1.
Prefabrication
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The term is used to distinguish this process from the more conventional construction practice of transporting the basic materials to the construction site where all assembly is carried out. The term prefabrication also applies to the manufacturing of other than structures at a fixed site. Prefabricated parts of the body of the machine may be called sub-assemblies to distinguish them from the other components, an example from house-building illustrates the process of prefabrication. The conventional method of building a house is to transport bricks, timber, cement, sand, steel and construction aggregate, etc. to the site, and to construct the house on site from these materials. The method finds application particularly where the structure is composed of repeating units or forms, prefabrication has been used since ancient times. Assembling sections in factories saved time on-site and the lightness of the reduced the cost of foundations. The Crystal Palace, erected in London in 1851, was a visible example of iron and glass prefabricated construction. It can be difficult to construct the required to mould concrete components on site. Prefabricating steel sections reduces on-site cutting and welding costs as well as the associated hazards, prefabrication techniques are used in the construction of apartment blocks, and housing developments with repeated housing units. The quality of prefabricated housing units had increased to the point that they may not be distinguishable from traditionally built units to those live in them. The technique is used in office blocks, warehouses and factory buildings. Prefabricated steel and glass sections are used for the exterior of large buildings. Detached houses, cottages, log cabin, saunas, etc. are also sold with prefabricated elements, wood construction in particular benefits from the improved quality. However, tradition often favors building by hand in many countries, prefabrication saves engineering time on the construction site in civil engineering projects. This can be vital to the success of such as bridges and avalanche galleries. Prefabricated bridge elements and systems offer bridge designers and contractors significant advantages in terms of time, safety, environmental impact, constructibility. Prefabrication can also minimize the impact on traffic from bridge building. Additionally, small, commonly used such as concrete pylons are in most cases prefabricated
2.
Caravan (towed trailer)
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A travel trailer, camper trailer or caravan is towed behind a road vehicle to provide a place to sleep which is more comfortable and protected than a tent. It provides the means for people to have their own home on a journey or a vacation, without relying on a motel or hotel, however, in some countries campers are restricted to designated sites for which fees are payable. Travel trailers and caravans vary from basic models which may be more than a tent on wheels to those containing several rooms with all the furniture and furnishings. They are used principally in North America, Europe, Australia, in Europe, the origins of travel trailers and caravanning can be traced back to travelling Gypsies, and showmen who spent most of their lives in horse-drawn caravans. Samuel White Baker purchased an actual Gypsy caravan in Britain and shipped it to Cyprus for his tour in 1879 and it was an 18-foot design, based upon their Bible Wagons, used by traveling preachers in Americas Wild West. He travelled around the British countryside in it and later wrote a book documenting his travels in 1885 called The Gentleman Gypsy, by the turn of the century, caravanning for leisure had become an increasingly popular activity. In 1901, the first dedicated caravanning club was established, the Camping and Caravanning Club was founded by Thomas Hiram Holding, the father of modern camping. The Caravan Club was founded in 1907 with Stables as its vice president, bring together those interested in van life as a pastime. to improve and supply suitable vans and other appliances. and to arrange camping grounds. Caravanning gained popularity in North America in the 1920s, one of the first home-built house trailers in America was built in 1933 by grocer-barber-restaurateur-miner John Jack Anthony Porcella, who traveled extensively throughout the western states. Modern travel trailers come in a range of sizes, from tiny two-berth trailers with no toilet and only basic facilities, to large, triple-axle. Caravans, particularly the Vardo, have served both as a significant cultural icon and symbol of the nomadic Gypsies, until the early 19th century, Gypsy caravans served primarily as a means of transport and not as a domicile. At the beginning of the 19th century, more Gypsies began to live in their caravans instead of sleeping in tents, the caravan offered greater protection from weather conditions and could be outfitted with modern amenities such as wood-burning stoves. Often, caravans were commissioned to be built at the request of newlywed couples, the small-scale, pre-industrial methods of the builders and the labour-intensive nature of the building process meant that a familys caravan could take up to a year to build. Trailer caravan is defined in ISO Standard 3833,1977, Road vehicles - Types - Terms and definitions, term No 3.2.1.3. In the United States and Canada, the history of travel trailers can be traced back to the early 1920s, as time progressed, trailers became more liveable and earned a new name in the 1930s and 1940s, which was the house trailer. In the 1950s and 1960s, the industry seemed to split, today travel trailers are classified as a type of RV along with motorhomes, fifth-wheel trailers, pop-up trailers, and truck campers. Smaller travel trailers and pop-ups are still made with touring in mind and these generally are less than 18 feet long and contain simple amenities. By design, they are lightweight and quick to set up or prepare for travel, most weigh less than 3,000 pounds and can be towed with a large car or small truck depending upon its towing capacity
3.
Manufactured housing
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Manufactured housing is a type of prefabricated housing that is largely assembled in factories and then transported to sites of use. The requirement to have a wheeled chassis permanently attached differentiates manufactured housing from other types of prefabricated homes, the Federal Manufactured Home Construction and Safety Standards went into effect June 15,1976. Manufactured homes may be single- or multi-section and are transported to the site, the MHINCC distinguishes among several types of factory-built housing, manufactured homes, modular homes, panelized homes, pre-cut homes, and mobile homes. From the same source, mobile home is the used for manufactured homes produced prior to June 15,1976. Despite the formal definition, mobile home and trailer are still common terms in the United States for this type of housing, the original focus of this form of housing was its ability to relocate easily. Units were initially marketed primarily to people whose lifestyle required mobility, previously, units had been eight feet or less in width, but in 1956, the 10-foot wide home was introduced. In the 1960s and 70s, the homes became even longer and wider, today, when a factory-built home is moved to a location, it is usually kept there permanently. The mobility of the units has decreased considerably, the factory-built homes of the past developed a negative stereotype because of their lower cost and the tendency for their value to depreciate more quickly than site-built homes. The tendency of these homes to rapidly depreciate in resale value made using them as collateral for loans far riskier than traditional home loans, loan terms were usually limited to less than the 30-year term typical of the general home-loan market, and interest rates were considerably higher. In other words, these home loans resembled motor vehicle loans far more traditional home mortgages. The derogatory concept of a park is typically older single-wide homes occupying small, rented lots and remaining on wheels. Modern homes, especially modular homes, believe this image and can be identical in appearance to site-built homes, newer homes, particularly double-wides, tend to be built to much higher standards than their predecessors. This has led to a reduction in the rate of depreciation of many used units. Although great strides have been made in terms of quality, manufactured homes do still struggle with construction problems and these homes in the modern age are built to be beautiful and last longer than the typical old trailers. When FEMA studied the destruction wrought by Hurricane Andrew in Dade County Florida, they concluded that modular, while manufactured homes are considered to be affordable housing, older models can be some of the most expensive in the nation to heat due to energy inefficiency. High-performance manufactured housing uses less energy and therefore increases life-cycle affordability by decreasing operating costs, achieving high-performance involves integrated, whole building design, involving many components, not one single technology. High–performance manufactured housing should also include energy efficient appliances, such as Energy Star qualified appliances, Energy Star requires ample insulation, 2x6 walls, R21, roof, R40, floor, R33. Both types of homes - manufactured and modular - are commonly referred to as factory-built housing, modular homes are built to IRC code
4.
New Alexandria, Pennsylvania
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New Alexandria is a borough in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 560 at the 2010 census, new Alexandria is located at 40°23′50″N 79°25′25″W, along U. S. Route 22 approximately midway between Pittsburgh and Johnstown. According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 0.8 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 595 people,254 households, the population density was 704.2 people per square mile. There were 271 housing units at a density of 320.7 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 99. 50% White,0. 17% Asian,24. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the family size was 2.76. In the borough the population was out with 19. 2% under the age of 18,7. 1% from 18 to 24,27. 6% from 25 to 44,26. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 43 years, for every 100 females there were 97.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.7 males, the median income for a household in the borough was $37,656, and the median income for a family was $41,477. Males had an income of $35,625 versus $26,250 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $17,893, about 2. 8% of families and 4. 4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5. 0% of those under age 18 and 1. 8% of those age 65 or over
5.
Federal Housing Administration
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The Federal Housing Administration is a United States government agency created in part by the National Housing Act of 1934. It sets standards for construction, underwriting, and insures loans made by banks, the goals of this organization are to improve housing standards and conditions, provide an adequate home financing system through insurance of mortgage loans, and to stabilize the mortgage market. The Acting Commissioner of the FHA is Biniam Gebre and it is different from the Federal Housing Finance Agency, which supervises government-sponsored enterprises. During the Great Depression many banks failed, causing a decrease in home loans. At this time, most home mortgages were short-term, with no amortization, the banking crisis of the 1930s forced all lenders to retrieve due mortgages, refinancing was not available, and many borrowers, now unemployed, were unable to make mortgage payments. Consequently, many homes were foreclosed, causing the market to plummet. Banks collected the loan collateral but the low property values resulted in a lack of assets. In 1934 the federal banking system was restructured, the National Housing Act of 1934 created the Federal Housing Administration. Its intention was to regulate the rate of interest and the terms of mortgages that it insured, the FHA calculated appraisal value based on eight criteria and directed its agents to lend more for higher appraised projects, up to a maximum cap. The two most important were Relative Economic Stability, which constituted 40% of appraisal value, and protection from adverse influences, in 1935, Colonial Village in Arlington, Virginia, was the first large-scale, rental housing project erected in the United States that was Federal Housing Administration-insured. During World War II, the FHA financed a number of housing projects including the Kensington Gardens Apartment Complex in Buffalo. In 1965 the Federal Housing Administration became part of the Department of Housing, following the subprime mortgage crisis, FHA, along with Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, became a large source of mortgage financing in the United States. The share of home purchases financed with FHA mortgages went from 2 percent to over one-third of mortgages in the United States, without the subprime market, many of the riskiest borrowers ended up borrowing from the Federal Housing Administration, and the FHA could suffer substantial losses. Joshua Zumbrun and Maurna Desmond of Forbes have written that eventual government losses from the FHA could reach $100 billion, by November 2012, the FHA was essentially bankrupt. Since 1934, the FHA and HUD have insured over 34 million home mortgages and 47,205 multifamily project mortgages, currently, the FHA has 4.8 million insured single family mortgages and 13,000 insured multifamily projects in its portfolio. Mortgage insurance protects lenders from mortgage defaulting, FHA loans are insured through a combination of an upfront mortgage insurance premium and annual mutual mortgage insurance premiums. The UFMIP is a lump sum ranging from 1 –2. 25% of loan value, MMI, although annual, is included in monthly mortgage payments and ranges from 0 –1. 35% of loan value. Conventional mortgage insurance rates increase as credit scores decrease, whereas FHA mortgage insurance rates do not vary with credit score, conventional mortgage premiums spike dramatically if the borrowers credit score is lower than 620
6.
United States Department of Veterans Affairs
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The United States Department of Veterans Affairs is a government-run military veteran benefit system with Cabinet-level status. While veterans benefits have been provided since the Revolutionary War, the Veterans Administration itself was founded in 1930, with a total 2009 budget of about $87. In 2012, the budget for VA was $132 billion. VA2014 budget request for 2014 was $152.7 billion and this included $66.5 billion in discretionary resources and $86.1 billion in mandatory funding. The discretionary budget request represented an increase of $2.7 billion, or 4.3 percent and it is administered by the United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs. The Continental Congress of 1776 encouraged enlistments during the American Revolutionary War by providing pensions for soldiers who were disabled, direct medical and hospital care given to veterans in the early days of the U. S. was provided by the individual states and communities. In 1811, the first domiciliary and medical facility for veterans was authorized by the federal government, in the 19th century, the nations veterans assistance program was expanded to include benefits and pensions not only for veterans, but also their widows and dependents. After the end of the American Civil War in 1865, many state veterans homes were established, since domiciliary care was available at all state veterans homes, incidental medical and hospital treatment was provided for all injuries and diseases, whether or not of service origin. Indigent and disabled veterans of the Civil War, Indian Wars, Spanish–American War, Congress established a new system of veterans benefits when the United States entered World War I in 1917. Included were programs for disability compensation, insurance for servicepersons and veterans, the establishment of the Veterans Administration came in 1930 when Congress authorized the president to consolidate and coordinate Government activities affecting war veterans. The three component agencies became bureaus within the Veterans Administration, brigadier General Frank T. Hines, who directed the Veterans Bureau for seven years, was named as the first Administrator of Veterans Affairs, a job he held until 1945. The close of World War II resulted in not only a vast increase in the veteran population, in addition, during the late 1940s, the VA had to contend with aging World War I veterans. During that time, the clientele of the VA increased almost fivefold with an addition of nearly 15,000,000 World War II veterans and approximately 4,000,000 World War I veterans. Prior to World War II, in response to scandals at the Veterans Bureau, programs that cared for veterans were centralized in Washington and this centralization caused delays and bottlenecks as the agency tried to serve the World War II veterans. As a result, the VA went through a decentralization process, the World War II GI Bill was signed into law on June 22,1944, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The United States government began serious consolidated services to veterans in 1930, the GI Bill of Rights, which was passed in 1944, had more effect on the American way of life than any other legislation - with the possible exception of the Homestead Act. VA health care facilities provide a spectrum of medical, surgical. The responsibilities and benefits programs of the Veterans Administration grew enormously during the six decades
7.
Fannie Mae
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The Federal National Mortgage Association, commonly known as Fannie Mae, is a United States government-sponsored enterprise and, since 1968, a publicly traded company. Its brother organization is the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation, better known as Freddie Mac, the Great Depression wrought havoc on the U. S. housing market. By 1933, an estimated 20 to 25% of the outstanding mortgage debt was in default. Fannie Mae was established in 1938 by amendments to the National Housing Act as part of Franklin Delano Roosevelts New Deal, for the first thirty years following its inception, Fannie Mae held a monopoly over the secondary mortgage market. Fannie Mae was acquired by the Housing and Home Finance Agency from the Federal Loan Agency as a constituent unit in 1950. In the 1968 change, arising from the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968, Fannie Maes predecessor was split into the current Fannie Mae, Ginnie Mae, which remained a government organization, supports FHA-insured mortgages as well as Veterans Administration and Farmers Home Administration insured mortgages. As such, Ginnie Mae is the only home-loan agency explicitly backed by the full faith, in 1970, the federal government authorized Fannie Mae to purchase conventional mortgages, the same year it went public on New York and Pacific Exchanges, i. e. In 1981, Fannie Mae issued its first mortgage passthrough and called it a mortgage-backed security, the Fannie Mae laws did not require the Banks to hand out subprime loans in any way. In 1992, President George H. W. Bush signed the Housing, the initial annual goal for low-income and moderate-income mortgage purchases for each GSE was 30% of the total number of dwelling units financed by mortgage purchases and increased to 55% by 2007. Additionally, Community Reinvestment Act regulators, under the direction of HUD secretary Andrew Cuomo, in essence, banks were rewarded for by-passing loan standards, and instead, approving loans to those who were at high risk of defaulting. But the government-subsidized corporation may run into trouble in a downturn, prompting a government rescue similar to that of the savings. In 2004, these rules were dropped and high-risk loans were again counted toward affordable housing goals and we sought to bring the standards we apply to the prime space to the subprime market with our industry partners primarily to expand our services to underserved families. Unfortunately, Fannie Mae-quality, safe loans in the market did not become the standard. Borrowers were offered a range of loans that layered teaser rates, interest-only, negative amortization and payment options, in early 2005 we began sounding our concerns about this layered-risk lending. Those products are for more sophisticated buyers, does it make sense for borrowers to take on risk they may not be aware of. Are we setting them up for failure, as a result, we gave up significant market share to our competitors. Alex Berenson of The New York Times reported in 2003 that Fannie Maes risk is much larger than is commonly held. Nassim Taleb wrote in The Black Swan, The government-sponsored institution Fannie Mae, but not to worry, their large staff of scientists deem these events unlikely
8.
Mortgage loan
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The loan is secured on the borrowers property. Mortgage can also be described as a borrower giving consideration in the form of a collateral for a benefit, Mortgage borrowers can be individuals mortgaging their home or they can be businesses mortgaging commercial property. Features of mortgage loans such as the size of the loan, maturity of the loan, interest rate, method of paying off the loan, in many jurisdictions, it is normal for home purchases to be funded by a mortgage loan. Few individuals have enough savings or liquid funds to them to purchase property outright. In countries where the demand for ownership is highest, strong domestic markets for mortgages have developed. According to Anglo-American property law, a mortgage occurs when an owner pledges his or her interest as security or collateral for a loan. As with other types of loans, mortgages have an interest rate and are scheduled to amortize over a set period of time, typically 30 years. All types of property can be, and usually are, secured with a mortgage. Mortgage lending is the mechanism used in many countries to finance private ownership of residential and commercial property. Although the terminology and precise forms will differ from country to country, the components tend to be similar, Property. The exact form of ownership will vary from country to country, Mortgage, the security interest of the lender in the property, which may entail restrictions on the use or disposal of the property. Restrictions may include requirements to purchase insurance and mortgage insurance. Borrower, the person borrowing who either has or is creating an ownership interest in the property, lender, any lender, but usually a bank or other financial institution. Principal, the size of the loan, which may or may not include certain other costs, as any principal is repaid. Interest, a charge for use of the lenders money. Completion, legal completion of the deed, and hence the start of the mortgage. A closed mortgage account is said to be redeemed, many other specific characteristics are common to many markets, but the above are the essential features. Governments usually regulate many aspects of mortgage lending, either directly or indirectly, other aspects that define a specific mortgage market may be regional, historical, or driven by specific characteristics of the legal or financial system
9.
Enhanced Fujita scale
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The Enhanced Fujita scale rates the intensity of tornadoes in the United States and Canada based on the damage they cause. Implemented in place of the Fujita scale introduced in 1971 by Tetsuya Theodore Fujita, it began use in the United States on February 1,2007. The scale has the basic design as the original Fujita scale—six categories from zero to five. It was revised to reflect better examinations of tornado damage surveys, the new scale was publicly unveiled by the National Weather Service at a conference of the American Meteorological Society in Atlanta on February 2,2006. As with the Fujita scale, the Enhanced Fujita scale remains a damage scale, in addition to damage to structures and vegetation, radar data, photogrammetry, and cycloidal marks may be utilized when available. It was used for the first time in Canada shortly after its implementation there when a tornado developed near the town on Shelburne, Ontario on April 18,2013, the six categories for the EF scale are listed below, in order of increasing intensity. Although the wind speeds and photographic damage examples are updated, the descriptions given are those from the Fujita scale. However, for the actual EF scale in practice, damage indicators are used in determining the tornado intensity. The EF scale currently has 28 damage indicators, or types of structures and vegetation, larger degrees of damage done to the damage indicators correspond to higher wind speeds. The links in the column of the following table describe the degrees of damage for the damage indicators listed in each row. The new scale takes into account quality of construction and standardizes different kinds of structures, none of the tornadoes recorded on or before January 31,2007, will be re-categorized. Essentially, there is no difference in how tornadoes are rated. The old ratings and new ratings are smoothly connected with a linear formula, twenty-eight Damage Indicators, with descriptions such as double-wide mobile home or strip mall, are used along with Degrees of Damage to determine wind estimates. Different structures, depending on their materials and ability to survive high winds, have their own DIs. Damage descriptors and wind speeds will also be updated as new information is learned. Additionally, the bound of the wind speed range for EF5 is open—in other words. For purposes such as tornado climatology studies, Enhanced Fujita scale ratings may be grouped into classes, usually, the classic version always suggests EF4 and EF5 are the most violent tornadoes. The table shown to the shows other variations of the tornado rating classifications based on certain areas
10.
Fujita scale
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The Fujita scale, or Fujita–Pearson scale, is a scale for rating tornado intensity, based primarily on the damage tornadoes inflict on human-built structures and vegetation. The F-Scale was replaced with the Enhanced Fujita scale in the United States in February 2007, in April 2013, Canada adopted the EF-Scale over the Fujita scale, although tornado frequency is relatively low in the country. However, EC uses 31 Specific Damage Indicators in their ratings, the scale was introduced in 1971 by Tetsuya Fujita of the University of Chicago, in collaboration with Allen Pearson, head of the National Severe Storms Forecast Center/NSSFC. The scale was updated in 1973, taking into account path length and width, in the United States, starting in 1973, tornadoes were rated soon after occurrence. The Fujita scale was applied retroactively to tornadoes reported between 1950 and 1972 in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Tornado Database, Fujita rated tornadoes from 1916–1992 and Tom Grazulis of The Tornado Project retroactively rated all known significant tornadoes in the U. S. back to 1880. The Fujita scale was adopted in most areas outside of Great Britain, in 2007, the Fujita scale was updated, and the Enhanced Fujita Scale was introduced in the United States. The new scale more accurately matches wind speeds to the severity of damage caused by the tornado, though each damage level is associated with a wind speed, the Fujita scale is effectively a damage scale, and the wind speeds associated with the damage listed arent rigorously verified. The Enhanced Fujita Scale was formulated due to research which suggested that the speeds required to inflict damage by intense tornadoes on the Fujita scale are greatly overestimated. A process of expert elicitation with top engineers and meteorologists resulted in the EF scale wind speeds, however, the EF scale also improved damage parameter descriptions. The original scale as derived by Fujita was a theoretical 13-level scale designed to connect the Beaufort scale. F1 corresponds to the level of the Beaufort scale. F0 was placed at a position specifying no damage, in analogy to how the Beauforts zeroth level specifies little to no wind. From these wind speed numbers, qualitative descriptions of damage were made for each category of the Fujita scale, the diagram on the right illustrates the relationship between the Beaufort, Fujita, and Mach number scales. Fujita intended that only F0–F5 be used in practice, as this all possible levels of damage to frame homes as well as the expected estimated bounds of wind speeds. Furthermore, the wind speed numbers have since been found to be higher than the actual wind speeds required to incur the damage described at each category. The error manifests itself to a degree as the category increases. Precise wind speed numbers are actually guesses and have never been scientifically verified, different wind speeds may cause similar-looking damage from place to place—even from building to building. Without a thorough engineering analysis of damage in any event
11.
Modular building
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Modular buildings and modular homes are sectional prefabricated buildings, or houses, that consist of multiple sections called modules. Modular is a method of construction differing from other methods of building, the module sections are constructed at an off site facility, then delivered to the intended site of use. Complete construction of the sections are completed on site. The modules can be placed side-by-side, end-to-end, or stacked, allowing a variety of configurations. Modular buildings, also called prefabricated homes or precision built homes, are built to the same or higher building standards as complete on site stick built homes, Modular homes are built the same and considered the same as a stick built home. Material for stick built and modular homes are the same, Modular homes are not doublewides or mobile homes. First, modular homes do not have axles or a metal frame, secondly, modular buildings must conform to all local building codes for their proposed use, while doublewides and mobile homes have metal under framing. Doublewides and mobile homes made in the United States, are required to conform to federal codes governed by HUD, Modular buildings may be used for long-term, temporary or permanent facilities, such as construction camps, schools and classrooms, civilian and military housing, and industrial facilities. Other uses have included churches, health facilities, sales and retail offices, fast food restaurants. They can also be used in areas that have weather concerns, Modular components are typically constructed indoors on assembly lines. Modules construction may take as little as ten days but more often one to three months, completed modules are transported to the building site and assembled by a crane. Placement of the modules may take several hours to several days. The entire process of modular construction places significance on the design stage and this is where practices such as Design for Manufacture and Assembly are used to ensure that assembly tolerances are controlled throughout manufacture and assembly on site. It is vital that there is enough allowance in the design to allow the assembly to take up any slack or misalignment of components, the use of advanced CAD systems, 3D printing and manufacturing control systems are important for modular construction to be successful. This is quite unlike on-site construction where the tradesman can often make the part to any particular installation. Modular buildings are argued to have advantages over conventional buildings, for a variety of reasons, speed of construction/faster return on investment. Modular construction allows for the building and the work to be completed simultaneously. According to some materials, this can reduce the overall completion schedule by as much as 50%, Assembly is independent of weather, which can increase work efficiency and avoids damaged building material
12.
Hurricane Andrew
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Hurricane Andrew was, at the time of its occurrence in August 1992, the most destructive hurricane in United States history. Passing directly through the town of Homestead, Florida, a city south of Miami, Andrew obliterated entire blocks of homes, over 25,000 houses were destroyed in Miami-Dade County alone, and nearly 100,000 more were severely damaged. 65 people were killed and the total across the affected regions exceeded $26 billion. Andrew originated from a wave over the central Atlantic, becoming the fourth tropical cyclone. In Miami-Dade County alone, damage was estimated at $25 billion. Several hours later, the hurricane emerged over the Gulf of Mexico at Category 4 strength, with the Gulf Coast of the United States in its projected path, after weakening slightly, Andrew moved ashore near Morgan City, Louisiana, as low-end Category 3 storm. The effects of land caused the hurricane to rapidly lose its intensity. The next day, Andrew merged with a system over the southern Appalachian Mountains. In the Bahamas, Andrew brought storm surge, hurricane-force winds, about 800 houses were destroyed in the archipelago, and there was substantial damage to the transport, water, sanitation, agriculture, and fishing sectors. Overall, Andrew left four dead and $250 million in damage throughout the Bahamas, in parts of southern Florida, Andrew produced severe winds, a wind gust of 177 mph was observed at a house in Perrine. These winds wreaked catastrophic damage in Florida—Miami-Dade County cities of Florida City, Homestead, a total of 63,000 homes were destroyed and more than 101,000 others were damaged, leaving roughly 175,000 people homeless. As many as 1.4 million people lost power at the height of the storm, in the Everglades,70,000 acres of trees were downed. Rainfall in Florida was substantial, peaking at 13.98 in in western Miami-Dade County, altogether, Andrew killed 44 and left a record $25 billion in damage in the state. Before moving ashore Andrew caused extensive damage to oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico and it produced hurricane-force winds along its path through Louisiana, leaving about 152,000 without electricity. Over 80% of trees in the Atchafalaya River Basin were downed, throughout the basin and Bayou Lafourche,187 million freshwater fish were killed in the hurricane. An F3 tornado in St. John the Baptist Parish wrecked 163 structures, with 23,000 houses damaged,985 others destroyed, and 1,951 mobile homes demolished, property losses in Louisiana exceeded $1.5 billion. The hurricane caused the deaths of 17 people in the state, Andrew spawned at least 28 tornadoes along the Gulf Coast, especially in Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi. A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 14, under the influence of a ridge of high pressure to its north, the wave tracked quickly westward
13.
2004 Atlantic hurricane season
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The 2004 Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest Atlantic hurricane season on record until surpassed by the following year. More than half of the 16 tropical cyclones brushed or struck the United States, the season officially began on June 1, and ended on November 30. The first storm, Alex, developed offshore of the Southeastern United States on July 31 and it brushed the Carolinas and the Mid-Atlantic, causing one death and $7.5 million in damage. Several storms caused only minor damage, including tropical storms Bonnie, Earl, Hermine, in addition, hurricanes Danielle, Karl, and Lisa, Tropical Depression Ten, Subtropical Storm Nicole and Tropical Storm Otto had no effect on land while tropical cyclones. Hurricane Charley made landfall in Florida as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale, later in August, Hurricane Frances struck the Bahamas and Florida, causing at least 49 deaths and $9.5 billion in damage. The most intense storm, and the one caused the most damage, was Hurricane Ivan. Throughout the countries it passed through, Ivan left 129 fatalities, the most significant tropical cyclone in terms of deaths was Hurricane Jeanne. In Haiti, torrential rainfall in the mountainous areas resulted in mudslides, Jeanne also struck Florida, inflicting extensive destruction. Overall, the storm caused at least $8.1 billion in damage and 3,042 deaths. Collectively, the storms of this caused at least 3,270 deaths and about $57.37 billion in damage, making it the costliest Atlantic hurricane season at the time. With six hurricanes reaching at least Category 3 intensity,2004 also had the most major hurricanes since 1996, however, that record would also be surpassed in 2005, with seven major hurricanes that year. In the spring of 2005, four names were retired, Charley, Frances, Ivan and this tied the then-record most names retired with 1955 and 1995, while five were retired in 2005. Governments National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, according to CSU, the average season between 1950 and 2000 had 9.6 tropical storms,5.9 hurricanes, and 2.3 major hurricanes, which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale. A normal season, as defined by NOAA, has 12.1 named storms, CSU released its first prediction on December 5,2003, which projected an above average season, with 13 named storms, seven hurricanes, and three major hurricanes. This forecast was adjusted upward slightly on April 2, Dr. Gray released a prediction on May 28 that was similar, with 14 named storms, eight reaching hurricane strength, and three becoming major hurricanes. After the season began, Dr. Gray announced he had revised his predictions slightly downwards on August 6 and his new forecast was thirteen named storms, seven hurricanes, and three reaching major hurricane intensity. On August 10, NOAA released a prediction as well, with a 90% probability of above-to-near normal activity. CSU issued another forecast on September 3, indicating sixteen tropical storms, eight hurricanes, the season ended up with sixteen tropical depressions, fifteen named storms, nine hurricanes, and six major hurricanes, which matched CSUs final prediction on October 1
14.
Legal system
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The contemporary legal systems of the world are generally based on one of four basic systems, civil law, common law, statutory law, religious law or combinations of these. However, the system of each country is shaped by its unique history. Common law and equity are systems of law whose sources are the decisions in cases by judges, alongside, every system will have a legislature that passes new laws and statutes. The relationships between statutes and judicial decisions can be complex, in some jurisdictions, such statutes may overrule judicial decisions or codify the topic covered by several contradictory or ambiguous decisions. Statutes were allowed to be made by the government, common law was later inherited by the Commonwealth of Nations, and almost every former colony of the British Empire has adopted it. The doctrine of stare decisis, also known as law or precedent by courts, is the major difference to codified civil law systems. In addition to countries, several others have adapted the common law system into a mixed system. For example, Nigeria operates largely on a common law system, in the European Union, the Court of Justice takes an approach mixing civil law with an attachment to the importance of case law. One of the most fundamental documents to shape common law is the English Magna Carta and it served as a kind of medieval bill of rights for the aristocracy and the judiciary who developed the law. The central source of law that is recognized as authoritative is codifications in a constitution or statute passed by legislature and this was an extensive reform of the law in the Byzantine Empire, bringing it together into codified documents. Civil law was partly influenced by religious laws such as Canon law. Civil law today, in theory, is interpreted rather than developed or made by judges, only legislative enactments are considered legally binding. As historically integrated in the Scandinavian cultural sphere, Finland and Iceland also inherited the system, chinese law, a mixture of civil law and socialist law in use in the Peoples Republic of China. The Italian approach has been imitated by other countries including the Netherlands, Argentina, Brazil, most of them have innovations introduced by the Italian legislation, including the unification of the civil and commercial codes. Germanistic to Napoleonic influence The Swiss civil code is considered mainly influenced by the German civil code, the main kinds of religious law are Sharia in Islam, Halakha in Judaism, and canon law in some Christian groups. In some cases these are intended purely as individual moral guidance, whereas in other cases they are intended, the latter was particularly common during the Middle Ages. The Halakha is followed by orthodox and conservative Jews in both ecclesiastical and civil relations. No country is governed by Halakha, but two Jewish people may decide, because of personal belief, to have a dispute heard by a Jewish court
15.
Depreciation
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Businesses depreciate long-term assets for both tax and accounting purposes. The former affects the balance sheet of a business or entity, generally the cost is allocated, as depreciation expense, among the periods in which the asset is expected to be used. This expense is recognized by businesses for financial reporting and tax purposes, methods of computing depreciation, and the periods over which assets are depreciated, may vary between asset types within the same business and may vary for tax purposes. These may be specified by law or accounting standards, which may vary by country, there are several standard methods of computing depreciation expense, including fixed percentage, straight line, and declining balance methods. Depreciation expense generally begins when the asset is placed in service, for example, a depreciation expense of 100 per year for five years may be recognized for an asset costing 500. In determining the profits from an activity, the receipts from the activity must be reduced by appropriate costs, one such cost is the cost of assets used but not immediately consumed in the activity. Depreciation is any method of allocating such net cost to those periods in which the organization is expected to benefit from use of the asset, the asset is referred to as a depreciable asset. Depreciation is technically a method of allocation, not valuation, even though it determines the value placed on the asset in the balance sheet, any business or income producing activity using tangible assets may incur costs related to those assets. If an asset is expected to produce a benefit in future periods, the business then records depreciation expense in its financial reporting as the current periods allocation of such costs. This is usually done in a rational and systematic manner, Cost generally is the amount paid for the asset, including all costs related to acquisition. In some countries or for some purposes, salvage value may be ignored, the rules of some countries specify lives and methods to be used for particular types of assets. However, in most countries the life is based on experience. When a depreciable asset is sold, the business recognizes gain or loss based on net basis of the asset and this net basis is cost less depreciation. Accounting rules also require that an impairment charge or expense be recognized if the value of assets declines unexpectedly, such charges are usually nonrecurring, and may relate to any type of asset. Many companies consider write-offs of some of their assets because some property, plant. Accountants reduce the assets carrying amount by its fair value, for example, if a company continues to incur losses because prices of a particular product or service are higher than the operating costs, companies consider write-offs of the particular asset. These write-offs are referred to as impairments, there are events and changes in circumstances might lead to impairment. Some examples are, Large amount of decrease in value of an asset
16.
Zoning
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Zoning describes the control by authority which designates legal areas in a municipality to permit and prohibit land uses. Zoning may specify a variety of outright and conditional uses of land and it may also indicate the size and dimensions of land area as well as the form and scale of buildings. These guidelines are set in order to guide urban growth and development, areas of land are divided by appropriate authorities into zones within which various uses are permitted. Thus, zoning is a technique of land-use planning as a tool of urban planning used by governments in most developed countries. The word is derived from the practice of designating mapped zones which regulate the use, form, design, legally, a zoning plan is usually enacted as a by-law with the respective procedures. Canada or Germany, zoning plans must comply with upper-tier planning, similar urban planning methods have dictated the use of various areas for particular purposes in many cities from ancient times. The primary purpose of zoning is to segregate uses that are thought to be incompatible, in practice, zoning also is used to prevent new development from interfering with existing uses and/or to preserve the character of a community. However, it has not always been a method for achieving this goal. In Australia, land under the control of the Commonwealth government is not subject to state planning controls, the United States and other federal countries are similar. Zoning and urban planning in France and Germany are regulated by national or federal codes, in the case of Germany this code includes contents of zoning plans as well as the legal procedure. In Germany, zoning includes an assessment with very specific greenspace and compensation regulations. The details of how individual planning systems incorporate zoning into their regulatory regimes varies though the intention is always similar, most zoning systems have a procedure for granting variances, usually because of some perceived hardship caused by the particular nature of the property in question. The origins of zoning districts can be traced back to antiquity, the ancient walled city was the predecessor for classifying and regulating land based on use. Outside the city walls were the functions, which were usually based on noise and smell. The space between the walls is where unsanitary and dangerous activities occurred such as butchering, waste disposal, within the wall were civic and religious places, and where the majority of people lived. Beyond the simple distinction between urban and non-urban land, most ancient cities further classified land type and use inside their walls. This was practiced in regions of the world – for example, in China during the Zhou Dynasty, in India during the Vedic Era. One legal form for enforcing this was the caste system and this meant that residential areas also functioned as places of labour, production and commerce
17.
Fixture (property law)
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A fixture, as a legal concept, means any physical property that is permanently attached to real property Property not affixed to real property is considered chattel property. Fixtures are treated as a part of property, particularly in the case of a security interest. A classic example of a fixture is a building, which—in the absence of language to the contrary in a contract of sale—is considered part of the land itself, generally speaking the test for deciding whether an article is a fixture or a chattel turns on the purpose of attachment. If the purpose was to enhance the land the article is likely a fixture, if the article was affixed to enhance the use of the chattel itself, the article is likely a chattel. Chattel property is converted into a fixture by the process of attachment, for example, if a piece of lumber sits in a lumber yard it is a chattel. If the same lumber is used to build a fence on the land it becomes a fixture to that real property, in many cases, the determination of whether property is a fixture or a chattel turns on the degree to which the property is attached to the land. For example, this arises in the case of a trailer home. In this case the characterization of the home as chattel or realty will depend on how permanently it is attached—such as whether the trailer has a foundation, the characterization of property as a fixture or as chattel is important. For example, in the province of Ontario, Canada, mortgages against real property must be registered in the county or regions land titles office, however, mortgages against chattels must be registered in the province-wide registry set up under the Personal Property Security Act. In the case of a home, whether it is a fixture or chattel has a bearing on whether a real property mortgage applies to the trailer. For example, most mortgages contain a clause that forbids the borrower from removing or demolishing fixtures on the property, which would lower the value of the security. However, there have been cases where lenders lend money based on the value of the home on the property. Similarly, a chattel mortgage granted to allow a person to purchase a home could be lost if the trailer is later attached to real property. The law regarding fixtures can also cause problems with property held under a lease. Fixtures put in place by the tenant belong to the if the tenant is evicted from the property. This is the even if the fixture could have legally been removed by the tenant while the lease was in good standing. For example, a chandelier hung by the tenant may become the property of the landlord, although this example is trivial, there have been cases where heavy equipment incorporated into a plant has been deemed to have become fixtures even though it was sold as chattels. Because the value of fixtures often exceeds the value of the land they are affixed to, lawsuits to determine whether a particular item is a chattel or a fixture are common
18.
Cleveland, Mississippi
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Cleveland is a city in Bolivar County, Mississippi. The population was 12,334 as of the 2010 United States Census 2010 census, Cleveland has a fairly large commercial economy, with numerous restaurants, stores, and services along U. S. Route 61. Cleveland is one of the two county seats of Bolivar County, which was named for the South American liberator Simon Bolivar, named after President Grover Cleveland, the town began formation in 1869 as people moved inland from the Mississippi River. The Louisville, New Orleans & Texas Railroad ran through the town, early records show the community was called Fontaine in 1884 and at some point Colemans Station. Moses W. Coleman built the first home on the bayou in the area, in 1885, it was officially named Sims after Rueben T. Sims, who owned part of the land on which the town stood. The village of Cleveland was chartered on March 25,1886, Sims, who was responsible for the name change to Cleveland. In 1967, Senators Robert F. Kennedy and Joseph S. Clark, the first field hearings were held in Jackson, Mississippi, and the following day Kennedy and Clark set out to visit pockets of poverty in the Mississippi Delta. They arrived in Cleveland, along with Marian Wright and Peter Edelman, there they observed barefoot, underfed African-American children in tattered clothing, with vacant expressions and distended bellies. Kennedy told Edelman that he thought he had seen the worst poverty in the nation in West Virginia, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 7.3 square miles, all land. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 12,334 people residing in the city. 49. 9% were African American,46. 8% White,0. 0% Native American,0. 9% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 1% from some other race and 0. 6% from two or more races. 1. 5% were Hispanic or Latino of any race, as of the census of 2000, there were 13,841 people,4,718 households, and 3,132 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,892.2 people per square mile, there were 4,988 housing units at an average density of 681.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 49. 90% White,48. 26% African American,0. 12% Native American,0. 99% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 25% from other races, and 0. 46% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 94% of the population,27. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 10. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the family size was 3.21. In the city, the population was out with 24. 2% under the age of 18,20. 2% from 18 to 24,24. 4% from 25 to 44,19. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 29 years, for every 100 females there were 83.4 males
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Mississippi
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Mississippi /ˌmɪsᵻˈsɪpi/ is a state in the southern region of the United States, with part of its southern border formed by the Gulf of Mexico. Its western border is formed by the Mississippi River, the state has a population of approximately 3 million. It is the 32nd most extensive and the 32nd most populous of the 50 United States, located in the center of the state, Jackson is the state capital and largest city, with a population of approximately 175,000 people. The state is heavily forested outside of the Mississippi Delta area, before the American Civil War, most development in the state was along riverfronts, where slaves worked on cotton plantations. After the war, the bottomlands to the interior were cleared, by the end of the 19th century, African Americans made up two-thirds of the Deltas property owners, but timber and railroad companies acquired much of the land after a financial crisis. Clearing altered the Deltas ecology, increasing the severity of flooding along the Mississippi, much land is now held by agribusinesses. The states catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm-raised catfish consumed in the United States, since the 1930s and the Great Migration, Mississippi has been majority white, albeit with the highest percentage of black residents of any U. S. state. From the early 19th century to the 1930s, its residents were mostly black, whites retained political power through Jim Crow laws. In 2010, 37% of Mississippians were African Americans, the highest percentage of African Americans in any U. S. state, since gaining enforcement of their voting franchise in the late 1960s, most African Americans support Democratic candidates in local, state and national elections. Conservative whites have shifted to the Republican Party, African Americans are a majority in many counties of the Mississippi-Yazoo Delta, an area of historic settlement during the plantation era. Since 2011 Mississippi has been ranked as the most religious state in the country, the states name is derived from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary. Settlers named it after the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi, in addition to its namesake, major rivers in Mississippi include the Big Black River, the Pearl River, the Yazoo River, the Pascagoula River, and the Tombigbee River. Major lakes include Ross Barnett Reservoir, Arkabutla Lake, Sardis Lake, Mississippi is entirely composed of lowlands, the highest point being Woodall Mountain, in the foothills of the Cumberland Mountains,807 feet above sea level. The lowest point is sea level at the Gulf coast, the states mean elevation is 300 feet above sea level. Most of Mississippi is part of the East Gulf Coastal Plain, the coastal plain is generally composed of low hills, such as the Pine Hills in the south and the North Central Hills. The Pontotoc Ridge and the Fall Line Hills in the northeast have somewhat higher elevations, yellow-brown loess soil is found in the western parts of the state. The northeast is a region of black earth that extends into the Alabama Black Belt. The coastline includes large bays at Bay St. Louis, Biloxi, the northwest remainder of the state consists of the Mississippi Delta, a section of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain
20.
U.S. Route 220 in North Carolina
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In the U. S. state of North Carolina, U. S. Route 220 is a north–south highway that connects the cities of Rockingham, Asheboro and Greensboro, in the central Piedmont. US220 in North Carolina feature a few dedicated or memorialized stretches of freeway, governor John Motley Morehead Expressway – official North Carolina name of US220 from the south Greensboro city limits to Interstate 40. J. Elsie Webb Thoroughfare – official North Carolina name of US220 from US1, in Rockingham, martha McGee Bell Bridges – official North Carolina name of US 220s twin bridges over the Deep River, near Randleman. Rush C. Collins Bridge – official North Carolina name of US 220s bridge over the Dan River, thomas A. Burton Highway – official North Carolina name of US220 from NC68 to the Virginia state line. By 1939, US220 was realigned west of Seagrove, leaving Old US Highway 220, by 1963, US220 bypassed Madison and Mayodan, the old route through the towns became US220 Business. Between 1964-1966, Stoneville was bypassed to its west, between 1967-1968, US220 we realigned west, onto new freeway, of Asheboro, leaving US220 Business. In the 1970s, US220 was continuously moved onto new freeway, bypassing Randleman, also, at some point during the decade, US220 was extended south to its current terminus with US1, leaving behind Ellerbe Road in Rockingham. In 1980, US220 was moved onto new freeway between Steeds and Emery, its old alignment became US220 Alternate, between 1981-1983, US220 moved onto new freeway from Level Cross to Interstate 85, leaving an unnumbered Randleman Road. In 1995, US220 was moved onto new freeway between Interstate 85 to Interstate 40, on January 7,2008, US220 was moved onto new freeway between Emery to south of Ellerbe, leaving its old alignment another extension of US220 Alternate. U. S. Route 411 was established in 1932 as the second national US411, in Asheboro, it went along Fayetteville Street, then continued north on Randleman Road and on Old Randleman Road into Greensboro. Going northwest, it continued to Madison, where it ended at US311, in 1935, the entire route was renumbered as part of US220. North Carolina Highway 897 was a state highway that traversed from NC 60/NC65, in Winston-Salem. Going north on Liberty Street, from 4th Street, in Winston-Salem, it went at a northeasterly route along Old Walkertown Road, continuing northeasterly, it connects Madison, Mayodan, Stoneville and Price, North Carolina before reaching the Virginia state line. In 1925, it was renumbered as part of NC77, the Western Rockingham Bypass, from the US 74/US74 Bus. interchange to US220 Alt near Ellerbe. Currently all right-of-way purchases have been completed along the proposed route, the remaining sections of the new bypass is currently scheduled to begin construction in late 2017, however, it is subject to reprioritiation. Widen US220 to multi-lanes, from Horse Pen Creek Road, in Greensboro, to Winfree Road, funded, with construction expected to be completed December,2016. New freeway, for Interstate 73, from NC68, near PTI Airport, to NC68, US220 is included, north of Summerfield, with this project. Currently all right-of-way purchases have been completed along the proposed route, with construction scheduled to begin April,2014
21.
Trailer park
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A trailer park is a semi-permanent or permanent area for mobile homes or travel trailers. Advantages include low cost compared to other housing, and quick and easy moving to a new area and it is also seen in the Canadian mockumentary Trailer Park Boys. However, most modern manufactured homes are built to high winds, using hurricane straps. Though trailer parks appear throughout the United States, they are associated with the Deep South. More recently referred to in the U. S. as mobile home communities or manufactured housing sites, retirement communities exist in many locales that permit mobile home parks as over-50 parks. Homeowners must be over the age of 50 and persons under the age of 18 are rarely permitted to live there and these can be gated communities with amenities such as swimming pools, clubhouses and on-site maintenance. Homes are often installed on foundations. However, in certain circumstances residents may not own the land their homes occupy, in Europe, particularly in Germany and Spain, where trailer parks are less common as normal accommodation, disputed trailer parks exist that squat on land near urban centers. Sometimes the inhabitants cultivate a garden. Some cities allow a long-time camping lot to be the regular address registered with the authorities, both types of trailers usually enjoy good amenities and are surrounded by highly manicured gardens. In Australia, there is no differentiation between a trailer park and an RV park. The term caravan park is used to refer to both, in New Zealand, the suburb of Favona in Auckland is an area where trailer parks are concentrated. RV park Shanty town Trailer Park Boys Trailer trash, a term for white people who live in trailer parks Why do so many Americans live in mobile homes. By the BBC News Magazine Park Prejudice by All Parks Alliance for Change
22.
Ames, Iowa
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Ames is a city located in the central part of the U. S. state of Iowa in Story County. Lying approximately 30 miles north of Des Moines, it had a 2010 population of 58,965, while Ames is the largest city in Story County, the county seat is in the nearby city of Nevada 8 miles east of Ames. Ames is the home of Iowa State University of Science and Technology, a research institution with leading Agriculture, Design, Engineering. ISU is the nations first designated land-grant university, and the birthplace of the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, Ames is also the home of the USDAs Agricultural Research Services National Animal Disease Center. NADC is the largest federal animal disease center in the U. S. conducting research aimed at solving animal health and food safety problems faced by livestock producers, Ames has the headquarters for the Iowa Department of Transportation. In 2010, Ames was ranked ninth on CNNMoney. com Best Places to Live list, the city was founded in 1864 as a station stop on the Cedar Rapids and Missouri Railroad and was named after 19th century U. S. Congressman Oakes Ames of Massachusetts, who was influential in the building of the transcontinental railroad, Ames was founded by local resident Cynthia Olive Duff and railroad magnate John Insley Blair, near a location that was deemed favorable for a railroad crossing of the Skunk River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 24.27 square miles. Ames is located on Interstate 35, U. S. Route 30 &69, two small streams run through the town, the South Skunk River and Squaw Creek. Campustown is the neighborhood south of Iowa State University Central Campus bordered by Lincoln Way on the north. Campustown is a high-density mixed-use neighborhood that is home to many student apartments, nightlife venues, restaurants, Ames has a humid continental climate. On average, the warmest month is July and the coldest is January, the highest recorded temperature was 102 °F in 1988 and the lowest was −28 °F in 1996. As of the census of 2010, there were 58,965 people,22,759 households, the population density was 2,435.6 inhabitants per square mile. There were 23,876 housing units at a density of 986.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 84. 5% White,3. 4% African American,0. 2% Native American,8. 8% Asian,1. 1% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 3. 4% of the population. 30. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.25 and the average family size was 2.82. The median age in the city was 23.8 years. 13. 4% of residents were under the age of 18,40. 5% were between the ages of 18 and 24,22. 9% were from 25 to 44, 15% were from 45 to 64, and 8. 1% were 65 years of age or older
23.
Iowa
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Iowa is a U. S. state in the Midwestern United States, bordered by the Mississippi River on the east and the Missouri River and the Big Sioux River on the west. Surrounding states include Wisconsin and Illinois to the east, Missouri to the south, Nebraska and South Dakota to the west, in colonial times, Iowa was a part of French Louisiana and Spanish Louisiana, its state flag is patterned after the flag of France. After the Louisiana Purchase, people laid the foundation for an economy in the heart of the Corn Belt. Iowa is the 26th most extensive in area and the 30th most populous of the 50 United States. Its capital and largest city by population is Des Moines, Iowa has been listed as one of the safest states in which to live. Its nickname is the Hawkeye State, Iowa derives its name from the Ioway people, one of the many Native American tribes that occupied the state at the time of European exploration. Iowa is bordered by the Mississippi River on the east, the Missouri River and the Big Sioux River on the west, Iowa is the only state whose east and west borders are formed entirely by rivers. Iowa has 99 counties, but 100 county seats because Lee County has two, the state capital, Des Moines, is in Polk County. Iowas bedrock geology generally increases in age from west to east, in northwest Iowa, Cretaceous bedrock can be 74 million years old, in eastern Iowa Cambrian bedrock dates to c.500 million years ago. Iowa is generally not flat, most of the consists of rolling hills. Iowa can be divided into eight landforms based on glaciation, soils, topography, Loess hills lie along the western border of the state, some of which are several hundred feet thick. Northeast Iowa along the Mississippi River is part of the Driftless Zone, consisting of steep hills, several natural lakes exist, most notably Spirit Lake, West Okoboji Lake, and East Okoboji Lake in northwest Iowa. To the east lies Clear Lake, man-made lakes include Lake Odessa, Saylorville Lake, Lake Red Rock, Coralville Lake, Lake MacBride, and Rathbun Lake. The states northwest area has remnants of the once common wetlands. Iowas natural vegetation is tallgrass prairie and savanna in areas, with dense forest and wetlands in flood plains and protected river valleys. Most of Iowa is used for agriculture, crops cover 60% of the state, grasslands cover 30%, as of 2005 Iowa ranked 49th of U. S. states in public land holdings. Endangered or threatened plants include western prairie fringed orchid, eastern prairie fringed orchid, Meads milkweed, prairie bush clover, the explosion in the number of high-density livestock facilities in Iowa has led to increased rural water contamination and a decline in air quality. Iowa has a continental climate throughout the state
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Building code
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A building code is a set of rules that specify the standards for constructed objects such as buildings and nonbuilding structures. Buildings must conform to the code to obtain planning permission, usually from a local council, the main purpose of building codes is to protect public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the construction and occupancy of buildings and structures. The building code becomes law of a jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate governmental or private authority. Codes regulating the design and construction of structures where adopted into law, examples of building codes began in ancient times. In the USA the main codes are the International Commercial or Residential Code, electrical codes and plumbing, fifty states and the District of Columbia have adopted the I-Codes at the state or jurisdictional level. In Canada, national model codes are published by the National Research Council of Canada, the practice of developing, approving, and enforcing building codes varies considerably among nations. In some countries building codes are developed by the government agencies or quasi-governmental standards organizations, such codes are known as the national building codes. In other countries, where the power of regulating construction and fire safety is vested in local authorities, model building codes have no legal status unless adopted or adapted by an authority having jurisdiction. The developers of model codes urge public authorities to reference model codes in their laws, ordinances, regulations, when referenced in any of these legal instruments, a particular model code becomes law. This practice is known as adoption by reference, there are instances when some local jurisdictions choose to develop their own building codes. At some point in all major cities in the United States had their own building codes. However, due to increasing complexity and cost of developing building regulations. For example, in 2008 New York City abandoned its proprietary 1968 New York City Building Code in favor of a version of the International Building Code. The City of Chicago remains the only municipality in America that continues to use a building code the city developed on its own as part of the Municipal Code of Chicago, in Europe, the Eurocode is a pan-European building code that has superseded the older national building codes. Each country now has National Annexes to localize the contents of the Eurocode, similarly, in India, each municipality and urban development authority has its own building code, which is mandatory for all construction within their jurisdiction. All these local building codes are variants of a National Building Code, Building codes have a long history. The earliest known written building code is included in the Code of Hammurabi, the book of Deuteronomy in the Hebrew Bible stipulated that parapets must be constructed on all houses to prevent people from falling off. The Laws of the Indies were passed in the 1680s by the Spanish Crown to regulate the urban planning for colonies throughout Spains worldwide imperial possessions, the first systematic national building standard was established with the London Building Act of 1844
25.
Cottage
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A cottage is, typically, a small house. It may carry the connotation of being an old or old-fashioned building, in modern usage, a cottage is usually a modest, often cosy dwelling, typically in a rural or semi-rural location. The word comes from the architecture of England, where it referred to a house with ground floor living space. In British English the term now denotes a small dwelling of traditional build, Cottages may be detached houses, or terraced, such as those built to house workers in mining villages. The tied accommodation provided to workers was usually a cottage. Peasant farmers were known as cotters. The holiday cottage exists in many cultures under different names, in American English, cottage is one term for such holiday homes, although they may also be called a cabin, chalet, or even camp. In certain countries the term cottage has local synonyms, In Finnish mökki, in Estonian suvila, in Swedish stage, in Norwegian hytte, in Slovak chalupa, in Russian дача. There are cottage-style dwellings in American cities that were primarily for the purpose of housing slaves In places such as Canada. Originally in the Middle Ages, cottages housed agricultural workers and their friends, the term cottage denoted the dwelling of a cotter. Thus, cottages were smaller peasant units, in that early period, a documentary reference to a cottage would most often mean, not a small stand-alone dwelling as today, but a complete farmhouse and yard. Thus, in the Middle Ages, the word cottage denoted not just a dwelling, but included at least a dwelling and a barn, as well as, usually, a fenced yard or piece of land enclosed by a gate. The word is probably a blend of Old English cot, cote hut and Old French cot hut, cottage, from Old Norse kot hut, examples of this may be found in 15th century manor court rolls. The house of the cottage bore the Latin name, domus, later on, cottage might also have denoted a smallholding comprising houses, outbuildings, and supporting farmland or woods. A cottage, in sense, would typically include just a few acres of tilled land. Examples of this included the Welsh Tŷ unnos or house in a night. Much later, from around the 18th century onwards, the development of industry led to the development of weavers cottages, in England and Wales the legal definition of a cottage is a small house or habitation without land. However, originally under an Elizabethan statute, the cottage had to be built with at least 4 acres of land, traditionally the owner of the cottage and small holding would be known as a cottager
26.
Beer, Devon
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Beer is a village and civil parish in the East Devon district of Devon, England. The village faces Lyme Bay and is a little over one mile west of the town of Seaton, at the 2011 Census, the parish had a population of 1,317. The village is situated on the 95-mile long Jurassic Coast, Englands first natural World Heritage Site and its picturesque cliffs, including Beer Head, form part of the South West Coast Path. Beer is mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, at time it was located within Colyton hundred and had 28 households. Its name is not derived from the drink, but from the Old English word bearu, meaning grove and it is a pretty coastal village that grew up around a smugglers cove and caves which were once used to store contraband goods. These are now part of the attraction of the village, many of the buildings are faced with flint, a hard glassy stone found in the local chalk rock. Historically, the sources of income for the village include fishing. Boats are winched up the beach as there is no harbour, nowadays small electrically driven winches using steel cables or tractors are located on the beach to haul boats in. Higher up is an old manual capstan operated by up to 20 men, a brook winds its way in an open conduit alongside the main road down to the sea. A WW2 pillbox is located close to the side of the beach exit. Nowadays, the sources of income are tourism and fishing. Beer is also the home of the Pecorama, which includes pleasure gardens, Beer has a steep pebble beach. This makes walking on the beach difficult, long rubber mats — actually recycled conveyor belts — are laid down to assist walkers. Beer is home to a complex, the Beer Quarry Caves. This stone has been prized since Roman times, because of its workability for carving, bovey House, an Elizabethan manor house, is a mile inland. Starre House, the oldest house in Beer is built using the local Beer stone that has been quarried since Roman times, bacteria taken from cliffs at Beer on the south coast were launched to the International Space Station in 2008. The Beer microbes were placed on the European Space Agencys Technology Exposure Facility and were sent up still sitting on, after 553-days they found that many were still alive. The survivors are now reproducing in a laboratory and this was part of an experiment to study the survival of microbes in extreme conditions
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Devon
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Devon, also known as Devonshire, which was formerly its common and official name, is a county of England, reaching from the Bristol Channel in the north to the English Channel in the south. It is part of South West England, bounded by Cornwall to the west, Somerset to the northeast, combined as a ceremonial county, Devons area is 6,707 km2 and its population is about 1.1 million. Devon derives its name from Dumnonia, which, during the British Iron Age, Roman Britain, the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain resulted in the partial assimilation of Dumnonia into the Kingdom of Wessex during the eighth and ninth centuries. The western boundary with Cornwall was set at the River Tamar by King Æthelstan in 936, Devon was constituted as a shire of the Kingdom of England thereafter. The north and south coasts of Devon each have both cliffs and sandy shores, and the bays contain seaside resorts, fishing towns. The inland terrain is rural, generally hilly, and has a low density in comparison to many other parts of England. Dartmoor is the largest open space in southern England at 954 km2, to the north of Dartmoor are the Culm Measures and Exmoor. In the valleys and lowlands of south and east Devon the soil is fertile, drained by rivers including the Exe, the Culm, the Teign, the Dart. As well as agriculture, much of the economy of Devon is linked with tourism, in the Brittonic, Devon is known as Welsh, Dyfnaint, Breton, Devnent and Cornish, Dewnens, each meaning deep valleys. One erroneous theory is that the suffix is due to a mistake in the making of the original letters patent for the Duke of Devonshire. However, there are references to Defenascire in Anglo-Saxon texts from before 1000 AD, the term Devonshire may have originated around the 8th century, when it changed from Dumnonia to Defenascir. Kents Cavern in Torquay had produced human remains from 30–40,000 years ago, Dartmoor is thought to have been occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherer peoples from about 6000 BC. The Romans held the area under occupation for around 350 years. Devon became a frontier between Brittonic and Anglo-Saxon Wessex, and it was absorbed into Wessex by the mid 9th century. This suggests the Anglo-Saxon migration into Devon was limited rather than a movement of people. The border with Cornwall was set by King Æthelstan on the east bank of the River Tamar in 936 AD, the arrival of William of Orange to launch the Glorious Revolution of 1688 took place at Brixham. Devon has produced tin, copper and other metals from ancient times, Devons tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devons Stannary Parliament, which dates back to the 12th century. The last recorded sitting was in 1748, agriculture has been an important industry in Devon since the 19th century
28.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
29.
Modern convenience
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Modern conveniences are labor-saving devices, services, and substances that make a task easier or more efficient to perform than a traditional method. Because of the use of the term, and the differences in lifestyles around the world. For instance, an American definition of convenience is likely different from that of an individual living in a developing country. Most of the time, the modern conveniences is used to express personal lifestyle. Household In 1889, architect and author Louis, H. If, on the other hand, a family moved into a larger home the increase area and furnishings would be much more difficult to manage without labor-saving devices. Homes built at the beginning of the 21st century have 2-3 times more rooms than homes at the turn of the 20th century, in terms of square footage, new homes built in 2000 are 50% larger than a home built in the 1960s. Electricity and innovative products including stereo equipment, color television, answering machine. Religious groups that shun modern conveniences include Anabaptists and Judaism, avoiding worldly behaviors that pull their attention and intentions away from their religious community. For Orthodox and Conservative Jews, Shabbat is the day of the Jewish week and is a day of rest in Judaism. Shabbat is observed from a few minutes before sunset on Friday evening until a few minutes after the appearance of three stars in the sky on Saturday night. On Shabbat, Jews recall the Biblical Creation account in Genesis, describing God creating the Heavens and it also recalls the giving of the Torah at Mount Sinai, when God commanded the Israelite nation to observe the seventh day and keep it holy. Shabbat is considered a day, when a Jew is freed from the regular labors of everyday life, can contemplate the spiritual aspects of life. There are many ramifications of the development of modern conveniences for individuals, the many labor-saving devices have kept pace with growing houses and furnishings and allow for greater leisure. There are also negative effects, some of which are also as the result of advancements in chemical technology in the food that we eat or products that we use. In these cases there are conflicting opinions about the extent to which some of the products are harmful. Here are a few examples of positive and negative effects of modern conveniences, some of the major improvements over the past century has been in improved health care. For example, modern medicine has made leaps in preventing infectious diseases in part due to improved water and this is obvious in the marked rises in life expectancy. Some of the most dramatic technological benefits are seen in underdeveloped countries, for instance, cabling for landline telephone service is expensive and requires a lot of time to complete, especially in the most remote areas
30.
Mitzpe Hila
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Mitzpe Hila or simply Hila is a community settlement in northern Israel. Located in the western Galilee hills near the Lebanese border, it falls under the jurisdiction of the Maale Yosef Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 575. The village was established in 1980 as part of the Lookouts in the Galilee plan and it was originally named Mitzpe Ziv after Har Ziv, the mountain on which it was built. It was later renamed Mitzpe Hila, katyusha and Grad rockets fired by Hezbollah in the 1990s landed in the village, as did more rockets during the 2006 Lebanon War against Hezbollah. Otherwise it is a retreat for internal tourism, Israelis seeking bed
31.
Caravan (Israel)
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Caravan is an Israeli term referring to a portable building used as a living space, school classroom, synagogue, or community center. Caravanim are constructed of aluminum or other metal siding with a metal roof. They are not insulated but can be outfitted with heating and air-conditioning units, water lines, recessed lighting, the establishment of caravanim on disputed land by Jewish activists is considered the first step toward the establishment of an Israeli settlement. In its initial stage of a few caravanim, the establishment is called an outpost, as more settlers move in, the establishment is upgraded to a settlement. Alternately, caravanim have been established on disputed land by Israeli, caravanim are popularly employed by schools — especially in Haredi neighborhoods of Israel — that are unable to finance a permanent structure. The report criticized these structures for lack of ventilation, lack of bomb shelters, though the construction of some caravan schools violate local planning and building laws, the government does not dismantle them. Many start-up religious congregations establish their synagogues in caravanim rather than the more expensive permanent concrete-and-stone structures, synagogues housed in caravanim are common sights at Israel army bases. Caravanim are sometimes used as houses in new or extensions of existing localities within Israel. Most often, caravanim are employed by both settlers and the government as housing in Israeli settlement areas in the territories occupied since 1967, residents usually live in caravanim until permanent homes are built. The caravan may also be a more permanent low-rent option, particularly for young couples, the overnight installment of caravanim for housing is a popular means of establishing a new, unauthorized settler outpost on disputed land. A caravilla is composed of prefabricated sections that are joined on a foundation. Caravillas, which vary in size from about 650 to 1,000 square feet, are akin to the Israeli concept of a villa and they were instrumental in pacifying objections to the disengagement plan. The biggest of these camps was established in Nitzan, north of Ashkelon with 250 caravillas. Mobile homes United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General, Israeli settlements in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, september 14,2010 Israeli Government Summary of the Opinion Concerning Unauthorized Outposts. Talya Sason, March 8,2005 Peace Now, Dror Etkes, Lara Friedman, west Bank Outposts in 2006 - Same Song, Different Tune. January 2006 Peace Now Settlement Watch, Bypassing the Settlement Freeze, semiannual Report on Settlement Construction, January-June 2009. August 2009 Peace Now, Outpost List
32.
Israeli settlement
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Such settlements within Palestinian territories currently exist in Area C of the West Bank and in East Jerusalem, and within Syrian territory in the Golan Heights. Israel dismantled 18 settlements in the Sinai Peninsula in 1982, while in 2005 all 21 settlements in the Gaza Strip were dismantled, but only four in the West Bank. In the West Bank, however, Israel continues to expand its remaining settlements as well as settling new areas, the International Court of Justice also says these purportedly annexed settlements are illegal in a 2004 advisory opinion. Similar criticism was advanced by the EU and the US, Israel disputes the position of the international community and the legal arguments that were used to declare the settlements illegal. Most of the spending goes to the security of the Israeli citizens living there, on 30 June 2014, according to the Yesha Council,382,031 Israeli citizens lived in the 121 officially recognised Israeli settlements in the West Bank, almost exclusively Jewish citizens of Israel. In January 2015 the Israeli Interior Ministry gave figures of 389,250 Israeli citizens living in the West Bank, settlements range in character from farming communities and frontier villages to urban suburbs and neighborhoods. The four largest settlements, Modiin Illit, Maale Adumim, Beitar Illit, Ariel has 18,000 residents, while the rest have around 37,000 to 55,500 each. The 1967 Six-Day War left Israel in control of the entire West Bank of the Jordan River, the entire Sinai Peninsula up to the Suez Canal, and the Gaza strip. Most of the Golan Heights, since 1981, administered under the Golan Heights Law, as early as 1967, Israeli settlement policy was started by the Labor government of Levi Eshkol. The basis for Israeli settlement in the West Bank became the Allon Plan and it implied Israeli annexation of major parts of the Israeli-occupied territories, especially East Jerusalem, Gush Etzion and the Jordan Valley. The settlement policy of the government of Yitzhak Rabin, was derived from the Allon Plan. The first settlement was Kfar Etzion, in the southern West Bank, many settlements began as Nahal settlements. They were established as military outposts and later expanded and populated with civilian inhabitants, Ariel Sharon declared in the same year that there was a plan to settle 2 million Jews in the West Bank by 2000. Since 1967, government-funded settlement projects in the West Bank are implemented by the Settlement Division of the World Zionist Organization, though formally a non-governmental organization, it is funded by the Israeli government and leases lands from the Civil Administration to settle in the West Bank. It is authorized to create settlements in the West Bank on lands licensed to it by the Civil Administration, traditionally, the Settlement Division has been under the responsibility of the Agriculture Ministry. Since the Olso Accords, it was housed within the Prime Ministers Office. In 2007, it was moved back to the Agriculture Ministry, in 2009, the Netanyahu Government decided to subject all settlement activities to additional approval of the Prime Minister and the Defense Minister. In 2011, Netanyahu sought to move the Settlement Division again under the control of PMO
33.
Hebrew language
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Hebrew is a language native to Israel, spoken by over 9 million people worldwide, of whom over 5 million are in Israel. Historically, it is regarded as the language of the Israelites and their ancestors, the earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date from the 10th century BCE. Hebrew belongs to the West Semitic branch of the Afroasiatic language family, Hebrew is the only living Canaanite language left, and the only truly successful example of a revived dead language. Hebrew had ceased to be a spoken language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining since the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aramaic and to a lesser extent Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among elites and it survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy, rabbinic literature, intra-Jewish commerce, and poetry. Then, in the 19th century, it was revived as a spoken and literary language, and, according to Ethnologue, had become, as of 1998, the language of 5 million people worldwide. After Israel, the United States has the second largest Hebrew-speaking population, with 220,000 fluent speakers, Modern Hebrew is one of the two official languages of the State of Israel, while premodern Hebrew is used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world today. Ancient Hebrew is also the tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Arabic is their vernacular. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Hakodesh, the modern word Hebrew is derived from the word Ivri, one of several names for the Israelite people. It is traditionally understood to be a based on the name of Abrahams ancestor, Eber. This name is based upon the root ʕ-b-r meaning to cross over. Interpretations of the term ʕibrim link it to this verb, cross over, in the Bible, the Hebrew language is called Yәhudit because Judah was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation. In Isaiah 19,18 it is called the Language of Canaan, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. In turn, the Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages, according to Avraham ben-Yosef, Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah during about 1200 to 586 BCE. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa which he claimed may be the earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating around 3000 years ago. The Gezer calendar also dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks, the Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it
34.
Portmanteau
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In linguistics, a portmanteau is defined as a single morph that represents two or more morphemes. A portmanteau also differs from a compound, which not involve the truncation of parts of the stems of the blended words. For instance, starfish is a compound, not a portmanteau, of star and fish, whereas a hypothetical portmanteau of star and fish might be stish. Humpty Dumpty explains the practice of combining words in various ways by telling Alice, for instance, take the two words fuming and furious. Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, in then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. The etymology of the word is the French porte-manteau, from porter, to carry, in modern French, a porte-manteau is a clothes valet, a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like. It has also used especially in Europe as a formal description for hat racks from the French words porter. An occasional synonym for portmanteau word is frankenword, an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending Frankenstein, many neologisms are examples of blends, but many blends have become part of the lexicon. In Punch in 1896, the word brunch was introduced as a portmanteau word, in 1964, the newly independent African republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar chose the portmanteau word Tanzania as its name. Similarly Eurasia is a portmanteau of Europe and Asia, a scientific example is a liger, which is a cross between a male lion and a female tiger. Jeoportmanteau. is a category on the American television quiz show Jeopardy. The categorys name is itself a portmanteau of the words Jeopardy, responses in the category are portmanteaus constructed by fitting two words together. The term gerrymander has itself contributed to portmanteau terms bjelkemander and playmander, oxbridge is a common portmanteau for the UKs two oldest universities, those of Oxford and Cambridge. Many portmanteau words receive some use but do not appear in all dictionaries, for example, a spork is an eating utensil that is a combination of a spoon and a fork, and a skort is an item of clothing that is part skirt, part shorts. On the other hand, turducken, a made by inserting a chicken into a duck. Similarly, the word refudiate was first used by Sarah Palin when she misspoke, though initially a gaffe, the word was recognized as the New Oxford American Dictionarys Word of the Year in 2010. The business lexicon is replete with newly coined portmanteau words like permalance, advertainment, advertorial, infotainment, a company name may also be portmanteau as well as a product name. By contrast, the public, including the media, use portmanteaux to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to. giv people an essence of who they are within the same name and this is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life supercouples
35.
Villa
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A villa was originally an ancient Roman upper-class country house. Since its origins in the Roman villa, the idea and function of a villa have evolved considerably, after the fall of the Roman Republic, villas became small farming compounds, which were increasingly fortified in Late Antiquity, sometimes transferred to the Church for reuse as a monastery. Then they gradually re-evolved through the Middle Ages into elegant upper-class country homes, in modern parlance, villa can refer to various types and sizes of residences, ranging from the suburban semi-detached double villa to residences in the wildland–urban interface. In ancient Roman architecture a villa was originally a house built for the élite. The Roman villae rusticae at the heart of latifundia were the earliest versions of what later, not included as villae were the domus, a city house for the élite and privileged classes, and insulae, blocks of apartment buildings for the rest of the population. In Satyricon, Petronius described the range of Roman dwellings. Another type of villae is the villa marittima, a seaside villa, a concentration of Imperial villas existed on the Gulf of Naples, on the Isle of Capri, at Monte Circeo and at Antium. Examples include the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, and the Villa of the Mysteries, wealthy Romans also escaped the summer heat in the hills round Rome, especially around Tibur (Tivoand Frascati, such as at Hadrians Villa. Cicero allegedly possessed no fewer than seven villas, the oldest of which was near Arpinum, pliny the Younger had three or four, of which the example near Laurentium is the best known from his descriptions. Roman writers refer with satisfaction to the self-sufficiency of their latifundium villas, archeologists have meticulously examined numerous Roman villas in England. The grand villa at Woodchester preserved its mosaic floors when the Anglo-Saxon parish church was built upon its site, grave-diggers preparing for burials in the churchyard as late as the 18th century had to punch through the intact mosaic floors. The even more palatial villa rustica at Fishbourne near Winchester was built as an open rectangle. Villae rusticae are essential in the Empires economy, two kinds of villa-plan in Roman Britain may be characteristic of Roman villas in general. The more usual plan extended wings of all opening onto a linking portico. The other kind featured a central hall like a basilica. The villa buildings were often independent structures linked by their enclosed courtyards, timber-framed construction, carefully fitted with mortises and tenons and dowelled together, set on stone footings, were the rule, replaced by stone buildings for the important ceremonial rooms. Traces of window glass have been found, as well as ironwork window grilles, with the decline and collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries, the villas were more and more isolated and came to be protected by walls. In England the villas were abandoned, looted, and burned by Anglo-Saxon invaders in the fifth century, in regions on the Continent, aristocrats and territorial magnates donated large working villas and overgrown abandoned ones to individual monks, these might become the nuclei of monasteries
36.
Semi-trailer truck
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A semi-trailer truck, more commonly called a semi truck, is the combination of a tractor unit and one or more semi-trailers to carry freight. A semi-trailer attaches to the tractor with a fifth wheel hitch, the result is that both tractor and semi-trailer will have a distinctly different design than a rigid truck and trailer. The tractor unit typically has two or three axles, those built for hauling heavy-duty commercial-construction machinery may have as many as five, the most common tractor-cab layout has a forward engine, one steering axle, and two drive axles. The fifth-wheel trailer coupling on most tractor trucks is movable fore and aft, ubiquitous in Europe, but less common in North America since the 1990s, is the cabover engine configuration, where the driver sits next to, or over the engine. With changes in the US to the length of the combined vehicle. Cabovers were difficult to service, as the cab could not be lifted on its hinges to a full 90-degree forward tilt, Trucks average from 4 to 8 miles per US gallon, with fuel economy standards requiring better than 7 miles per US gallon efficiency by 2014. The cargo trailer usually has tandem axles at the rear, each of which has wheels, or eight tires on the trailer. In the US it is common to refer to the number of hubs, rather than the number of tires. The combination of eight tires on the trailer and ten tires on the tractor is what led to the moniker eighteen wheeler, many trailers are equipped with movable tandem axles to allow adjusting the weight distribution. To connect the second of a set of doubles to the first trailer, and to support the front half of the second trailer and this has one or two axles, a fifth-wheel coupling for the rear trailer, and a tongue with a ring-hitch coupling for the forward trailer. Individual states may further allow longer vehicles, known as longer combination vehicles, Long Combination Vehicle types include, Doubles, Two 28.5 ft trailers. Turnpike Doubles, Two 48 ft trailers, Rocky Mountain Doubles, One 40 to 53 ft trailer and one 28.5 ft trailer. In Canada, a Turnpike Double is two 53 ft trailers, and a Rocky Mountain Double is a 50 ft trailer with a 24 ft pup, future Long Combination Vehicles under consideration and study for the U. S. MAP-21 transportation bill are container doubles. The US federal government, which regulates the Interstate Highway System, does not set maximum length requirements. Tractors can pull two or three if the combination is legal in that state. Weight maximums are 20,000 lb on an axle,34,000 lb on a tandem. There is a width of 8.5 ft and no maximum height. Roads other than the Interstates are regulated by the individual states, maximum weight varies between 80,000 lb to 171,000 lb, depending on the combination
37.
Toter
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A Toter, or Mobile Home Toter is a tractor unit specifically designed for the modular and manufactured housing industries. Some toters are highly adapted for purposes of delivering or removing mobile homes on smaller home sites, others look and operate similar to over-the-road semi-trailer tractors with longer wheelbases and sleeper cabs. The toter is often confused or mistaken for a semi-trailer tractor, the key difference between the two is in the method of coupling. Toters are equipped with a 2-5/16 diameter ball that couples with the tow hitch on the tongue of a mobile or manufactured home or the removable transport frame of a modular home, semi-trailer tractors have fifth wheel couplings designed to couple to a semi-trailer. Some Toters are hybrids, with both a wheel and a ball hitch. The ball and hitch is a more fitting design for the demands of the housing industry considering that the homes must still be transported down public roads with overhead cables and overpasses. Toters are required to have extending mirrors, Home sections widths range from eight to eighteen feet. Toters have mirrors that can extend to enable the operator to see beyond the unit and this increases safety for public road situations. The mirrors also enable the operator to navigate narrow roads and obstacles such as signs, mailboxes, trees
38.
Crane (machine)
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A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places, the device uses one or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond the normal capability of a human. The first known construction cranes were invented by the Ancient Greeks and were powered by men or beasts of burden and these cranes were used for the construction of tall buildings. Larger cranes were later developed, employing the use of human treadwheels, in the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction – some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron, iron, for many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals, although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural power. The first mechanical power was provided by steam engines, the earliest steam crane being introduced in the 18th or 19th century, Cranes exist in an enormous variety of forms – each tailored to a specific use. Sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes, mini-cranes are also used for constructing high buildings, in order to facilitate constructions by reaching tight spaces. Finally, we can find larger floating cranes, generally used to oil rigs. Some lifting machines do not strictly fit the definition of a crane. The crane for lifting heavy loads was invented by the Ancient Greeks in the late 6th century BC, the archaeological record shows that no later than c.515 BC distinctive cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis irons begin to appear on stone blocks of Greek temples. The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon lead to a replacement of ramps as the main means of vertical motion. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic columns was abandoned in favour of using several column drums. The first unequivocal evidence for the existence of the compound pulley system appears in the Mechanical Problems attributed to Aristotle. The heyday of the crane in ancient times came during the Roman Empire, the Romans adopted the Greek crane and developed it further. We are relatively well informed about their techniques, thanks to rather lengthy accounts by the engineers Vitruvius. There are also two surviving reliefs of Roman treadwheel cranes, with the Haterii tombstone from the late first century AD being particularly detailed, the simplest Roman crane, the trispastos, consisted of a single-beam jib, a winch, a rope, and a block containing three pulleys. Heavier crane types featured five pulleys or, in case of the largest one, the polyspastos, when worked by four men at both sides of the winch, could readily lift 3,000 kg. At the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek, for instance, the blocks weigh up to 60 tons each
39.
Adobe
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Adobe is a building material made from earth and often organic material. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world, modern methods of construction allow the pouring of whole adobe walls that are reinforced with steel. In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake and the 2010 Chile earthquake. Puebloan peoples built their structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages and its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. A distinction is made between the smaller adobes, which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger adobines. The word adobe /əˈdoʊbiː/ has existed for around 4000 years with little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian word ɟbt mudbrick, Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic or pre-Coptic, and finally to Coptic, where it appeared as τωωβε tōʾpə. This was borrowed into Arabic as الطوب aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu, with the definite article al- attached, tuba, English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century. In more modern English usage, the adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America. An adobe brick is a material made of earth mixed with water. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay, straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles 50 to 250 mm with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight, no more than half the clay content should be expansive clays with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the resulting in cracking. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where construction is in use, are an adequate composition. Adobe walls are bearing, i. e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure
40.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
41.
Campervan
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A campervan, sometimes referred to as a camper, or a caravanette, is a self-propelled vehicle that provides both transport and sleeping accommodation. The term mainly describes vans that have been fitted out, often with a body for use as accommodation. For example, some campervans lack built-in toilets and showers, or a divide between the living compartment and the cab, the United States term recreational vehicle is more analogous to motorhome than campervan. Campervans usually have a kitchen with a refrigerator and a two-burner gas hob. They generally have dual-voltage lighting which can work from either a dedicated battery known as a deep-cycle or leisure battery, or from AC power, larger models may include a water heater, space heating and air conditioning, a portable toilet and even an internal shower. Smaller models often carry a porta-potty portable toilet, and sometimes an external shower which operates within the privacy of an awning. The term Dormobile is sometimes used generically in the United Kingdom thanks to a highly popular conversion brand. The popularity of this expanded in the 1950s after Volkswagen commissioned the Westfalia company to use the Kombi version of their Type 2 transporter as the basis for a campervan. Often called a 4WD camper or 4x4 camper, these vehicles are perfect for going off the beaten track, some models include expandable tents mounted on the roof while others have pop-up roofs for additional sleeping space and storage. Pop-up roof variants share certain elements with roof tents as sometimes fitted to more robust four wheel drive off-road vehicles intended for expeditions rather than relaxed camping. A compromise between two worlds is sometimes reached by basing the conversion on an off-road vehicle. Sometimes the conversion is demountable from the back of a truck body. There are several types of all manufactured by Volkswagen but depending on their age they are colloquially referred to as either a splitty a bay or a bricky. Although less popular, Mercedes also manufactured a light van. Of a similar size and vintage is the British Commer Spacevan conversion, modern mid-sized Japanese vans such as the Toyota Hiace are sometimes converted to have the appearance of a classic Volkswagen. The car camper is a station wagon converted into a travel home. The rear cargo area is converted into a double bed area usually with a fabricated aluminium framework. All equipment necessary to set up a camp site is stored under the double bed with access through lidded areas under the bed. Unlike a standard station wagon where the equipment has to be removed before sleeping or a tent set up the car camper is self-contained
