 100 pukao have been documented archaeologically, but only at Ahu with fallen statues or at the source quarry. The red-colored hats were made from reddish scoria, a volcanic rock, the rocks were built in a quarry known as Puna Pau, which was located inside the crater of a volcano with the same name, and on its outer lip. After the Pukao were made, they were rolled by hand or on tree logs to the site of the statues along an ancient road, the road was built out of a cement of compressed red scoria dust. Over 70 discarded Pukao have been found along the road and on raised ceremonial platforms, meanwhile, more intricate carvings were made on site of the moai statues immediately prior to the placement of pukao on the moai statues. Rapa Nui people Jared Diamond Collapse, How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed 2005 Viking Press ISBN 0-670-03337-5,2006 Penguin ISBN 0-14-027951-2 Grant McCall, pacific Islands Year Book 17th Edition. Http, //www. southamerica. cl/easter-island/puna-pau- pukao. htm Splendid Isolation, Art of Easter Island, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art
14.
Squatting position
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The rump or croup, in the external morphology of an animal, is the portion of the posterior dorsum that is posterior to the loins and anterior to the tail. Anatomically, the rump corresponds to the sacrum, the tailhead or dock is the beginning of the tail, where the tail joins the rump. It is known also as the base or root of the tail, in some mammals the tail may be said to consist of the tailbone and the skirt. In birds, similarly, the tail consists of tailbone and tailfan, some animals are subjected to docking, the amputation of the tailbone at or near the dock. These include dogs, cats, sheep, pigs, and horses, humans have a remnant tail, the coccyx, and the human equivalent of docking is coccygectomy. Usage varies from animal to animal, birds and cattle are said to have a rump and tailhead. Dogs are said to have a rump and dock, horses are said to have a croup, thigh or haunch, buttock, and dock. In bird anatomy, the rump is the body immediately above the tail, the color of plumage on the rump is a characteristic widely used by ornithologists to distinguish between related species, and sometimes also between males and females of the same species. Similarly, the silhouette of the tailfan is a widely used for purposes of identification. Some birds have a food reservoir pouch in the esophagus that is known as a croup, in some breeds it is traditional for tails to be cut off at the dock. Below the croup is the thigh or haunch, behind the thigh is the buttock. Applied to horses, the dock has two additional uses. Its meaning may be extended to either the entire tail minus the skirt or the tailhead only, in other equidae, it encompasses most of the tailbone, as most of that portion of the tail does not have long hairs. A lack of long hairs can be natural, as in zebras, donkeys, and the Przewalski horse, or artificial, the result of pulling, trimming, or shaving part of the skirt. A sponge used to wash the skin on the underside of the dock and other regions under the tail
15.
Ahu Akivi
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Ahu Akivi is a particular sacred place in Rapa Nui in the Valparaíso Region of Chile, looking out towards the Pacific Ocean. The site has seven moai, all of equal shape and size, the site is located inland, rather than along the coast. Moai statues were considered by the people of Rapa Nui as their ancestors or Tupuna that were believed to be the reincarnation of important kings or leaders of their clans. The Moais were erected to protect and bring posperity to their clan, a particular feature of the seven identical moai statues is that they exactly face sunset during the Spring Equinox and have their backs to the sunrise during the Autumn Equinox. Such an astronomically precise feature is only at this location on the island. Ahu Akivi, aligned in an east–west direction, is located on the flank of the slope of Maunga Terevaka at Rapauni. It is 2.3 kilometres inland in the non coastal zone and is at an elevation of 140 metres, Ahu Vai Teka is at a distance of 706.8 metres from Ahu Kavi which is considered as part of the Ahu Akivi-Ahu Kavi complex. From Hanga Roa, a road leads to the site via the volcanic cone of Terevaka. The coast road is via Playa Anakena, on this road there are many moi statues lying scattered and un restored. Further on, the site of Ahu Akivi is reached, the site is located to the Northeast of Hanga Roa, the capital city of Easter Island, about 10 kilometres to its north. The Rano Raraku quarry from where the statues were made is at least 15 kilometres away, Ahu Akivi is part of the Ahu Akivi-Vai Teka complex which was built up by the Rapa Nui people in two phases. In the first phase, during the 16th century a central platform was created on a leveled surface. It had wings projecting to the north and the south directions, an approach ramp was also part of this platform which led to the ceremonial plaza stretching 25 metres towards the west of the central platform. A cremation ground existed behind the central platform, a cave in which people used to reside was also used as tomb during historic times. The other Ahu in the complex is the Ahu Vai Teka, there is no statue now, though one is believed to have existed initially. Both the ahus were believed to have been aligned astronomically with respect to the Sun, both are located in the territory of the Miru, the highest ranking clan and the western confederacy, and both were contemporary. It is also conjectured that the seven statues were placed at Ahu Akivi at least 150 years before the first Europeans found the island when the clan was functional at that time and it is also evident that their culture existed for 250–300 years with economic prosperity with political stability. In 1955, Thor Heyerdahl was the first to discover and take pictures of the moai statues, mulloys work on the Akivi-Vaiteka Complex was supported by the Fulbright Foundation and by grants from the University of Wyoming, the University of Chile and the International Fund for Monuments
16.
Obsidian
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Obsidian is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous rock. It is produced when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimal crystal growth, Obsidian is commonly found within the margins of rhyolitic lava flows known as obsidian flows, where the chemical composition induces a high viscosity and polymerization degree of the lava. The inhibition of atomic diffusion through this highly viscous and polymerized lava explains the lack of crystal growth. Obsidian is hard and brittle, it therefore fractures with very sharp edges, which were used in the past in cutting and piercing tools, among the various forms of glass we may reckon Obsidian glass, a substance very similar to the stone found by Obsidius in Ethiopia. Obsidian is the rock formed as a result of quickly cooled lava, tektites were once thought by many to be obsidian produced by lunar volcanic eruptions, though few scientists now adhere to this hypothesis. Obsidian is mineral-like, but not a true mineral because as a glass it is not crystalline, in addition and it is sometimes classified as a mineraloid. Though obsidian is usually dark in color similar to mafic rocks such as basalt, Obsidian consists mainly of SiO2, usually 70% or more. Crystalline rocks with obsidians composition include granite and rhyolite, because obsidian is metastable at the Earths surface, no obsidian has been found that is older than Cretaceous age. This breakdown of obsidian is accelerated by the presence of water, having a low water content when newly formed, typically less than 1% water by weight, obsidian becomes progressively hydrated when exposed to groundwater, forming perlite. Pure obsidian is usually dark in appearance, though the color varies depending on the presence of impurities, iron and other transition elements may give the obsidian a dark brown to black color. Very few samples are nearly colorless, in some stones, the inclusion of small, white, radially clustered crystals of cristobalite in the black glass produce a blotchy or snowflake pattern. Obsidian may contain patterns of gas bubbles remaining from the lava flow and these bubbles can produce interesting effects such as a golden sheen. An iridescent, rainbow-like sheen is caused by inclusions of magnetite nanoparticles, Obsidian can be found in locations which have experienced rhyolitic eruptions. Obsidian can also be found in the eastern U. S. states of Virginia, as well as Pennsylvania, there are only four major deposit areas in the central Mediterranean, Lipari, Pantelleria, Palmarola and Monte Arci. Ancient sources in the Aegean were Milos and Gyali, acıgöl town and the Göllü Dağ volcano were the most important sources in central Anatolia, one of the more important source areas in the prehistoric Near East. Use of obsidian in pottery of the Neolithic in the area around Lipari was found to be less at a distance representing two weeks journeying. Anatolian sources of obsidian are known to have been the used in the Levant. The first attested civilized use is from excavations at Tell Brak dated the late fifth millennia, Obsidian was valued in Stone Age cultures because, like flint, it could be fractured to produce sharp blades or arrowheads
17.
Tangata manu
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The Tangata manu was the winner of a traditional competition on Rapa Nui. Each of these four also had a servant god who was associated with him/ her, the names of all eight would be chanted by contestants during the various rituals preceding the egg hunt. Contestants, all men of importance on the island, were revealed in dreams by ivi-attuas or prophets, the race was very dangerous and many hopu were killed by sharks, by drowning, or by falling from cliff faces, though replacements were apparently easily available. The cry would be taken up by listeners at the shoreline who would pass it up the side to the contestants waiting in the stone village. The new tangata-manu was entitled to gifts of food and other tributes, once in residence there he was considered tapu for the next five months of his year-long status, and allowed his nails to grow and wore a headdress of human hair. He would spend his time eating and sleeping, and would be expected to engage in no other activity, the Birdman cult was suppressed by Christian missionaries in the 1860s. The origin of the cult and the time thereof are uncertain, katherine Routledge was, however, able to collect the names of 86 tangata-manu. The band Rasputinas song Oh Bring Back the Egg Unbroken on their 2007 album, the Hollywood film Rapa Nui has a version of the race, though in the wrong historic context. The Alolan Guardians, of the Pokémon franchise seem to take inspiration on this legend, especially Tapu Koko, due to his tribal motif being a bird
18.
Mana
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Mana is a word found in Austronesian languages meaning power, effectiveness, prestige, where in most cases the power is understood to be supernatural. The exact semantics depends on the language, the concept is a major one in Polynesian cultures. It is part of contemporary Pacific Islander culture, the term came to the attention of western anthropologists through the reports of missionaries in the islands. Its study was included in the topic of anthropology, specifically in the anthropology of religion. Links were seen between it and a phase of western religion, animism at first, then pre-animism. In recent decades, the method, has been enhanced by the application of phylogenetic method. In it, as applied to linguistics, linguistic features take the place of molecular sequences, in linguistic phylogenetic comparisons, the desired result is percentages of similarity between languages, from which a tree structure may be reconstructed. Each branch may be termed a level and represents a proto-language, the method begins with a database of features to be compared. Software exists to make various types of comparisons, the results depend to a large degree of the type of data selected and the method of comparison. The Polynesian Lexicon Project, initiated in 1965 by Bruce Biggs, by comparison of words from the oceanic languages collected in the lexicon, it assesses levels of proto-language in the phylogenetic tree. According to the POLLEX project, a protoform for mana, noted in historical linguistic convention as *mana-, existed in a Proto-Oceanic language, the exact path through the tree from Proto-Oceanic to any specific language of the group is not always clear. The word and concept, however, about as they are today, are thousands of years old, as Oceanic-speaking peoples spread eastward, the notion of an unseen supernatural agency became detached from the physical forces of nature that had inspired it and assumed a life of its own. Robert Codrington, a missionary, travelled widely in Melanesia, publishing several studies of the language and this idea was arriving in a milieu that had already defined animism, the concept that the energy, or life, in an object comes from a spiritual component, the anima. Georg Ernst Stahls animismus of the 18th century had adopted by the founder of cultural anthropology. He had presented his ideas on the history of religion in ’Researches into the Early History of Mankind’,1865. He developed them more fully in ’Primitive Culture’, Volume I, in Tylors time, the major themes of evolution were rapidly replacing earlier views based on Biblical scholarship. Biological evolution, proposed by Darwin and Wallace, hypothesized a gradual modification of species to new species. By the methods of comparative anatomy, it concluded to a progression from simpler and generally less capable forms to more complex
19.
Hoa Hakananai'a
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Hoa Hakananaia is a moai housed in the British Museum in London. It was taken from ‘Orongo, Rapa Nui in November 1868 by the crew of the British ship HMS Topaze, and arrived in England in August 1869. Though relatively small, it is considered to be typical of the island’s statue form and it has been described as a masterpiece, without a doubt, the finest example of Easter Island sculpture. The statue was identified as Hoa Hakananaia by islanders at the time it was removed, when recorded in 1868, Hoa Hakananaia was standing erect, part buried inside a freestone ceremonial house in the ‘Orongo village at the south-western tip of the island. It faced towards an extinct volcanic crater known as Rano Kau and it may have been made for this location, or first erected elsewhere before being moved to where it was found. Most statues on Rapa Nui are of a reddish tuff, though commonly described as basalt, quarried near to where the statue was found, there is no record of petrological analysis to confirm this. It stands 2.42 metres high, is 96 cm across, the base of the statue, now concealed in a modern plinth, may originally have been flat, and subsequently narrowed, or was rough and tapering from the start. A line around the base of the neck is interpreted as representing the clavicles, there is a semi-circular hollow for the suprasternal notch. In its original form, the back is thought to have plain, apart from a maro, a belt or girdle. Near the base are slight indications of buttocks, the top of the head is smooth and flat, and could originally have supported a pukao, a cylindrical stone hat. A flat round stone found near the site of the statue may have such a hat, or, if the base was flat. No Easter Island statues have been dated, but statue making in general is said to have begun by at least 1000 CE. Manufacture is said to have ended by 1600 CE, when began to topple them. Episode 70 of the 2010 BBC Radio 4 series A History of the World in 100 Objects describes the statue as being from 1000-1200 CE, the Y on the chin and the clavicles are rare on Easter Island statues, and said to be late innovations. The back of the statue, between the maro and the top of the head, is covered with relief carvings added at a time after the statue was made. They are similar in style to petroglyphs on the rock around the ‘Orongo village. Either side and above the ring on the maro are two facing birdmen, stylised human figures with beaked heads said to represent frigate birds, above these, in the centre of the statue’s head, is a smaller bird said to be a sooty tern. Either side of this is a ceremonial dance paddle, a symbol of male power and prestige
20.
British Museum
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The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose
21.
Katherine Routledge
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Katherine Maria Routledge, née Pease, was an English archaeologist and anthropologist who, in 1914, initiated the first true survey of Easter Island. She was the child of Kate and Gurney Pease, and was born into a wealthy Quaker family in Darlington, County Durham. She graduated from Somerville Hall, with Honours in Modern History in 1895, after the Second Boer War, she traveled to South Africa with a committee to investigate the resettlement of single working women from England to South Africa. In 1906 she married William Scoresby Routledge, the couple went to live among the Kikuyu people of what was then British East Africa, and in 1910 jointly published a book of their research entitled With A Prehistoric People. In 1910 the Routledges decided to organize their own expedition to Easter Island/Rapa Nui and they had a state-of-the-art 90-foot long Schooner built and named it Mana. They affiliated with the British Association for the Advancement of Science, the British Museum, the Mana departed Falmouth on 25 March 1913. They arrived on Easter Island on 29 March 1914 and they established two base camps, one in the area of Mataveri and the other at the statue quarry, Rano Raraku and also explored Orongo and Anakena. With the help of an islander named Juan Tepano, Routledge proceeded to interview the natives and catalogue the moai, as the tattooing tradition had been suppressed by missionaries in the 1860s this particular primary evidence was unavailable to later expeditions except through her records. During their stay, the German East Asia Squadron, including the armored cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau, while the expedition covered up their main discoveries to hide them from the Germans, the Germans converted their fleet to a fighting trim. There is no record of what steps the schoolmaster took to persuade the German fleet to leave Chilean waters, but they did depart, most of them to Coronel, some of the stranded French merchant seamen were recruited as labourers by the expedition. Routledge also decided to mediate in the rebellion against the sheep ranch that was led by local medicine woman. The Routledges departed the island in August,1915 returning home via Pitcairn and she published her findings in a popular travel book, The Mystery of Easter Island, in 1919. Hundreds of the objects that she and her husband found are now in the Pitt Rivers Museum, most of her scientific conclusions are accepted to this day. Her brother, Harold Pease, also suffered mental illness. Routledge became involved with Spiritualism during her Oxford years and practised automatic writing, after 1925, her schizophrenia got worse and displayed itself in the form of delusional paranoia. She threw Scoresby out of her Hyde Park, London mansion and she also hid many of her field notes. Her family blamed Angata, accusing her of being a witch doctor, in 1929 Scoresby and her family had her confined to a mental institution. Her husband gave the notes he found to the Royal Geographical Society
22.
South America
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South America is a continent located in the western hemisphere, mostly in the southern hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the northern hemisphere. It may also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas, which is the used in nations that speak Romance languages. The reference to South America instead of other regions has increased in the last decades due to changing geopolitical dynamics. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east by the Atlantic Ocean, North America and it includes twelve sovereign states, a part of France, and a non-sovereign area. In addition to this, the ABC islands of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Trinidad and Tobago, South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers. Its population as of 2005 has been estimated at more than 371,090,000, South America ranks fourth in area and fifth in population. Brazil is by far the most populous South American country, with more than half of the population, followed by Colombia, Argentina, Venezuela. In recent decades Brazil has also concentrated half of the regions GDP and has become a first regional power, most of the population lives near the continents western or eastern coasts while the interior and the far south are sparsely populated. Most of the continent lies in the tropics, the continents cultural and ethnic outlook has its origin with the interaction of indigenous peoples with European conquerors and immigrants and, more locally, with African slaves. Given a long history of colonialism, the majority of South Americans speak Portuguese or Spanish. South America occupies the portion of the Americas. The continent is delimited on the northwest by the Darién watershed along the Colombia–Panama border. Almost all of mainland South America sits on the South American Plate, South Americas major mineral resources are gold, silver, copper, iron ore, tin, and petroleum. These resources found in South America have brought high income to its countries especially in times of war or of rapid growth by industrialized countries elsewhere. However, the concentration in producing one major export commodity often has hindered the development of diversified economies and this is leading to efforts to diversify production to drive away from staying as economies dedicated to one major export. South America is one of the most biodiverse continents on earth, South America is home to many interesting and unique species of animals including the llama, anaconda, piranha, jaguar, vicuña, and tapir. The Amazon rainforests possess high biodiversity, containing a proportion of the Earths species. Brazil is the largest country in South America, encompassing around half of the land area
23.
Polynesians
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The Polynesian people consist of various ethnic Austronesian groups that speak Polynesian languages, a branch of the Oceanic languages, and inhabit Polynesia. The native Polynesian people of New Zealand and Hawaii are minorities in their homelands, Polynesians, including Samoans, Tongans, Niueans, Cook Islands Māori, Tahitian Māohi, Hawaiian Māoli, Marquesans and New Zealand Māori, are a subset of the Austronesian peoples. They share the same origins as the peoples of maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar. This is supported by genetic, linguistic, and archaeological evidence, the origins of the Polynesian people are addressed in the theories regarding migration into the Pacific that began about 3000 years ago. These are outlined well by Kayser et al, however, Soares et al. have argued for an older pre-Holocene Sundaland origin within Island Southeast Asia based on mitochondrial DNA. Paternal Y chromosome analysis by Kayser et al. also showed that Polynesians have significant Melanesian genetic admixture. However, a study by Kayser et al. discovered that only 21% of the Polynesian autosomal gene pool is of Melanesian origin. Another study by Friedlaender et al. also confirmed that Polynesians are closer genetically to Micronesians, Taiwanese Aborigines, the study concluded that Polynesians moved through Melanesia fairly rapidly, allowing only limited admixture between Austronesians and Melanesians. Thus the high frequencies of mtDNA B4a1a1 in the Polynesians are the result of drift, the Polynesian population experienced a population bottleneck and genetic drift. DNA analysis of modern Polynesians indicates that there has been intermarriage that results in a mixed Asian-Papuan ancestry of the Polynesians. The preliminary analysis of skulls found at the Teouma and Talasiu Lapita sites is that the skulls lacks Australian or Papuan affinities, there is an estimated 2 million ethnic Polynesians and their descendants worldwide, majority of which live in Polynesia, United States, Australia and New Zealand
24.
Veneration of the dead
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The veneration of the dead, including ones ancestors, is based on love and respect for the deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that the dead have a continued existence, the social or non-religious function of ancestor veneration is to cultivate kinship values, such as filial piety, family loyalty, and continuity of the family lineage. Ancestor veneration occurs in societies with every degree of social, political, and technological complexity, ancestor reverence is not the same as the worship of a deity or deities. In some Afro-diasporic cultures, ancestors are seen as being able to intercede on behalf of the living, as spirits who were once human themselves, they are seen as being better able to understand human needs than would a divine being. In other cultures, the purpose of ancestor veneration is not to ask for favors, some cultures believe that their ancestors actually need to be provided for by their descendants, and their practices include offerings of food and other provisions. Others do not believe that the ancestors are even aware of what their descendants do for them, most cultures who practice ancestor veneration do not call it ancestor worship. In English, the word usually refers to the reverent love. However, in cultures, this act of worship does not confer any belief that the departed ancestors have become some kind of deity. Rather, the act is a way to respect, honor, in this regard, many cultures and religions have similar practices. Some may visit the graves of their parents or other ancestors, leave flowers and pray to them in order to honor and remember them, however, this would not be considered as worshipping them since the term worship shows no such meaning. This is consistent with the meaning of the veneration in English. Although there is no accepted theory concerning the origins of ancestor veneration. Although some historians claim that ancient Egyptian society was a “death cult” because of its tombs and mummification rituals. The philosophy that “this world is but a vale of tears” and this was not to say that they were unacquainted with the harshness of life, rather, their ethos included a sense of continuity between this life and the next. Tombs were housing in the Hereafter and so they were constructed and decorated. Mummification was a way to preserve the corpse so the ka of the deceased could return to receive offerings of the things s/he enjoyed while alive, if mummification was not affordable, a “ka-statue” in the likeness of the deceased was carved for this purpose. The Blessed Dead were collectively called the akhu, or “shining ones” and they were described as “shining as gold in the belly of Nut and were indeed depicted as golden stars on the roofs of many tombs and temples. If the heart was in balance with the Feather of Maat, at this point only was the ka deemed worthy to be venerated by the living through rites and offerings
25.
Mu (lost continent)
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This concept was popularized and expanded by James Churchward, who asserted that Mu was once located in the Pacific. The existence of Mu was already being disputed in Le Plongeons time, today scientists dismiss the concept of Mu as physically impossible, arguing that a continent can neither sink nor be destroyed in the short period of time required by this premise. Mus existence is now considered to have no factual basis, the mythical idea of Mu first appeared in the works of Augustus Le Plongeon, after his investigations of the Maya ruins in Yucatán. Le Plongeon actually got the name Mu from Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg, Brasseur believed that a word which he read as Mu referred to a land which had been submerged by a catastrophe. Le Plongeon claimed that the civilization of ancient Egypt was founded by Queen Moo, other refugees supposedly fled to Central America and became the Maya. Other popular books in the series are The Children of Mu, having mastered the language himself, Churchward found out that they originated from the place where first appeared—Mu. At the time of its demise, about 12,000 years ago, Mu had 64,000,000 inhabitants and many large cities, and colonies on the other continents. Churchward claimed that the landmass of Mu was located in the Pacific Ocean, and stretched east–west from the Marianas to Easter Island, and north–south from Hawaii to Mangaia. He claimed that according to the myth he read in the Indian tablets. As evidence for his claims, he pointed to symbols from throughout the world, in which he saw common themes of birds, the relation of the Earth and the sky, and especially the Sun. Churchward claims that the king of Mu was named Ra and he relates this to the Egyptian god of the sun, Ra, and the Rapa Nui word for Sun, ra’a, which he incorrectly spells raa. He claimed to have found symbols of the Sun in Egypt, Babylonia, Peru and all ancient lands, Churchward attributed all megalithic art in Polynesia to the people of Mu. He claimed that symbols of the sun are depicted on stones of Polynesian ruins. Citing W. J. Johnson, Churchward describes the cylindrical hats as spheres that seem to show red in the distance, and asserts that they “represent the Sun as Ra. ”He also incorrectly claimed that some of them are made of red sandstone, which does not exist on the island. He also cites the pillars erected by the Māori of New Zealand as an example of this lost civilizations handiwork. James Bramwell and William Scott-Elliott claimed that the events on Mu began 800,000 years ago and went on until the last catastrophe. In the 1930s, Atatürk, founder of the Turkish Republic, was interested in Churchwards work, masaaki Kimura has suggested that certain underwater features located off the coast of Yonaguni Island, Japan are ruins of Mu. Modern geological knowledge rules out lost continents of any significant size, according to the theory of plate tectonics, which has been extensively confirmed over the past 40 years, the Earths crust consists of lighter sial rocks that float on heavier sima rocks
26.
Inclusion (mineral)
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In mineralogy, an inclusion is any material that is trapped inside a mineral during its formation. In gemology, an inclusion is a characteristic enclosed within a gemstone, according to Huttons law of inclusions, fragments included in a host rock are older than the host rock itself. Inclusions are usually other minerals or rocks, but may also be water, liquid or vapor inclusions are known as fluid inclusions. In the case of amber it is possible to find insects and plants as inclusions, the analysis of atmospheric gas bubbles as inclusions in ice cores is an important tool in the study of climate change. A xenolith is a rock which has been picked up by a lava flow. Melt inclusions form when bits of melt become trapped inside crystals as they form in the melt, inclusions are one of the most important factors when it comes to gem valuation. In many gemstones, such as diamonds, inclusions affect the clarity of the gem, in some gems, however, such as star sapphires, the inclusion actually increases the value of the gem. Many colored gemstones, such as amethyst, emerald, and sapphire, are expected to have inclusions, colored gemstones are categorized into three types as follows, Type I colored gems include gems with very little or no inclusions. They include aquamarines, topaz and zircon, Type II colored gems include those that often have a few inclusions. They include sapphire, ruby, garnet and spinel, Type III colored gems include those that almost always have inclusions. Gems in this category include emerald and tourmaline, the term inclusion is also used in the context of metallurgy and metals processing. During the melt stage of processing hard particles such as oxides can enter or form in the metal which are subsequently trapped when the melt solidifies. The term is used negatively such as when the particle could act as a fatigue crack nucleator or as an area of high stress intensity
27.
Makemake (deity)
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Makemake in the Rapa Nui mythology of Easter Island, is the creator of humanity, the god of fertility and the chief god of the Tangata manu or bird-man cult. He is a frequent subject of the Rapa Nuis petroglyphs, the dwarf planets code name was Easterbunny. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 160, katherine Routledge The Mystery of Easter Island 1919 ISBN 0-932813-48-8 VAN TILBURG, Jo Anne. Easter Island, Archaeology, Ecology and Culture
28.
Pavel Pavel
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Pavel Pavel is a Czech engineer and experimental archaeologist best known for investigating how ancient civilizations transported heavy weights. Pavel Pavel studied electrical engineering at the university in Plzeň and later worked as an engineer in Agrostav Strakonice. Solving how the ancient people could move megalithic statues and stone blocks became his hobby for which he became known and he began this line of inquiry as a child, when he became worried he may inadvertently be transported back in time and charged with moving heavy objects. After the Velvet revolution, as a member of the Civic Democratic Party, in two elections into the Czech Senate he ended as the second. Since the 1990 Pavel works in the field of heavy transportation and he conducted a practice experiment in 1982 in south Bohemia using a concrete model. In 1986 he was invited by Heyerdahl to Easter Island to test his experiment in its actual setting, only 16 people with one leader were needed for relatively fast statue transportation. He then performed some further experiments and he estimated that only 160 people with similar simple technology would have been necessary for transportation of the 800 ton stones in Baalbek. Pavel Pavel, Rapa Nui, České Budějovice,1989, jaroslav Malina, Pavel Pavel, Jak vznikly největší monumenty dávnověku, Prague 1994, ISBN 80-205-0211-4. Article on Pavels visit to Easter Island Pavel Pavel, Muž, který rozchodil sochy moai The Walking Moai of Easter Island
29.
Thor Heyerdahl
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Thor Heyerdahl was a Norwegian adventurer and ethnographer with a background in zoology, botany, and geography. He became notable for his Kon-Tiki expedition in 1947, in which he sailed 8,000 km across the Pacific Ocean in a raft from South America to the Tuamotu Islands. The expedition was designed to demonstrate that ancient people could have made long sea voyages and this was linked to a diffusionist model of cultural development. He was appointed a government scholar in 1984, in May 2011, the Thor Heyerdahl Archives were added to UNESCOs Memory of the World Register. At the time, this list included 238 collections from all over the world, the Heyerdahl Archives are administered by the Kon-Tiki Museum and the National Library of Norway in Oslo. Heyerdahl was born in Larvik, Norway, the son of master brewer Thor Heyerdahl and his wife, as a young child, Heyerdahl showed a strong interest in zoology. He created a museum in his childhood home, with a common adder as the main attraction. He studied zoology and geography at the faculty of science at the University of Oslo. After seven terms and consultations with experts in Berlin, a project was developed and sponsored by Heyerdahls zoology professors, Kristine Bonnevie and he was to visit some isolated Pacific island groups and study how the local animals had found their way there. The couple had two sons, Thor Jr and Bjørn, after the Occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany, he served with the Free Norwegian Forces from 1944, in the far north province of Finnmark. In 1949, Heyerdahl married Yvonne Dedekam-Simonsen and they had three daughters, Annette, Marian and Helene Elisabeth. Heyerdahl blamed their separation on his being away from home and differences in their ideas for bringing up children, in his autobiography, he concluded that he should take the entire blame for their separation. In 1991, Heyerdahl married Jacqueline Beer as his third wife and they lived in Tenerife, Canary Islands and were very actively involved with archaeological projects, especially in Túcume, Peru, and Azov until his death in 2002. He still had been hoping to undertake a project in Samoa before he died. Heyerdahl died on April 18,2002, in Colla Micheri, Liguria, Italy, the Norwegian government gave him a state funeral in Oslo Cathedral on April 26,2002. He is buried in the garden of the home in Colla Micheri. Many years later, having achieved notability with other adventures and books on other subjects, the story of his time on Fatu Hiva and his side trip to Hivaoa and Mohotani is also related in Green Was the Earth on the Seventh Day. The Kon-Tiki smashed into the reef at Raroia in the Tuamotu Islands on August 7,1947, after a 101-day,4,300 nautical mile journey across the Pacific Ocean
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Kon-Tiki Museum
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The Kon-Tiki Museum is a museum in the Bygdøy peninsula in Oslo, Norway. It houses vessels and maps from the Kon-Tiki expedition, as well as a library with about 8000 books and it was opened in a provisional building in 1949. In 1957, the current building—designed by architects F. S. Platou, in 1978, an extension of the museum designed by Torgersen was opened. The museum was built to house the Kon-Tiki, a raft of balsa wood of pre-Columbian model that Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl used to sail from Peru to Polynesia in 1947. Another boat in the museum is the Ra II, a built of reeds according to Heyerdahls perception of an ancient Egyptian seagoing boat. Heyerdahl sailed the Ra II from North Africa to the Caribbean after an attempt with the reed boat Ra failed. The Kon-Tiki Museum is situated near several other museums, including the Fram Museum, the Norwegian Museum of Cultural History, the Viking Ship Museum, and the Norwegian Maritime Museum
31.
Therianthropy
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Therianthropy is the mythological ability of human beings to metamorphose into other animals by means of shapeshifting. It is possible that cave drawings found at Les Trois Frères, in France, the most well known form of therianthropy is found in stories concerning werewolves. The term therianthropy comes from the Greek theríon, meaning animal or beast. It was used to refer to animal transformation folklore of Europe as early as 1901, sometimes the term zoanthropy is used instead. Therianthropy was used to describe spiritual beliefs in animal transformation in a 1915 Japanese publication, one source, The Human Predator, raises the possibility the term may have been used as early as the 16th century in criminal trials of suspected werewolves. Therianthropy refers to the fantastical, or mythological, ability of humans to change into animals. Therianthropes are said to change forms via shapeshifting, theriocephaly refers to beings which have an animal head attached to an anthropomorphic, or human, body. For example, the forms of gods depicted in ancient Egyptian religion. Shapeshifting in folklore, mythology and anthropology generally refers to the alteration of physical appearance from that of a human to that of another species, lycanthropy, the transformation of a human into a wolf, is probably the best known form of therianthropy, followed by cynanthropy and ailuranthropy. Werehyenas are present in the stories of several African and Eurasian cultures, ancient Turkic legends from Asia talk of form-changing shamans known as kurtadams, which translates to wolfman. The term existed by at least 1901, when it was applied to stories from China about humans turning into dogs, dogs becoming people, anthropologist David Gordon White called Central Asia the vortex of cynanthropy because races of dog-men were habitually placed there by ancient writers. The weredog or cynanthrope is also known in Timor and it is described as a human-canine shapeshifter who is capable of transforming other people into animals, even against their will. European folklore features werecats, who can transform into panthers or domestic cats of an enlarged size, African legends describe people who turn into lions or leopards, while Asian werecats are typically depicted as becoming tigers. Some Native American and First Nation legends talk about skin-walkers—people with the ability to turn into any animal they desire. To do so, however, they first must be wearing a pelt of the specific animal, stories of humans descending from animals are found in the oral traditions for many tribal and clan origins. Sometimes the original animals had assumed human form in order to ensure their descendants retained their human shapes, the offspring may be creatures with combined anatomy, they may be very beautiful children with uncanny strength, or they may be shapeshifters themselves. Pan Hu is represented in various Chinese legends as a supernatural dog, when he is depicted as a shapeshifter, all of him can become human except for his head. The race descended from Pan Hu were often characterized by Chinese writers as monsters who combined human, in Turkic mythology, the wolf is a revered animal
32.
Moai kavakava
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A mo‘ai kavakava is a small wooden figure of a style originated by the Rapa Nui culture of Easter Island. Each figure resembles a standing, slightly stooped, male human with an emaciated body, the name mo‘ai kavakava is formed from mo‘ai for the monumental monolithic human figures found on Easter Island and the word kavakava meaning ribs. Little is known about the context of these figures although they are generally considered to be representations of starving ancestors or demons. It is believed these figures were worn hanging around the necks of men who took part in the dances during public ceremonies. German Expressionist Max Ernst was inspired by these figures and their rituals, the figures can also be found in the collections of the French surrealist André Breton
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Jacob Roggeveen
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Jacob Roggeveen was a Dutch explorer who was sent to find Terra Australis, but he instead came across Easter Island. Jacob Roggeveen also encountered Bora Bora and Maupiti of the Society Islands and he planned the expedition along with his brother Jan Roggeveen, who stayed in the Netherlands. His father, Arend Roggeveen, was a mathematician with much knowledge of astronomy, geography, rhetorics, philosophy, on 12 August 1690 he graduated as a doctor of the law at University of Harderwijk. He married Marija Margaerita Vincentius, but she died in October 1694, in 1706 he joined the Dutch East Indies Company, and between 1707 and 1714 as a Raadsheer van Justitie at Batavia, Dutch East Indies. He married Anna Adriana Clement there, but she died soon afterward, in 1714, he returned to Middelburg by himself. He became involved in controversies, supporting the liberal preacher Pontiaan van Hattem by publishing his leaflet De val van s werelds afgod. The first part appeared in 1718, in Middelburg, and was confiscated by the city council. Roggeveen fled from Middelburg to nearby Flushing, thereafter he established himself in the small town of Arnemuiden, and published parts 2 and 3 of the series, again raising a controversy. On 1 August 1721 he headed an expedition sponsored by the Dutch West India Company and his fleet consisted of three ships, the Arend, the Thienhoven, and Afrikaansche Galey and had 223 men on crew. Roggeveen first sailed down to the Falkland Islands, passed through the Strait of Le Maire and he made landfall near Valdivia, Chile. He visited the Juan Fernández Islands, where he spent 24 February to 17 March, the expedition later arrived at Easter Island on Easter Sunday,5 April 1722. Roggeveen charted the location of six islands in the Tuamotu Archipelago, two islands in the Society Islands, and four islands in Samoa, losing his flagship, Afrikaansche Galey at Takapoto atoll. At Makatea, he opened fire on a beach in retaliation for a violent encounter with the inhabitants. The remaining two vessels sailed past New Guinea to reach Batavia in 1722, where he was arrested for violating the monopoly of the VOC and had his ships confiscated. After a lengthly lawsuit in the Netherlands, the VOC was later forced to compensate him for his losses, after his return Roggeveen published part 4 of De val van s werelds afgod. The voyage of Don Felipe Gonzalez to Easter Island in 1770-1, Hakluyt Society, p.3, retrieved 13 January 2013 Quanchi, historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Pacific Islands. Biographical and archival data from the Zeeland archives Libweb5. princeton. edu
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Abel Aubert Dupetit Thouars
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Abel Aubert Dupetit Thouars was a French naval officer important in Frances annexation of French Polynesia. He was born at the castle of La Fessardière, near Saumur and his uncle Aristide Aubert Dupetit-Thouars was of the heroes of the Battle of the Nile. He joined the French Navy in 1804, where he was a hand in the Boulogne fleet. Between 1823-25 he sailed Inconstant to Brazil, and remained her captain on the Brazil station and he was promoted to Commander in 1824. Dupetit Thouars frequently travelled to Algeria, and had a role in the conquest of Algiers. During the battle, he commanded the 20-gun Griffon and he was later put in charge of the Southern Seas command, in the Pacific Ocean. In 1834 he played a key role in protecting French shipping interests against the Peruvians and he became Capitaine de vaisseau on 6 January 1834, and accomplished a circumnavigation between 1836 and 1839 on Vénus. He was made Rear-Admiral on 12 July 1841, in charge of the Pacific Naval Division and his mission was to take possession of the Marquesas Islands. He was initially denounced for his actions by the French government, relations between France and Great Britain soured considerably during the reign of Louis-Philippe, due to this Pritchard Affair. Dupetit Thouars became a Vice-Admiral in 1846, and retired in 1858 and he died in Paris in 1864. He had no children, but adopted the son of his sister, known as Abel Nicolas Bergasse Dupetit Thouars, who became an Admiral. This botanist is denoted by the author abbreviation A. Thouars when citing a botanical name, louis-Marie Aubert du Petit-Thouars was a famous botanist. Aristide Aubert du Petit Thouars was a French Navy officer, abel-Nicolas Bergasse Dupetit Thouars was a French Navy admiral who participated to the Boshin War in Japan. Granier, Hubert, Histoire des marins français 1815–1870, La marche vers la République, ISBN 2-909675-72-6 Biography Spanish Du Petit Thouars in Mazatlan. The Dupetit Thouars family Adorning the world, art of the Marquesas Islands, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art
35.
Relocation of moai objects
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The following table lists the most prominent figures held in museums and collections, The issue of authenticiy of Moai heads may never be fully resolved. The fact is that the used to carve the heads are as old as the volcano eruption that formed them. Determining the age of an Easter Island Moai head is therefore an art, field experts make judgments and express opinions about what tools they feel were used and attempt to tie an age to that opinion. Such a condition means that Moai Heads cannot be tested with hope of determining authenticity, they may, however, as with any object of antiquity, the patrimony, the history and story of the heads, is an important part in determining authenticity. An unauthenticated moai head entitled Henry currently stands in the Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale and it was obtained in the first half of the 20th century by the founder of the park Dr. Hubert Eaton. Dr. Eaton received the moai in a transaction between Rapanui fishermen at Easter Island who were using the head as ballast for a boat. The Memorial Park has no plans for authenticating or testing the moai in the near future and it appears that the cuts have been made with modern machinery and not with stone tools. In 1968, a moai was taken from Rapa Nui and displayed in New York City as a publicity stunt to oppose the building of a jet refueling facility on Easter Island, around the time of the campaign and the following tour to Washington D. C. In co-operation with the International Fund for Monuments Inc, Lippincott produced a copy from the original moai, in 1974, Object No.3 was produced from the copy, and now stands outside the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County
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William Mulloy
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William Thomas Mulloy, Jr. was an American anthropologist. Mulloy was born May 3,1917 in Salt Lake City, the son of William Thomas Mulloy, Sr. a conductor on the Union Pacific Railroad. His older sister, Mary Grace Mulloy Strauch, recognized and encouraged his early interest in archaeology, Mulloy earned a BA in anthropology from the University of Utah, where he had distinguished himself both in the classroom and on the wrestling team. From 1938 to 1939, he worked for the Louisiana State Archaeological Survey as a field archaeologist, in the Louisiana bayou, he contracted malaria. From Louisiana, Mulloy went to Illinois where he began studies at the University of Chicago. In the summer of 1940, Mulloy supervised archaeological fieldwork at Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon, there, among the field crew, he met his future wife, Emily Ross, an archaeology major at the University of New Mexico. His graduate studies were interrupted when, shortly after the Attack on Pearl Harbor, at Camp Roberts, California, he served first in the Field Artillery Instrument and Survey School. Recognizing his talent and intelligence, the Army sent him to Officer Candidate School in North Dakota, in 1943, Mulloy received his commission in the Counter Intelligence Corps. An outstanding linguist, Mulloy first learned Japanese and then became a Japanese language instructor in order to prepare US military officers for the invasion and occupation of Japan, as a reserve officer, Mulloy advanced to the rank of major. After World War II ended, Mulloy returned to studies in Chicago with his wife, Emily, and their infant daughter Kathy. As a graduate student, he worked in the mills, in the railroad yards. The University of Chicago granted him a PhD in 1953, even as a junior faculty member of the University of Wyoming, Mulloy distinguished himself as a teacher. During his three-decade academic career in Laramie, Mulloy perennially received the recognition of his students and his engaging classroom presence brought him such honors as the Omicron Delta Kappa Award for outstanding teaching. The Wyoming Archaeological Society established the William Mulloy Scholarship in his honor in 1960, in 1964, he was the recipient of the George Duke Humphrey Distinguished Faculty Award. In 1976, the University of Wyoming awarded him its highest distinction, in 1968, Mulloy established the Wyoming Anthropological Museum and served as its curator until his death. His personal collection of modern Rapa Nui folk art now forms part of the University of Wyoming Art Museum, Mulloy undertook extensive research projects in North American Plains Indian and Southwestern Indian archaeology. He investigated sites in New Mexico, Wyoming, and Montana and his monographs on the Hagen Site in Glendive, Montana and the McKean Site in Crook County, Wyoming are still widely consulted. He replaced H. Melville Sayre as the director of a WPA project at Pictograph Cave from October,1940, from 1951 through 1954, Mulloy supervised the investigation of an 8000-year-old bison kill site near Laramie
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Monument
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The term monument is often applied to buildings or structures that are considered examples of important architectural and/or cultural heritage. Monuments have been created for thousands of years, and they are often the most durable, in more recent times, monumental structures such as the Statue of Liberty and Eiffel Tower have become iconic emblems of modern nation-states. The term monumentality relates to the status and physical presence of a monument. Monuments are frequently used to improve the appearance of a city or location, planned cities such as Washington D. C. New Delhi and Brasília are often built around monuments, for example, the Washington Monuments location was conceived by LEnfant to help organize public space in the city, before it was designed or constructed. Older cities have monuments placed at locations that are important or are sometimes redesigned to focus on one. As Shelley suggested in his famous poem Ozymandias, the purpose of monuments is often to impress or awe. Structures created for purposes that have been made notable by their age. This can happen because of age and size, as in the case of the Great Wall of China. Monuments are also designed to convey historical or political information. They can be used to reinforce the primacy of political power. The social meanings of monuments are rarely fixed and certain and are contested by different social groups. This contention of meaning is a theme of modern post processual archaeological discourse. Until recently, it was customary for archaeologists to study large monuments, New ideas about what constitutes the archaeological record have revealed that certain legislative and theoretical approaches to the subject are too focused on earlier definitions of monuments. An example has been the United Kingdoms Scheduled Ancient Monument laws, recently, more and more monuments are being preserved digitally through organisations as CyArk. Cenotaphs and other memorials to commemorate the dead, usually war casualties, e. g. India Gate and Vimy Ridge Memorial, or disaster casualties, such as the Titanic Memorial, Belfast. Church monuments to commemorate the dead, located above or near their grave, often featuring an effigy, columns, often topped with a statue, e. g. Berlin Victory Column, Nelsons Column in London, and Trajans Column in Rome. Gravestones, small monuments to the deceased, placed at their gravesites, e. g. the tombs and vaults of veterans in Les Invalides, mausoleums and tombs to honor the dead, e. g. the Great Pyramid of Giza and Taj Mahal
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Ahu Tahai
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The Tahai Ceremonial Complex is an archaeological site on Rapa Nui in Chilean Polynesia. Restored in 1974 by the late Dr. William Mulloy, an American archaeologist, visible in the distance from Tahai are two restored ahu at Hanga Kioe, projects that Mulloy undertook in 1972. William Mulloy and Emily Ross Mulloy are buried at Tahai, Easter Island Studies, Contributions to the History of Rapanui in Memory of William T. Mulloy. World Monuments Fund, and Easter Island Foundation, the Easter Island Bulletins of William Mulloy. New York, Houston, World Monuments Fund, Easter Island Foundation, norwegian Archaeological Expedition to Easter Island and the East Pacific, T. Heyerdahl, E. N. Ferdon, W. T. Mulloy, A. Skjølsvold, house, distributed by The School of American Research. Media related to Ahu Tahai at Wikimedia Commons Easter Island Foundation William Mulloy Library Father Sebastian Englert Anthropology Museum
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Orongo
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Orongo is a stone village and ceremonial centre at the southwestern tip of Rapa Nui. It consists of a collection of low, sod-covered, windowless, below Orongo on one side a 300-meter barren cliff face drops down to the ocean, on the other, a more-gentle but still very steep grassy slope leads down to a freshwater marsh inside the high caldera. The first half of the ceremonial villages 53 stone masonry houses was investigated and restored in 1974, with the remainder completed in 1976 and subsequently investigated in 1985, Orongo now has World Heritage status as part of the Rapa Nui National Park. The race was very dangerous, and hunters often fell to their deaths from the cliff face, the site has numerous petroglyphs, mainly of tangata manu which may have been carved to commemorate some of the winners of this race. In the 1860s, most of the Rapa Nui islanders died of disease or were enslaved, in 1868, the crew of HMS Topaze removed the huge basalt moai known as Hoa Hakananaia from Orongo. It is now housed in the British Museum, the site of Orongo was included in the 1996 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund, and listed again four years later, in 2000. The threat was soil erosion, caused by rainfall and exacerbated by foot traffic, investigation and Restoration of the Ceremonial Center of Orongo. International Fund for Monuments Bulletin No.4, Easter Island Studies, Contributions to the History of Rapanui in Memory of William T. Mulloy. The Mystery of Easter Island, the Story of an Expedition, london, Aylesbury, Printed for the author by Hazell, Watson and Viney. ISBN 0-932813-48-8 Official Site for Rapa Nui National Park Rapa Nui National Park - UNESCO World Heritage Centre photos of location, Birdman and houses Hoa Hakananaia at the British Museum
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Rapa Nui National Park
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Rapa Nui National Park is a national park and UNESCO-inscribed World Heritage Site located on Easter Island, Chile. Rapa Nui is the Polynesian name of Easter Island, its Spanish name is Isla de Pascua, the island is located in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeastern extremity of the Polynesian Triangle. The island was taken over by Chile in 1888 and its fame and World Heritage status arise from the 887 extant stone statues known by the name moai, whose creation is attributed to the early Rapa Nui people who inhabited the island around 300 AD. Much of the island has been declared as Rapa Nui National Park which, on 22 March 1996, UNESCO designated a World Heritage Site under cultural criteria, &. The park is under the control of the Corporación Nacional Forestal. Geographically isolated, the forms the eastern geographic and cultural boundary of Polynesia. It is 3,700 kilometres west of Chile, about 2,200 km east of Pitcairn Island and is the most remote inhabited spot on Earth, the park is triangular in shape and has a length of 23 km and a width of 11 km. It is home to a megalithic culture which is seen in the form of edifices of huge statues called moai made out of volcanic rocks. The topography includes volcanoes and a rugged coastline and its elevation varies from sea level to 300 m. It has fresh water lakes, volcanic craters and a coastline which is subject to erosion, the park experiences a warm sub-tropical climate with southeast trade winds from October to April. The annual average rainfall is 1,250 millimetres, with rains occurring during the winter season, the average temperature varies from 19 °C in winter to 24 °C in summer. The Rapa Nui people inhabited the island around 300 AD, the park was created by the Chilean Government in 1935. The native people were confined to an area just outside the capital city of Hanga Roa. The movement for independence was started in 1964 and following this the lease for farming was terminated during the 1980s. The population of the island which was 2,770 in 1972 rose to 3,792 by 2002, the island was brought under the administrative control of Chile in 1888. Its fame and World Heritage status arise from the 887 extant stone statues known as moai, much of the island has been included in the Rapa Nui National Park. On 22 March 1996 UNESCO designated it a World Heritage Site of cultural significance under criteria, the moai in the park are of varying height from 2 to 20 metres. The volcanic rock formations quarried for sculpting are a distinctive yellow-brown volcanic tuff found only at the Ranu Raraku on the southeast side of the island, some of the moai were also carved from red scoria
listen), or mo‘ai, are monolithic human figures carved by the Rapa Nui people on Easter Island in eastern Polynesia between the years 1250 and 1500.[1][2] Nearly half are still at Rano Raraku, the main moai quarry, but hundreds were transported from there and set on stone platforms called ahu around the island's perimeter. Almost all moai have overly large heads three-eighths the size of the whole statue. The moai are chiefly the living faces (aringa ora) of deified ancestors (aringa ora ata tepuna).[3] The statues still gazed inland across their clan lands when Europeans first visited the island in 1722, but all of them had fallen by the latter part of the 19th century.[4]
