1.
Aztec Empire
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The Aztec Empire, or the Triple Alliance, began as an alliance of three Nahua altepetl city-states, Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan. The Triple Alliance was formed from the faction in a civil war fought between the city of Azcapotzalco and its former tributary provinces. Despite the initial conception of the empire as an alliance of three self-governed city-states, Tenochtitlan quickly became dominant militarily. By the time the Spanish arrived in 1519, the lands of the Alliance were effectively ruled from Tenochtitlan, the alliance waged wars of conquest and expanded rapidly after its formation. Aztec rule has been described by scholars as hegemonic or indirect, the Aztecs left rulers of conquered cities in power so long as they agreed to pay semi-annual tribute to the Alliance, as well as supply military forces when needed for the Aztec war efforts. In return, the imperial authority offered protection and political stability, the state religion of the empire was polytheistic, worshiping a diverse pantheon that included dozens of deities. Many had officially recognized cults large enough so that the deity was represented in the temple precinct of the capital Tenochtitlan. The imperial cult, specifically, was that of Huitzilopochtli, the distinctive warlike patron god of the Mexica, peoples in conquered provinces were allowed to retain and freely continue their own religious traditions, so long as they added the imperial god Huitzilopochtli to their local pantheons. The word Aztec in modern usage would not have used by the people themselves. The name comes from a Nahuatl word meaning people from Aztlan, for the purpose of this article, Aztec refers only to those cities that constituted or were subject to the Triple Alliance. For the broader use of the term, see the article on Aztec civilization, Nahua peoples descended from Chichimec peoples who migrated to central Mexico from the north in the early 13th century. According to the pictographic codices in which the Aztecs recorded their history, Early migrants settled the Basin of Mexico and surrounding lands by establishing a series of independent city-states. These early Nahua cities were ruled by petty kings called tlahtohqueh, most of the existing settlements, which had been established by other indigenous peoples before the Nahua migration, were assimilated into Nahua culture. These early city-states fought various small-scale wars with other, but due to shifting alliances. The Mexica were the last of Aztlan migrants to arrive in Central Mexico and they entered the Basin of Mexico around the year 1250 AD, and by then most of the good agricultural land had already been claimed. The Mexica persuaded the king of Culhuacan to allow them to settle in a relatively infertile patch of land called Chapultepec, the Mexica served as hired mercenaries for Culhuacan. After they served Culhuacan in battle, the appointed one of his daughters to rule over the Mexica. According to mythological native accounts, the Mexica instead sacrificed her by flaying her skin, when the king of Culhuacan learned of this, he attacked and used his army to drive the Mexica from Tizaapan by force
2.
Codex Mendoza
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The Codex Mendoza is an Aztec codex, created fourteen years after the 1521 Spanish conquest of Mexico with the intent that it be seen by Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. The codex is named after Don Antonio de Mendoza, then the viceroy of New Spain and it is also known as the Codex Mendocino and La colección Mendoza, and has been held at the Bodleian Library at Oxford University since 1659. It was removed from public exhibition on 23 December 2011, the Bodleian Library holds four other Mesoamerican codices, Codex Bodley, Codex Laud, Codex Selden and the Selden Roll. The Codex Mendoza was hurriedly created in Mexico City, to be sent by ship to Spain, the fleet was attacked by French privateers, and the codex, along with the rest of the booty, taken to France. There it came into the possession of André Thévet, cosmographer to King Henry II of France, Thévet wrote his name in five places on the codex, twice with the date 1553. It was later bought by the Englishman Richard Hakluyt for 20 French francs, some time after 1616 it was passed to Samuel Purchase, then to his son, and then to John Selden. It lists the reign of ruler and the towns conquered by them. Section II,39 pages, provides a list of the towns conquered by the Triple Alliance, Section III,16 pages, is a pictorial depiction of the daily life of the Aztecs. However, there is a section, Section IV,20 pages, is an encoded accounting of the value of both the cargo of the ship and assets in the new colony. Berdan, Frances F. Anawalt, Patricia Rieff, a description of the Codex Review of The Essential Codex Mendoza Details of public exhibition
3.
Itzcoatl
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Itzcoatl was the fourth king of Tenochtitlan, ruling from 1427 to 1440, the period when the Mexica threw off the domination of the Tepanecs and laid the foundations for the eventual Aztec Empire. Itzcoatl was a son of tlàtoāni Acamapichtli and an unknown Tepanec woman from Azcapotzalco. He was elected as the king when his predecessor, his nephew Chimalpopoca, was killed by Maxtla of the nearby Tepanec āltepētl of Azcapotzalco, allying with Nezahualcoyotl of Texcoco, Itzcoatl went on to defeat Maxtla and end the Tepanec domination of central Mexico. After this victory, Itzcoatl, Nezahualcoyotl, and Totoquilhuaztli, king of Tlacopan, forged what would become known as the Aztec Triple Alliance, Itzcoatl next turned his attention to the chinampas districts on the south shores of Lakes Xochimilco and Chalco. Fresh water springs lining these shores had allowed the development of extensive raised gardens, or chinampas, set on the shallow lake floors. With this string of victories, Itzcoatl took the title Culhua teuctli, Lord of the Culhua while Totoquilhuaztli, king of Tlacopan, took the title Tepaneca teuctli, in 1439, Itzcoatl undertook a campaign outside the Valley of Mexico against Cuauhnahuac. According to the Florentine Codex, Itzcoatl ordered the burning of all historical codices because it was not wise that all the people should know the paintings, among other purposes, this allowed the Aztec state to develop a state-sanctioned history and mythos that venerated Huitzilopochtli. Itzcoatl also continued the building of Tenochtitlan, during his reign temples, roads, Itzcoatl established the religious and governmental hierarchy that was assumed by his nephew Moctezuma I upon his death in 1440. Itzcoatl was a son of Acamapichtli and half-brother of Huitzilihuitl and he was an uncle of Chimalpopoca and Moctezuma I. He married princess Huacaltzintli and had a son Tezozomoc and was a grandfather of Axayacatl, Tizoc, list of Tenochtitlan rulers History of the Aztecs Izcohuatl
4.
Axayacatl
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Axayacatl was the sixth tlatoani of the altepetl of Tenochtitlan and ruler of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Axayacatl was a son of the princess Atotoztli II and her cousin and he was a grandson of the Emperors Moctezuma I and Itzcoatl. He was a descendant of the king Cuauhtototzin and he was a successor of Moctezuma and his brothers were Emperors Tixoc and Ahuitzotl and his sister was the Queen Chalchiuhnenetzin. He was an uncle of the Emperor Cuauhtémoc and father of Emperors Moctezuma II and it is also important that the Great Sun Stone, also known as the Aztec Calendar, was carved under his leadership. In the year 1475 there was an earthquake that destroyed many homes in Temochtitlán. Using as a pretext the insulting behavior of a few Tlatelolcan citizens, Axayacatl invaded his neighbor, killed its ruler, Moquihuix, the Tlatelolcans lost any voice they had in forming Aztec policy. In spite of his age, he fell gravely ill in 1480, passing away a mere year later, in 1481. List of Tenochtitlan rulers Davies, Nigel, the Aztec Empire, The Toltec Resurgence. Aztec Warfare, Imperial Expansion and Political Control, the Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors, Archaeology of Mesoamerica
5.
Chichimecacihuatzin I
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Chichimecacihuatzin I was a Queen consort of Tenochtitlan - Aztec empress. She was a daughter of the king Cuauhtototzin, granddaughter of the king Tezcacohuatzin, niece of the Queen Miahuaxihuitl and she had at least one child with him, Princess Atotoztli II. It is likely that she had daughter, Chichimecacihuatzin II. It is possible that her sons were Princes Iquehuacatzin and Mahchimaleh and she was a grandmother of emperors Axayacatl, Tizoc and Ahuitzotl and great-grandmother of Moctezuma II and Cuitláhuac. She was also a grandmother of the queen Chalchiuhnenetzin, list of Tenochtitlan rulers Huacaltzintli Aztec emperors family tree Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and John W. Fox
6.
Chichimecacihuatzin II
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For her mother, see Chichimecacihuatzin I. Chichimecacihuatzin II was an Aztec princess of Tenochtitlan in Mexico, the Nahuatl name Chīchīmēcah means inhabitants of Chichiman, the placename Chichiman itself means Area of Milk. The word could either have a negative sense, or a positive noble savage sense. Chichimecacihuatzin was a daughter of Emperor Moctezuma I and his cousin-wife, Queen Chichimecacihuatzin I and she was a granddaughter of the king Cuauhtototzin and emperor Huitzilihuitl. Her sister was Atotoztli II and her nephews were kings Axayacatl, Tizoc and they all ruled over Tenochtitlan as great emperors. Her husband was Huehue Huanitzin, a leader of Itztapalapan. He was the first king of Ecatepec
7.
Huitzilihuitl
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Huitzilihuitl Nahuatl pronunciation, was the second tlatoani of Tenochtitlan, governing from 1396 to 1417. Huitzilíhuitl was born in Tenochtitlan, and was the son of Acamapichtli, first tlatoani of the Mexica, and Queen Tezcatlan Miyahuatzin, only 16 years old when his father died, Huitzilihuitl was elected by the principal chiefs, warriors and priests of the city to replace him. At that time, the Mexica were tributaries of the Tepanec city-state of Azcapotzalco, Huitzilíhuitl, a good politician, continued the policies of his father, seeking alliances with his neighbors. He founded the Royal Council or Tlatocan and established four permanent electors to advise the new king, in his inexperience and he married Ayauhcihuatl, daughter of Tezozómoc, the powerful tlatoani of Azcapotzalco, and obtained a reduction of tribute payments to the symbolic level. Their son Chimalpopoca would succeed his father as tlatoani, after the death of Ayaucíhuatl, Huitzilíhuitl married a second time, to Miahuaxihuitl. She bore him Moctezuma I, who succeeded to the throne as the fifth tlatoani of Aztecs. During his reign, the industry grew. It provided cotton cloth not only for Tenochtitlan, but also for Azcapotzalco, the Mexicas no longer had to dress in coarse ayates of maguey fibers, but were able to change to soft, dyed cotton. Huitzilíhuitl also wanted to introduce potable water into the city, bringing it to the island from the mainland over the water of the lake. But the nobles not approving the cost, he was unable to put his plan into operation and he constructed a fort on a rock on the island. In 1409, the ruler of Texcoco, Techotlala, died, in the following years, relations between Ixtlilxóchitl and Tezozómoc of Azcapotzalco deteriorated, breaking into open hostilities c. In spite of having given his daughter Matlalchihuatzin in marriage to Ixtlilxóchitl, Huitzilíhuitl joined his father-in-law in making war on Texcoco and he assisted in the conquest and sacking of the cities of Tultitlan, Cuauhtitlan, Chalco, Tollantzingo, Xaltocan, Otompa and Acolman. Huitzilíhuitl profited from the booty of these conquests and also from the traffic of the canoes on the lakes surrounding Tenochtitlan, Huitzilíhuitl died, probably in 1417, before the end of the war between Azcapotzalco and Texcoco. His successor, his son Chimalpopoca, continued to support Tezozómoc, among his wives were Queen Ayauhcihuatl, Queen Cacamacihuatl, Queen Miahuaxihuitl, and Queen Miyahuaxochtzin. List of Tenochtitlan rulers Huitzilihuitl entry on The Visual History Project Huitzilihuitl
8.
Miahuaxihuitl
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Miahuaxihuitl of Cuauhnahuac was a Queen of Tenochtitlan. Her name is spelled as Miyahuaxihuitl. She was mother of the Princess Matlalcihuatzin and the Aztec Emperor Moctezuma I and she was also an aunt of the Queen Chichimecacihuatzin I and sister of the king Cuauhtototzin. Miahuaxihuitl was born a princess, daughter of Tezcacohuatzin, king of Cuauhnahuac and she was known to be very beautiful. Miahuaxihuitl became a wife of Aztec Emperor Huitzilihuitl and she was greeted with a pomp when she came to Tenochtitlan. She bore a son who would later become Emperor Moctezuma I
9.
Tenochtitlan
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Mexico-Tenochtitlan, commonly known as Tenochtitlan was a Mexica located on an island in Lake Texcoco, in the Valley of Mexico. Founded on June 20,1325, it became the capital of the expanding Aztec Empire in the 15th century, at its peak it was the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas. It subsequently became a cabecera of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, today the ruins of Tenochtitlan are located in Mexico Citys downtown. Tenochtitlan was one of two Nahua āltēpetl on the island, the other being Tlatelolco, traditionally, the name Tenochtitlan was thought to come from Nahuatl tetl and nōchtli and is often thought to mean, Among the prickly pears rocks. However, one attestation in the late 16th-century manuscript known as the Bancroft dialogues suggest the second vowel was short, Tenochtitlan covered an estimated 8 to 13.5 km2, situated on the western side of the shallow Lake Texcoco. At the time of Spanish conquests, Mexico City comprised both Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco, the city was connected to the mainland by causeways leading to the north, south, and west. The causeways were interrupted by bridges that allowed canoes and other traffic to pass freely. The bridges could be pulled away, if necessary, to defend the city, the city was interlaced with a series of canals, so that all sections of the city could be visited either on foot or via canoe. Lake Texcoco was the largest of five interconnected lakes, since it formed in an endorheic basin, Lake Texcoco was brackish. During the reign of Moctezuma I, the levee of Nezahualcoyotl was constructed, estimated to be 12 to 16 km in length, the levee was completed circa 1453. The levee kept fresh spring-fed water in the waters around Tenochtitlan and kept the brackish waters beyond the dike, two double aqueducts, each more than 4 km long and made of terracotta, provided the city with fresh water from the springs at Chapultepec. This was intended mainly for cleaning and washing, for drinking, water from mountain springs was preferred. Most of the population liked to bathe twice a day, Moctezuma was said to take four baths a day. According to the context of Aztec culture in literature, the soap that they most likely used was the root of a plant called copalxocotl, and to clean their clothes they used the root of metl. Also, the classes and pregnant women washed themselves in a temazcalli, similar to a sauna bath. This was also popular in other Mesoamerican cultures, and some of our soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream. I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never heard of or seen before. The city was divided into four zones, or campan, each campan was divided into 20 districts, there were three main streets that crossed the city, each leading to one of the three causeways to the mainland of Tepeyac, Ixtapalpa, and Tlacopan
10.
Moctezuma II
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During his reign the Aztec Empire reached its greatest size. Through warfare, Moctezuma expanded the territory as far south as Xoconosco in Chiapas and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and he changed the previous meritocratic system of social hierarchy and widened the divide between pipiltin and macehualtin by prohibiting commoners from working in the royal palaces. The portrayal of Moctezuma in history has mostly been colored by his role as ruler of a defeated nation, the biases of some historical sources make it difficult to understand his actions during the Spanish invasion. Moctezuma had many wives and concubines but only two women were his Queens – Tlapalizquixochtzin and Teotlalco and he was also a King Consort of Ecatepec because Tlapalizquixochtzin was Queen of that city. His many children included Princess Isabel Moctezuma — and sons Chimalpopoca, the Nahuatl pronunciation of his name is. It is a compound of a noun meaning lord and a meaning to frown in anger. The Aztecs did not use numbers, they were given retroactively by historians to more easily distinguish him from the first Moctezuma. The Aztec chronicles called him Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, while the first was called Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina or Huehuemotecuhzoma, the descriptions of the life of Moctezuma are full of contradictions, and thus nothing is known for certain about his personality and rule. He did not wear his hair long but just over his ears and his face was rather long and cheerful, he had fine eyes, and in his appearance and manner could express geniality or, when necessary, a serious composure. He was very neat and clean, and took a bath every afternoon and he had many women as his mistresses, the daughters of chieftains, but two legitimate wives who were Caciques in their own right, and only some of his servants knew of it. He was quite free from sodomy, the clothes he wore one day he did not wear again till three or four days later. He had a guard of two hundred chieftains lodged in rooms beside his own, only some of whom were permitted to speak to him. It was stated that he had reigned for seventeen years, and was the best king they ever had in Mexico, I have spoken of the sorrow we all felt when we saw that Montezuma was dead. We even blamed the Mercederian friar for not having persuaded him to become a Christian, Moctezuma in particular is depicted unfavorably as a weak-willed, superstitious, and indulgent ruler. Historian James Lockhart suggests that the people needed to have a scapegoat for the Aztec defeat, unlike Bernal Díaz, who was recording his memories many years after the fact, Cortés wrote his Cartas de relación to justify his actions to the Spanish Crown. His prose is characterized by descriptions and explanations, along with frequent personal addresses to the King. They came in two columns, pressed very close to the walls of the street, which is wide and beautiful. Mutezuma came down the middle of street with two chiefs, one on his right hand and the other on his left
11.
Chimalpopoca
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Chimalpopoca was the third king of Tenochtitlan. Chimalpopoca was born to the King Huitzilihuitl and Queen Ayauhcihuatl, on the day of Chimalpopocas coronation in 1417, his brother Tlacaelel I was named high priest. From this point on the ecclesiastical and governmental offices among the Aztecs were separate, when he assumed the throne at age 20, Tenochtitlan was a tributary of the Tepanec city of Azcapotzalco, which was ruled by his grandfather Tezozomoc. This alliance, and the Mexicas position within it, was strengthened by Tenochtitlans loyalty during Tezozomocs 1418 war with Ixtlilxochitl I of Texcoco, the conquered city was granted to Tenochtitlan as a tributary. Nezahualcoyotl, displaced prince of Texcoco, was living in the mountains, Chimalpopoca interceded with Tezozomoc on his behalf, and Tezozomoc agreed to allow Netzahualcoyotl to live in Tenochtitlan under his protection. In 1426 Tezozómoc assisted Chimalpopoca in the construction of a new aqueduct and this aqueduct was of wood, and ran from the elevated place of Chapultepec to Tenochtitlan. Chimalpopoca also had a constructed to Tlacopan. The causeway contained openings spanned by bridges, which were removed at night. Also during his reign he dedicated a stone for sacrifices in the Tlacocomoco section of Tenochtitlan, to him is attributed the conquest of Tequizquiac. Chimalpopoca was the son of Huitzilihuitl, the ruler, but there are some sources that say he was a son of Acamapichtli. He had many wives and children, one of the wives was his cousin Matlalatzin. His son was Tezozomoc, king of Ecatepec, three versions of the family tree of the first Aztec rulers, Chimalpopoca was a grandson of Acamapichtli and Tezozomoc and half-brother of Moctezuma I. When Tezozomoc died in 1427 after a reign, he was succeeded by his son Tayatzin. However Maxtla, ruler of Coyoacan and older half-brother of Tayatzin, soon incited a rebellion among the nobles of Azcapotzalco, Chimalpopoca allied with Tayatzin, and the two conspired to retake the throne and kill Maxtla. Friendly relations between Tenochtitlan and Azcapotzalco were thus replaced by insults and violent intrigue, apparently involving tit-for-tat assassination attempts, Maxtla sent Chimalpopoca a present of womens clothing. Teyatzin was killed, and Chimalpopoca decided to offer himself as a sacrifice at the altar of his father Huitzilíhuitl, some of his nobles joined him. In the middle of the ceremony, before the tlatoanis turn, there he was exhibited in a cage and kept on starvation rations. He committed suicide, hanging himself from a beam with his belt and he was succeeded as tlatoani by his uncle Itzcoatl
12.
Tlacaelel
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Tlacaelel I was the principal architect of the Aztec Triple Alliance and hence the Mexica empire. He was the son of Emperor Huitzilihuitl and Queen Cacamacihuatl, nephew of Emperor Itzcoatl, Tlacaelel recast or strengthened the concept of the Aztecs as a chosen people, elevated the tribal god/hero Huitzilopochtli to top of the pantheon of gods, and increased militarism. In tandem with this, Tlacaelel is said to have increased the level and prevalence of human sacrifice, particularly during a period of natural disasters that started in 1446. Durán also states that it was during the reign of Moctezuma I, as an invention of Tlacaelel that the wars, in which the Aztecs fought Tlaxcala. To strengthen the Aztec nobility, he helped create and enforce laws, prohibiting commoners from wearing certain adornments such as lip plugs, gold armbands. He also instigated a policy of burning the books of conquered peoples with the aim of erasing all memories of a pre-Aztec past, when he dedicated the seventh reconstruction of the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlan, Tlacaelel had brought his nation to the height of its power. The dedication took place in 1484 and was celebrated with the sacrifice of war captives. After Tlacaelels death in 1487, the Mexica Empire continued to expand north into the Gran Chichimeca and south toward the Maya lands
13.
Tlacopan
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Nearby was the city of Tiliuhcan. Founded by Tlacomatzin, Tlacopan was a Tepanec kingdom subordinate to nearby Azcapotzalco, Tlacopan sided with Tenochtitlan and Texcoco in their conquest of Azcapotzalco, becoming a member of the Triple Alliance which formed the nucleus of the Aztec Empire. The ruler of Tlacopan, Totoquihuaztli, then took the title Tepaneca tecuhtli, Tlacopan was to remain a junior partner in the alliance, receiving only a fifth of the tribute gained from joint campaigns with its more powerful allies. The Triple Alliance ended with the Spanish conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortés, over the centuries, Mexico City expanded to include the former site of Tlacopan, todays neighborhood of Tacuba in the Mexico City borough of Miguel Hidalgo
14.
Texcoco (altepetl)
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Texcoco was a major Acolhua city-state in the central Mexican plateau region of Mesoamerica during the Late Postclassic period of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican chronology. It was situated on the bank of Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico, to the northeast of the Aztec capital. The site of pre-Columbian Texcoco is now subsumed by the modern Mexican municipio of Texcoco and its major settlement and it also lies within the greater metropolitan area of Mexico City. Pre-Columbian Texcoco is most noted for its membership in the Aztec Triple Alliance, at the time of the Spanish conquest of Mexico, it was one of the largest and most prestigious cities in central Mexico, second only to the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. A survey of Mesoamerican cities estimated that pre-conquest Texcoco had a population of 24,000, the people of Tetzcohco were called Tetzcocatl or Tetzcocah. Texcoco was founded in the 12th century, on the shore of Lake Texcoco. In or about 1337, the Acolhua, with Tepanec help, expelled Chichimecs from Texcoco and Texcoco became the Acolhua capital city, in 1418, Ixtlilxochitl I, the tlatoani of Texcoco, was dethroned by Tezozomoc of Azcapotzalco. Ten years later, in 1428, Ixtlilxochitls son, Nezahualcoyotl allied with the Mexica to defeat Tezozomocs son and successor, Texcoco and the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan, with the Tepanecs of Tlacopan, subsequently formalized their association as the Triple Alliance. However this was an alliance as Tlacopan entered the battle against Azcapotzalco late. Texcoco thereby became the second-most important city in the eventual Aztec empire, Texcoco was known as a center of learning within the empire, and had a famed library including books from older Mesoamerican civilizations. Erected by the hill of Texcotzingo, the residence had aqueducts, baths, gardens, stairways. The palace gardens were a vast botanical collection that included plants from not only the growing Aztec Empire, the water used to irrigate the gardens was obtained from the springs beyond the mountains to the east of Texcoco. The water was channeled through canals carved into the rock, in certain areas, rock staircases were used as waterfalls. After clearing the mountains, the canals continued downhill to a point a distance from Texcotzingo. There the path to the city was blocked a deep canyon that ran north to south. Nezahualcoyotl ordered that the gap be filled with tons of rocks and stones, the whole hill of Texcotzingo was also served by this canal system and converted by his designers into a sacred place for the rain god Tláloc, complete with waterfalls, exotic animals and birds. Xolotl was said to be the founder of Texcoco in 1115 AD and he was followed by Nopaltzin, Tlotzin, Quinatzin, Techotlalazin, Ixlilxochitl, Nezahualcoyotl, Nezahualpilli, Cacama, Coanchochtzin, and Don Fernando Ixtlilxochitl. Nezahualcoyotl was a poet, philosopher, and patron of the arts
15.
Nezahualcoyotl (tlatoani)
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Nezahualcoyotl, meaning Coyote in fast or Coyote who Fasts) was a philosopher, warrior, architect, poet and ruler of the city-state of Texcoco in pre-Columbian era Mexico. However, he allowed human sacrifices to continue in his other temples, born as Nezahualcoyotly Acolmiztli, he was the son of Ixtlilxochitl I and Matlalcihuatzin, the daughter of Huitzilihuitl. Though born heir to a throne, his youth was not marked by princely luxury and his father had set Texcoco against the powerful city of Azcapotzalco, ruled by the Tepanec. In 1418, when the prince was fifteen, his father was assassinated. The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco, led by Tezozomoc, conquered Texcoco and Nezahualcoyotl had to flee into exile in Huexotzinco and his aunts bribed the Tepanec king and allowed for him to be partially educated as a Mexica. His exposure to Mexica culture and politics would influence how he later governed Texcoco, after Tezozomocs son Maxtla became ruler of Azcapotzalco, Nezahualcoyotl returned to Texcoco, but had to go into exile a second time when he learned that Maxtla plotted against his life. After being offered support from insurgents inside Acolhuacan and rebel Tepanecs from Coyohuacan and he called for a coalition consisting of many of the most important pre-Hispanic cities of the time, Tenochtitlan, Tlacopan, Tlatelolco, Huexotzingo, Tlaxcala and Chalco. This began the offensive that would reconquer Acolhuacan, capital city of the kingdom of Texcoco. The campaign was divided into three parts, one army attacked Acolman to the north and the second Coatlinchan to the south. A contingent led by Nezahualcoyotl himself was intended to attack Acolhuacan, only after providing support, upon request, the coalition conquered Acolman and Otumba, sacking them only due to the sudden Tepanec siege of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco. In a tactical move, the three armies united again and then divided into two, one of them, under Nezahualcoyotl, headed towards Texcoco laying siege to Acolhuacan on its way, while the other attacked and destroyed Atzcapotzalco. The two armies simultaneously attacked Acolhuacan from two directions until they controlled the main square. After their victory, the coalition began a series of attacks to isolated Tepanec posts throughout the territory of Texcoco, the defeat of the Tepanecs and the total destruction of the kingdom of Azcapotzalco gave rise to the Aztec Triple Alliance between Texcoco, Tenochtitlan and Tlacopan. Nezahualcoyotl, the wisest ruler that had ruled over Anahuac Valley - as it was known at that time - was finally crowned Tlatoani of Texcoco in 1431. According to Motolina, Nezahualcoyotl practiced his strict laws judiciously and imposed them on all his subjects and he killed four of his sons for their sexual relationships with his concubines. Conquered cities paid tribute that was distributed among three kings, Nezahualcoyotl adopted the Mexica legal system into his empire to help in the reconstruction of his city. For example, in the case for adultery, there were different punishments according to the levels of adultery, adulterers were stoned, burned, or hanged if they had committed murder because of their extramarital affair. The Mapa Quinatzin depicts the hanging of a robber for stealing or breaking into a house, in cases of military misconduct, for example those soldiers who did not follow orders or killed captives, the condemned were hanged or beheaded
16.
Oaxaca
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Oaxaca, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca, is one of the 31 states which, along with the Federal District, make up the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided into 570 municipalities, of which 418 are governed by the system of Usos y costumbres with recognized forms of self governance. Its capital city is Oaxaca de Juárez, Oaxaca is located in Southwestern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Guerrero to the west, Puebla to the northwest, Veracruz to the north, to the south, Oaxaca has a significant coastline on the Pacific Ocean. The state is best known for its indigenous peoples and cultures, the most numerous and best known are the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, but there are sixteen that are officially recognized. These cultures have survived better than most others in Mexico due to the states rugged, most live in the Central Valleys region, which is also an important area for tourism, attracting people for its archeological sites such as Monte Albán, native culture and crafts. Another important tourist area is the coast, which has the major resort of Huatulco, Oaxaca is also one of the most biologically diverse states in Mexico, ranking in the top three, along with Chiapas and Veracruz, for numbers of reptiles, amphibians, mammals and plants. The name of the state comes from the name of its capital city and this name comes from the Nahuatl word Huaxyacac, which refers to a tree called a guaje found around the capital city. The name was applied to the Valley of Oaxaca by Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs. The modern state was created in 1824, and the seal was designed by Alfredo Canseco Feraud. Nahuatl word Huaxyacac was transliterated as Oaxaca using Medieval Spanish orthography, in which the x represented the voiceless postalveolar fricative, however, during the sixteenth century the voiceless fricative sound evolved into a voiceless velar fricative, and Oaxaca began to be pronounced. Most of what is known about pre-historic Oaxaca comes from work in the Central Valleys region, evidence of human habitation dating back to about 11,000 years BC has been found in the Guilá Naquitz cave near the town of Mitla. More finds of nomadic peoples date back to about 5000 BC, by 2000 BC, agriculture had been established in the Central Valleys region of the state, with sedentary villages. The diet developed around this time would remain until the Spanish Conquest, consisting primarily of harvested corn, beans, chocolate, tomatoes, chili peppers, squash, meat was generally hunted and included tepescuintle, turkey, deer, peccary, armadillo and iguana. The oldest known settlements, such as Yanhuitlán and Laguna Zope are located in this area as well. The latter settlement is known for its small figures called pretty women or baby face, between 1200 and 900 BC, pottery was being produced in the area as well. This pottery has been linked with work done in La Victoria. Other important settlements from the time period include Tierras Largas, San José Mogote and Guadalupe
17.
Valley of Mexico
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The Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly coterminous with the present-day Distrito Federal and the eastern half of the State of Mexico. Surrounded by mountains and volcanoes, the Valley of Mexico was a centre for several civilizations, including Teotihuacan, the Toltec. The ancient Aztec term Anahuac and the phrase Basin of Mexico are both used at times to refer to the Valley of Mexico, the Basin of Mexico became a well known site that epitomized the scene of early Classic Mesoamerican cultural development as well. The Valley of Mexico is located in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, the valley contains most of the Mexico City Metropolitan Area, as well as parts of the State of Mexico, Hidalgo, Tlaxcala and Puebla. The Valley of Mexico can be subdivided into four basins, but the largest and this section of the valley in particular is colloquially referred to as the Valley of Mexico. The valley has an altitude of 2,200 meters above sea level and is surrounded by mountains. It is a valley with no natural outlet for water to flow. Within this vulnerable watershed all the fishes were extinct by the end of the 20th century. Hydrologically, the valley has three features, the first feature is the lakebeds of five now-extinct lakes, which are located in the southernmost and largest of the four sub-basins. The other two features are piedmont, and the mountainsides that collect the precipitation that eventually flows to the lake area and these last two are found in all four of the sub-basins of the valley. Today, the Valley drains through a series of canals to the Tula River, and eventually the Pánuco River. Seismic activity is frequent here, and the valley is considered an earthquake prone zone, the valley has been inhabited for at least 12,000 years, attracting humans with its mild climate, abundant game and ability to support large-scale agriculture. Civilizations that have arisen in this include the Teotihuacan the Toltec Empire. When the Spaniards arrived in the Valley of Mexico, it had one of the highest population concentrations in the world with one million people. After the Conquest, the Spaniards rebuilt the largest and most dominant city here, Tenochtitlan, although violence and disease significantly lowered the population of the valley after the Conquest, by 1900 it was again over one million people. The 20th and 21st centuries have seen an explosion of population in the valley along with the growth of industry, since 1900, the population has doubled every fifteen years. Today, around 21 million people live in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area which extends throughout almost all of the valley into the states of Mexico, the growth of a major urban, industrial centre in an enclosed basin has created significant air and water quality issues for the valley. Wind patterns and thermal inversions trap contaminants in the valley, over-extraction of ground water has caused new flooding problems for the city as it sinks below the historic lake floor
18.
Gulf of Mexico
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The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The U. S. states of Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas border the Gulf on the north, Atlantic and Pacific coasts, or sometimes the south coast, in juxtaposition to the Great Lakes region being the north coast. One of the seven main areas is the Gulf of Mexico basin. The Gulf of Mexico formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics, the Gulfs basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles wide and floored by sedimentary rocks and recent sediments. It is connected to part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U. S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba, with the narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 1.6 million km2, almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. The basin contains a volume of roughly 2,500 quadrillion liters, the consensus among geologists who have studied the geology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. It was created by the collision of plates that formed Pangea. As interpreted by Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in Late Triassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea, including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, first, there was a Late Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds. Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time and it was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean across central Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the basin created by rifting and crustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a basin, the subsiding transitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt. Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point that sea-floor spreading, at this point, sufficient circulation with the Atlantic Ocean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased. During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a period of cooling. The subsidence was the result of a combination of stretching, cooling. Initially, the combination of stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km of tectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional
19.
Huastec people
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The ancient Huastec civilization is one of the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures. The Pre-Columbian Huastecs constructed temples on step-pyramids, carved independently standing sculptures and they were admired for their abilities as musicians by other Mesoamerican peoples. The Huastecs were conquered by the Spanish between 1519 and the 1530s, after the Spanish Conquest, many Huastecs were sold as slaves in the Caribbean by the Spanish. The first grammatical and lexical description of the Huastec language accessible to Europeans was by Fray Andrés de Olmos, studies of language change, especially glottochronology, have given linguists the tools to estimate the point in time when many pairs of languages diverged from their common ancestral tongue. The procedure depends on the assumption that change, in the absence of widespread literacy. Of all the languages descended from Proto-Mayan, the language was the first to split from Mayan proper. The second split, in the main branch, was between proto-Yucatecan, now spoken across the Yucatán Peninsula, and the ancestors of all other Maya languages. The only other language, besides Huastec, which arose from proto-Huastecan was Chicomuceltec, a language spoken in Chiapas near Comitán. Linguists have approximated that the precursor to the language of the Huastecs diverged from the Proto-Mayan language between 2200 and 1200 BCE. Linguist Morris Swadesh posited the later date as the latest possible time for this split to have occurred, mcQuown suggests 1500 BCE, Manrique Castaneda 1800 BCE, and Dahlin 2100 BCE as the most likely dates for the split. Robertsons work on verb affixes in the Mayan languages implies that the Huastecs were in contact with the branch of Mayan. In Proto-Mayan, absolutives could be marked either by a prefix or a suffix and this feature was retained in Qanjobal, but lost in other branches. Huastec appears to have influenced by proto-Tzeltal, resulting in such innovations as the preposition ta. Huastec people lived north of Totonacs in the corner of Mesoamerica. Huastec people spoke Mayan, which was a trade language to be spoken at the time. Their art was influenced by the area resulting in shell artifacts. Amongst their art they also made pots, gaming stones, platform pipes and these items were often made from shells and made into shape of human heads, engraved shell gorgets, fan headdresses, and of hunch backed humans. At least three languages are spoken in parts of the region today, Nahuatl, spoken especially in Veracruz
20.
Totonac people
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The Totonac /ˈtoʊtoʊˌnɑːk/ people resided in the eastern coastal and mountainous regions of Mexico at the time of the Spanish arrival in 1519. Today they reside in the states of Veracruz, Puebla, and they are one of the possible builders of the pre-Columbian city of El Tajín, and further maintained quarters in Teotihuacán. Until the mid-19th century they were the main producers of vanilla. The term totonac refers to the living in Totonacapan, some authors had translated the term totonac as a Nahuatl word meaning People of Hot Land. The translation for this according to the Totonac Language is tutunacu meaning Three Hearts signifying their three cities or cultural centers, Cempoala, Tajin and Teayo. In the 15th century, the Aztecs labeled the region of the Totonac Totonacapan, Totonacapan was largely hot and humid. Along with the agricultural crops of maize, manioc, squash, beans, pumpkin and chili peppers. Even during the disastrous central Mexican famine of 1450-1454, the region remained an agricultural center. At that time, many Aztecs were forced to sell themselves or their members as slaves to the Totonac in exchange for subsistence maize. There is an absence of comals, metates and manos meaning the Totonacs did not eat tortillas, however. The Totonacs ate fruit most notably zapotes, guavas, papayas, plantains, men hunted and fished shark, turtle, deer, armadillo, opossums, and frogs. Peasants as well as nobles ate corn porridge in the morning, lunch was the main meal of the day and consisted of manioc, bean stew or even a rich meat sauce for the nobles. Fish and seafood as well as game was eaten by both nobles and farmers, Totonac women were expert weavers and embroiderers, they dressed grandly and braided their hair with feathers. The Franciscan friar Bernardino de Sahagún stated that, in all aspects of their appearance, the women were quite elegant, women wore skirts, noble women wore shell and jade necklaces and earrings and often tattooed their faces with red ink. Married women wore their hair in the Nahuatl fashion while peasant women wore their hair long, likewise, the noble men dressed well, adorning themselves with multicolored cloaks, loin cloths, necklaces, arm bands, lip plugs and devices made of the prized quetzal feathers. Hair was kept long with a tuft of hair on the top tied up with a ribbon. Houses were generally thatched and had an overhang, the region of Totonacapan was subject to Aztec military incursions from the mid-15th century until the Spanish arrival. Despite the e tablishment of Aztec fortifications throughout the region, rebellion was endemic, major Totonac centers were Papantla, with an estimated population of 60,000 in 1519, Xalapa, and Cempoala
21.
Flower war
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A flower war or flowery war was a ritual war fought intermittently between the Aztec Triple Alliance and its enemies from the mid-1450s to the arrival of the Spaniards in 1519. Enemies included the city-states of Tlaxcala, Huejotzingo, and Cholula in the Tlaxcala-Pueblan Valley in central Mexico, in these wars, participants would fight according to a set of conventions. Texcocan nobleman Ixtlilxochitl gives the fullest early statement concerning the origin as well as the rationale of the flower war. From 1450 to 1454, the Aztecs had suffered crop failure and severe drought. Ixtlilxochitl reports that the war began as a response to the famine. Of Mexico said that the gods were angry at the empire, and that to them it was necessary to sacrifice many men. Thus, Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlaxcala, Cholula, and Huejotzingo agreed to engage in war for the purpose of obtaining human sacrifices for the gods. Flower wars differed from typical wars in a number of important aspects, while engaging in a flower war, competing armies would meet on a preset date at a preselected place. ”These places became sacred sites and were called cuauhtlalli or yaotlalli. Combatants signaled the start of war by burning a large pyre of paper, actual battle tactics also differed from typical warfare. In typical warfare, the Aztecs used atlatl darts, stones, however, in flower wars, the Aztecs neglected to use ranged weapons and instead used weapons such as the macuahuitl that required skill and close proximity to the enemy. The use of these kinds of weapons allowed the Aztecs to display their individual combat ability, flower wars involved fewer soldiers than typical Aztec wars did. A larger proportion of the soldiers would be drawn from nobility than during a typical war and these characteristics allowed the Aztecs to engage in flower wars during any time of the year. In contrast, the Aztecs could fight larger wars of conquest only from late autumn to early spring, flower wars were generally less lethal than typical wars, but a long-running flower war could become increasingly deadly over time. For example, in a flower war between the Aztecs and the Chalcas, there were few battle deaths at the start. After time had passed, captured commoners started to be killed, however, after further time had passed, captive nobles were killed along with the commoners. This increased the cost of the war for both the Aztecs and the Chalcas. Further, the Aztecs thought that those who died in a war would be transported to the heaven where Huitzilopochtli lived. There appear to be a variety of reasons that the Aztecs engaged in flower wars, historians have thought that flower wars were fought for purposes including combat training and capturing humans for religious sacrifice
22.
Mixtec
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The Mixtec region and the Mixtec peoples are traditionally divided into three groups, two based on their original economic caste and one based on the region they settled. High Mixtecs or mixteco alto were of the class and generally richer. In recent times, a reversal or equalizing has been seen. The third group is Coastal Mixtecs mixteco de la costa whose language is related to that of the Low Mixtecs, they currently inhabit the Pacific slope of Oaxaca. The Mixtec languages form a branch of the Otomanguean language family. In pre-Columbian times, a number of Mixtecan city states competed with each other, like the rest of the indigenous peoples of Mexico, the Mixtec were conquered by the Spanish invaders and their indigenous allies in the 16th century. Pre-Columbia Mixtecs numbered around 1.5 million, today there are approximately 800,000 Mixtec people in Mexico, and there are also large populations in the United States. The term Mixtec comes from the Nahuatl word mixtecah, cloud people, there are many names that the Mixtecs have for naming themselves, ñuù savi, nayívi savi, ñuù davi, nayivi davi. etc. This all denominations can be translated as people of the rain, the historic homeland of Mixtec people is La Mixteca, called in Mixtec language Ñuu Savi, Ñuu Djau, Ñuu Davi, etc. depending on the local variant. They call their language saan davi, daan davi or tuun savi, in pre-Columbian times, the Mixtec were one of the major civilizations of Mesoamerica. Important ancient centres of the Mixtec include the ancient capital of Tilantongo, as well as the sites of Achiutla, Cuilapan, Huajuapan, Mitla, Tlaxiaco, Tututepec, Juxtlahuaca, the Mixtec also made major constructions at the ancient city of Monte Albán. The work of Mixtec artisans who produced work in stone, wood, according to West, the Mixtec of Oaxaca. were the foremost goldsmiths of Mesoamerica, which included the lost-wax casting of gold and its alloys. At the height of the Aztec Empire, many Mixtecs paid tribute to the Aztecs and they put up resistance to Spanish rule until they were subdued by the Spanish and their central Mexican allies led by Pedro de Alvarado. Mixtecs have migrated to parts of both Mexico and the United States. In recent years a large exodus of indigenous peoples from Oaxaca, such as the Zapotec, as of 2011, an estimated 150,000 Mixteco people were living in California, and 25,000 to 30,000 in New York City. Large Mixtec communities exist in the cities of Tijuana, Baja California, San Diego, California and Tucson. Mixtec communities are generally described as trans-national or trans-border because of their ability to maintain, there is considerable documentation in the Mixtec native language for the colonial era, which has been studied as part of the New Philology. There is considerable Mixtec documentation for land issues, but sparse for market activity, long distance trade existed in the prehispanic era and continued in indigenous hands in the early colonial
23.
Tlaxcala (Nahua state)
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Tlaxcala was a pre-Columbian city and state in central Mexico. The Tlaxcalans arrived in Central Mexico during the Late Postclassic and they first settled near Texcoco in the valley of Mexico, between the settlement of Cohuatlinchan and the shore of Lake Texcoco. After some years the Tlaxcallans were driven out of the valley of Mexico and moved to the east, over the subsequent years, the Tlaxcallan state expanded with the foundations of Ocotelulco and Tizatlán. The fourth major settlement, Quiahuiztlan, was founded by members of the Tlaxcallan group that had remained in the valley of Mexico. Ancient Tlaxcala was a republic ruled by a council of between 50 and 200 chief political officials and these officials gained their positions through service to the state, usually in warfare, and as a result came from both the noble and commoner classes. Tlaxcala was never conquered by the Aztec empire, but was engaged in a state of perpetual war, as a result of their alliance with the Spaniards, Tlaxcala had hidalgo privileged status within Spanish colonial Mexico. After the Spanish conquered Tenochtitlan and the rest of Mexico, Tlaxcala was allowed to survive and preserve its pre-Columbian culture. In addition, as a reward to the Tlaxcalans unyielding loyalty to the Spanish, conquistador Bernal Díaz del Castillo describes the first battle between the Spanish force and the Tlaxcalteca as surprisingly difficult. Xicohtencatl the Younger was later condemned by the Tlaxcaltecan ruling council, due to protracted warfare between the Aztecs and the Tlaxcala, the Tlaxcala were eager to exact revenge, and soon became loyal allies of the Spanish. Even after the Spanish were expelled from Tenochtitlan, the Tlaxcala continued to support their conquest, Tlaxcala also assisted the Spanish in the conquest of Guatemala. Following the Spanish Conquest, Tlaxcala was divided into four fiefdoms by the Spanish corregidor Gómez de Santillán in 1545 and these fiefdoms were Ocotelolco, Quiahuiztlan, Tepeticpac, and Tizatlan. At this time, four houses or lineages emerged and claimed hereditary rights to each fiefdom. During the colonial period, the Tlaxcalan people were regarded as being of higher status, however, the indigenous population who had been living in Tlaxcala were reduced to a small minority. It was painted by Tlaxcalteca artists under Spanish supervision, crónica Mexicayotl was written by Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc, in Nahuatl and Spanish, in the last decades of the 16th century. Mexico, Manuel Orozco y Berra, Leyenda, fargher, Lane F. Richard E. Blanton and Verenice Y. Egalitarian Ideology and Political Power in Prehispanic Central Mexico, The Case of Tlaxcallan, xicotencatl, rethinking an indigenous Mexican hero, Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl, UNAM. Land and Succession in the Indigenous Noble Houses of Sixteenth-Century Tlaxcala, invading Guatemala, Spanish, Nahua, and Maya Accounts of the Conquest Wars. University Park, Pennsylvania, USA, Pennsylvania State University Press, Spanish language description of the historiography of Tlaxcala Article in Sciencemag about archeological findings at Tizatlan
24.
Cosamaloapan
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Cosamaloapan is a municipality located in the plains of the Sotavento zone in the central zone of the State of Veracruz, about 240 km from state capital Xalapa. It has a surface of 323.26 km2 and it is located at 18°22′N 95°48′W. The poet Manuel Carpio was born in Cosamaloapan, Cosamaloapan serves as the municipal seat of the municipality of Cosamaloapan de Carpio, which was so renamed in honour of its most famous son in 1918. It is watered by small creeks of the river Papaloapan and it produces principally maize, beans, sugarcane, watermelon and green chile. In Cosamaloapan, in May takes place the celebration in honor of the Virgen de la Concepción, Patron of the town, the weather in Cosamaloapan is warm and wet all year with rains in summer and autumn. Municipal Official webpage Municipal Official Information
25.
Orizaba
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Orizaba is a city and municipality in the Mexican state of Veracruz. It is located 20 km west of its sister city Córdoba, the city had a 2005 census population of 117,273 and is almost coextensive with its small municipality, with only a few small areas outside the city. The municipalitys population was 117,289 and it has an area of 27.97 km² and it is generally understood that the name Orizaba comes from a Hispanicized pronunciation of the Nahuatl name Ahuilizapan, which means valley of happy waters. Another possibility, however, is the word Harish, this place being the hometown of the first Spanish settlers of Orizaba, the climate is generally pleasant, though often cloudy and rainy, and the soil of the Orizaba valley is extraordinarily fertile. Overlooking the valley from the north is the Pico de Orizaba, in the town of Ixhuatlancillo north of Orizaba, and in a large mountainous area to the south, live many thousands of people who speak a variant of Nahuatl which is often called Orizaba Nahuatl. A plaque at the Temple of The Immaculate Conception in Huiloapan commemorates this event, during the colonial period, Orizaba became an important city. On January 27,1774, the Spanish king Carlos III conceded town status to Orizaba, in October 1812, José María Morelos captured the city for the insurgent army. In 1821 to the end of the war, Agustín de Iturbide was in Orizaba before, when Lucas Alamán established, in 1836, the first textile factory of Orizaba, the city started its economic life as an industrial city. In 1839 the newspaper La Luz was created and the Veracruz by the governor Francisco Hernández y Hernández gave the name of Veracruz-Llave to this state of Mexico. On May 8,1874, Orizaba was declared the city of Veracruz by the governor Apolinar Castillo. During the government of Porfirio Díaz, Orizaba was declared the most educated city in the Mexican province, the American World War I and World War II transport ship USS Orizaba was named after this town. The industry is focused in the following areas, breweries, paper, cement, pharmaceutical, iron and steel sector, soft drinks and food. Also in the last years the commercial area experiments a significant growth due to the opening of new Malls & Major Retailers. The inquiry also disclose that Orizabas Valley will grow 10% in 2013, due to the lack of pollution, the old City Hall El Palacio de Hierro in the centre of the city was designed by Gustave Eiffel. Built with 600 tons of Belgian steel, its parts were shipped from Belgium during the Porfiriato, to be assembled in Orizaba, the palace cost 100,000 pesos a very large sum at the time, considering 1 peso gold was 3 dollars at the time. Unfortunately, Don Manuel Carrillo Tablas died New Years Eve of 1899 without ever having received a cent from the city for his loan. He was a charitable man, though, having donated the land where the present Cathedral of Orizaba now stands. El Palacio de Hierro served as the City Hall until the city felt it was not large enough for the needs of the local government
26.
Civilization (video game)
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Sid Meiers Civilization is the first in a series of turn-based 4X-type strategy video game created by Sid Meier and Bruce Shelley for MicroProse in 1991. Civilization was originally developed for DOS running on a PC and it has undergone numerous revisions for various platforms and now exists in several versions. A multiplayer remake, Sid Meiers CivNet was released for the PC in 1995, the N-Gage version was the 17th game released for the system in North America. Civilization is a turn-based single- or multiplayer strategy game, the player takes on the role of the ruler of a civilization, starting with one settler units, and attempts to build an empire in competition with two to seven other civilizations. The game requires an amount of micromanagement. From time to time the towns may be harassed by barbarians, units with no specific nationality. These threats only come from unclaimed land or sea, so that time there are fewer and fewer places from which barbarians will emanate. Before the game begins, the player chooses which historical or current civilization to play, in contrast to later games in the Civilization series, this is largely a cosmetic choice, affecting titles, city names, musical heralds, and color. The Aztecs are both fiercely expansionist and generally extremely wealthy, for example, other civilizations include the Americans, the Mongols, and Romans. Each civilization is led by a historical figure, such as Mohandas K. Gandhi for India. The scope of Civilization is larger than most other games, the game begins in 4000 BC, before the Bronze Age, and can last through to AD2100 with Space Age and future technologies. At the start of the game there are no cities anywhere in the world, settlers can also alter terrain, build improvements such as mines and irrigation, build roads to connect cities, and later in the game they can construct railroads which offer unlimited movement. As time advances, new technologies are developed, these technologies are the way in which the game changes. At the start, players choose from such as pottery, the wheel. Players can gain an advantage if their civilization is the first to learn a particular technology. The whole system of advancements from beginning to end is called the tree, or simply the Tech tree. Players can also build Wonders of the World in each of the epochs of the game, each wonder can only be built once in the world, and requires a lot of resources to build, far more than most other city buildings or units. Wonders provide unique benefits to the controlling civilization, for example, Magellans Expedition increases the movement rate of naval units
27.
Tohono O'odham
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The Tohono O’odham are a Native American people of the Sonoran Desert, residing primarily in the U. S. state of Arizona and the Mexican state of Sonora. The federally recognized tribe is known as the Tohono Oodham Nation, the Tohono O’odham have rejected the former name Papago, used by Europeans after being adopted by Spanish conquistadores from hearing other Piman bands call them this. The Pima were competitors and referred to the people as Ba, bawĭkoʼa and that word was pronounced papago by the Spanish and adopted by later English speakers. The Tohono Oodham Nation, or Tohono Oodham Indian Reservation, is a reservation located in southern Arizona, encompassing portions of Pima County, Pinal County. The Tohono O’odham share linguistic and cultural roots with the closely related Akimel Oodham, whose lands lie just south of present-day Phoenix, the Sobaipuri are ancestors to both the Tohono O’odham and the Akimel O’odham, and they resided along the major rivers of southern Arizona. Ancient pictographs adorn a rock wall that juts up out of the desert near the Baboquivari Mountains, debates surround the origins of the O’odham. Claims that the O’odham moved north as recently as 300 years ago compete with claims that the Hohokam, recent research on the Sobaipuri, the now extinct relatives of the Oodham, shows that they were present in sizable numbers in the southern Arizona river valleys in the fifteenth century. In the Santa Barbara Mission Archive-Library are materials collected by a Franciscan friar who worked among the Tohono Oodham and these include scholarly volumes and monographs. Historically, the Oodham-speaking peoples were at odds with the nomadic Apache from the seventeenth until the beginning of the twentieth centuries. The Oodham were an agricultural people who raised crops. According to their history, the Apache would raid when they ran short on food, conflict with European settlers encroaching on their lands resulted in the Oodham and the Apache finding common interests. The Oodham word for the Apache enemy is ob, the relationship between the Oodham and Apache was especially strained after 92 Oodham joined the Mexicans and Anglo-Americans and killed close to 144 Apaches during the Camp Grant massacre in 1871. All but eight of the dead were women and children,29 children were captured, considerable evidence suggests that the Oodham and Apache were friendly and engaged in exchange of goods and marriage partners before the late seventeenth century. Oodham oral history, however, suggests that intermarriages resulted from raiding between the two tribes and it was typical for women and children to be taken captive in raids, to be used as slaves by the victors. Often women married into the tribe in which they were held captive, both tribes thus incorporated enemies and their children into their cultures. Oodham musical and dance activities lack grand ritual paraphernalia that call for attention, instead, they wear muted white clay. Oodham songs are accompanied by hard wood rasps and drumming on overturned baskets, dancing features skipping and shuffling quietly in bare feet on dry dirt, the dust raised being believed to rise to atmosphere and assist in forming rain clouds. The original Oodham diet consisted of regionally available wild game, insects, through foraging, Oodham ate a variety of regional plants, such as, ironwood seed, honey mesquite, hog potato, and organ-pipe cactus fruit
28.
Pueblo
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Pueblos are modern and old communities of Native Americans in the Southwestern United States. The first Spanish explorers of the Southwest used this term to describe the communities housed in apartment structures built of stone, adobe mud and these structures were usually multi-storied buildings surrounding an open plaza. The rooms were only through ladders lowered by the inhabitants, thus protecting them from break-ins. Larger pueblos were occupied by hundreds to thousands of Pueblo people, several different federally recognized tribes have traditionally resided in pueblos of such design. The word pueblo is the Spanish word for town or village and it comes from the Latin root word populus meaning people. The demands of agrarian routine and the need for defense, the desire for human society in the vast solitude of. Nowadays the pueblo might have a running into thousands. Doubtless they were smaller in the early middle ages. There are 21 federally recognized Pueblos that are home to Pueblo people and their official federal names are as follows, Pre-Columbian towns and villages in the Southwest, such as Acoma, were located in defensible positions, for example, on high steep mesas. Anthropologists and official documents refer to ancient residents of the area as pueblo cultures. For example, the National Park Service states, The Late Puebloan cultures built the large, the people of some pueblos, such as Taos Pueblo, still inhabit centuries-old adobe pueblo buildings. Contemporary residents often maintain other homes outside the historic pueblos, adobe and light construction methods resembling adobe now dominate architecture at the many pueblos of the area, in nearby towns or cities, and in much of the American Southwest. In addition to contemporary pueblos, numerous ruins of archeological interest are located throughout the Southwest, some are of relatively recent origin
29.
Noah
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In the Abrahamic religions, Noah was the tenth and last of the pre-flood Patriarchs. The story of Noahs Ark is told in the Bibles Genesis flood narrative, the biblical account is followed by the story of the Curse of Canaan. Noah was the subject of much elaboration in the literature of later Abrahamic religions, the primary account of Noah in the Bible is in the Book of Genesis. Noah was the tenth of the pre-flood Patriarchs and his father was Lamech and his mother is unknown. When Noah was five hundred years old, he begat Shem, Ham, the Genesis flood narrative makes up chapters 6–9 in the Book of Genesis, in the Bible. Thus, the flood was no ordinary overflow but a reversal of creation, and God blessed Noah and his sons, and said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth. They were also told that all fowls, land animals, furthermore, as well as green plants, every moving thing would be their food with the exception that the blood was not to be eaten. Mans life blood would be required from the beasts and from man, whoso sheddeth mans blood, by man shall his blood be shed, for in the image of God made he man. Noah died 350 years after the flood, at the age of 950, the maximum human lifespan, as depicted by the Bible, diminishes rapidly thereafter, from almost 1,000 years to the 120 years of Moses. After the flood, Noah became a husbandman and he planted a vineyard, and he drank of the wine, and was drunken, and was uncovered within his tent. Noahs son Ham, the father of Canaan, saw the nakedness of his father and told his brethren, in Jewish tradition and rabbinic literature, rabbis blame Satan for the intoxicating properties of the wine. In the field of biblical criticism, J. H. Ellens and W. G. Rollins address the narrative of Genesis 9. Because of its brevity and textual inconsistencies, it has suggested that this narrative is a splinter from a more substantial tale. A fuller account would explain what exactly Ham had done to his father, or why Noah directed a curse at Canaan for Hams misdeed, or how Noah came to know what occurred. The narrator relates two facts, Noah became drunken and he was uncovered within his tent, and Ham saw the nakedness of his father, and told his two brethren without. Thus, these passages revolve around sexuality and the exposure of genitalia as compared with other Hebrew Bible texts, such as Habakkuk 2,15 and Lamentations 4,21. Genesis 10 sets forth the descendants of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, among Japheth’s descendants were the maritime nations. Ham’s son Cush had a son named Nimrod, who became the first man of might on earth, a mighty hunter, king in Babylon, from there Asshur went and built Nineveh
30.
Great Spirit
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According to Lakota activist Russell Means, a better translation of Wakan Tanka is the Great Mystery. The Great Spirit was not always what Native Americans believed in, the Great Spirit is a God-like entity that was adopted by Native American religion in the 18th century. The Great Spirit is a celestial deity who personally ruled the world. He is the God of creation, history and eternity, before contact with Europeans there was no word in any Native American language that represented a God or a supreme being. Anthropologists have determined that the idea of a Great Spirit is wholly an invention of the white man, there are many different prophets of the Great Spirit. While each prophet is made up of different myths each one has the same goal, each prophet aims at restoration and preservation of a way of Native American life that is diminishing. The Great Spirit is used to guide individuals and their communities with the lessons through the prophets, the Great Spirit is expressed through multiple Native American Tribes which is why each story regarding the Great Spirit is different- they are products of various cultures. Some prophets call for war, while others call for peace, certain prophets call for acculturation between the Native Americans and whites, while others call for complete segregation. Two of the most well known prophets prophecies took place in the early 1800s, the Shawnee Prophet occurred in 1824. Tenskwatawa, a religious and political leader of the Shawnee tribe, warned The Governor of Michigan, Lewis Cass and this flame would end the world as it was between the Native Americans and Whites. Once the destruction was complete, the Great Spirit would restructure, another well-known story happened in 1827 and involves William Clark and Kennekuk, a spiritual leader of the Kickapoo nation. This is known as the Kickapoo Prophet, kennebunk informed Clark that he must be careful while exploring the land that is now Illinois. This warning was so that the relocation of Kennekuk’s tribe would be delayed and he proclaimed that the Great Spirit would give a sign when it was safe to continue traveling. Other popular prophets include The Delaware Prophet and The Red Sticks Prophet, the Great Spirit is portrayed in American Indian history as a powerful force that guides the people in wisdom and survival. In the various tribes, The Great Spirit might be called Earthgrasper, Earthmaker, Gisha Munetoa, Gitchi Manido, an Algonquin legend speaks of a Delaware Indian called Eroneniera that travels to meet The Great Spirit. Upon meeting, The Great Spirit tells Eroneniera that he is the “Maker of Heaven and Earth…because I love you…the land on which you are, the Great Spirit teaches him a prayer to share with his people that they should repeat it every morning and night. The stories of the Native American helped explain mysteries and abstract ideas, the stories also explained weather, animals, and land formations. The Great Spirit and many deities are mentioned in the mythology of the Native American
31.
Hubert Howe Bancroft
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Hubert Howe Bancroft was born May 5,1832, in Granville, Ohio, to Azariah Ashley Bancroft and Lucy Howe Bancroft. The Howe and Bancroft families originally hailed from the New England states of Vermont and Massachusetts, bancrofts parents were staunch abolitionists and the family home was a station on the Underground Railroad. Bancroft attended the Doane Academy in Granville for a year, and he became a clerk in his brother-in-laws bookstore in Buffalo. In March 1852, Bancroft was provided with an inventory of books to sell and was sent to the booming California city of San Francisco to set up a west coast regional office of the firm. Bancroft was successful in building his company, entering the world of publishing in the process and he also became a serious collector of books, building a collection numbering into the tens of thousands of volumes. In 1868, he resigned from his business in favor of his brother and he had accumulated a great library of historical material, and abandoned business to devote himself entirely to writing and publishing history. Bancrofts library consisted of books, maps, and printed and manuscript documents, including a number of narratives dictated to Bancroft or his assistants by pioneers, settlers. The indexing of this vast collection employed six persons for ten years, the library was moved in 1881 to a fireproof building, and in 1900 numbered about 45,000 volumes. He developed a plan to publish a history in 39 volumes of the entire Pacific coast region of North America and he employed collaborators for the preliminary work, and then revised it all, and wrote the most important chapters himself. In 1886, the establishment of A. L. Bancroft & Company burned. Bancrofts first marriage was to Emily Ketchum in 1859 and they had one daughter, a girl who died in 1869. His second wife was Matilda Coley Griffing, with whom he had four children, although he never graduated from college, in 1875 Bancroft was awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree from Yale in recognition of his massive historical work on Native Races of the Pacific States. He was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1875, Hubert Howe Bancroft died on March 2,1918, at his country home in Walnut Creek, California. Acute peritonitis was blamed as the cause of death in published newspaper reports, Bancroft was 86 years old at the time of his death. His body was interred in the Cypress Lawn Memorial Park in Colma, the Bancroft Library at UC Berkeley, named in his honor, was founded when the University of California purchased his 60, 000-volume book collection in 1905. Bancroft is also the namesake of Bancroft Way in Berkeley, California, in 1885 Bancroft purchased a ranch with an adobe cottage located in Spring Valley, in San Diego County, as a retirement home. The Hubert H. Bancroft Ranch House is now a National Historic Landmark, in addition, part of a property Bancroft bought around 1880 in Contra Costa County, California is now the Ruth Bancroft Garden. An archive of Bancroft family correspondence, collected by his daughter Kate, is held in Special Collections and Archives at the Geisel Library at the University of California, San Diego
32.
University of Arizona Press
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The University of Arizona Press, a publishing house founded in 1959 as a department of the University of Arizona, is a nonprofit publisher of scholarly and regional books. The Press publishes about fifty books annually and has some 1,400 books in print and these include scholarly titles in American Indian studies, anthropology, archaeology, environmental studies, geography, Chicano studies, history, Latin American studies, and the space sciences. The UA Press also publishes general interest books on Arizona and the Southwest borderlands, a Documentary Chronicle of Sino-Western Relations, 1644-1820, Translated texts. Volume 22 of Monographs of the Association for Asian Studies, Volume 1 of A Documentary Chronicle of Sino-Western Relations, published for the Association for Asian Studies by the University of Arizona Press
33.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
34.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
35.
Thames & Hudson
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Thames & Hudson is a publisher of illustrated books on art, architecture, design, and visual culture. With its headquarters in London, England, it has a company in New York and subsidiaries in Melbourne, Singapore. In Paris, it has a subsidiary company, Interart, which is engaged in the distribution of English-language books. It has been an independent, family-owned company since its founding in 1949, Thames & Hudsons World of Art series is especially well-known. Thames & Hudson was established by Walter Neurath who was born in Vienna in 1903 and he left that city, where he ran an art gallery and published illustrated books with an emphasis on education, arriving in London in 1938. He initially worked as director of Adprint, a business established by fellow Viennese émigré Wolfgang Foges. Neurath’s concept was the first sign of many innovations that through Thames & Hudson he would introduce to the world of publishing. Eva Neurath, who had arrived in London in 1939 from Berlin and worked alongside Neurath at Adprint, co-founded the company as partner. Among the ten titles that were published in Thames & Hudson’s first publication season in 1950, English Cathedrals, a testament to the company’s strong belief from the very start in the longevity of books, it remained in print until 1971. Also appearing in the first year of publication was Albert Einstein’s Out of my later years, the company remained at that address, eventually expanding to five houses, until 1999. In 1958, Thames & Hudson launched what is one of its series, the World of Art. Characterized by their size and black spines – little black artbooks – the series expanded in just seven years to include 49 titles. More than fifty years later, over 300 titles have appeared in the series, more than 100 titles were published in the series over a 34-year period. In 1964 the company’s production director introduced what are commonly known as ‘French folds’, dust jackets that are folded over on top. In 2004 a four-volume monograph on Pritzker Prize–winning architect Zaha Hadid was published, having built one of the most important publishing houses in Europe in fewer than two decades, Walter Neurath died in 1967 at the age of 63. Sculptor Henry Moore wrote, His death is a loss to our cultural life, walter’s son, Thomas, who with his sister Constance had joined the company in 1961, became managing director, Constance later served as art director for several decades. In the United States, the New York company, which had closed in 1953, was re-established in 1976 and it was initially led by Paul Gottlieb, who later became president of Harry Abrams publishers in New York. In 1979 he was succeeded by Peter Warner, who served the company for thirty years, will Balliett has been president of Thames & Hudson Inc. since 2009
36.
Acamapichtli
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Acamapichtli was the first tlatoani, or ruler, of the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan, and founder of the Aztec imperial dynasty. He became ruler in 1375 and reigned for 19 years, acamapichti was not a native of Tenochtitlan. Blood relationships between rulers were an important aspect of politics in 14th century Mexico, and as relative newcomers, the Mexicans were at a disadvantage. On the death of Tenoch in 1375, the elders of the Mexica calpultin decided to elect a tlatoani who could secure the citys position through ties to powerful groups in the region. They sent a delegation to the leaders of Culhuacan, although the Culhua had only recently ejected the Mexica from Tizaapan, some intermarriage had taken place between the two peoples during their period of association. Acamapichtli was the product of one such union and his father, Opochtli Iztahuatzin, was a Mexica leader, while his mother Atotoztli I was the daughter of the King Coxcoxtli and sister of King Huehue Acamapichtli. He also had ties to the Acolhua of Coatlinchan, in addition to these concrete ties, the Culhua nobility claimed direct descent from the Toltecs, making their bloodline particularly prestigious. Acamapichtli began his rule as cihuacóatl, at the time of his designation he was 20 years old, living in Texcoco with his mother. After his acceptance of the throne, he was brought to Tenochtitlan and he married Ilancueitl, daughter of the then ruler of Culhuacán, Acolmiztli. To integrate these ties with the city of Tenochtitlan, Acamapichtli took a wife from each Tenochtitlan calpulli, despite Acamapichtlis Culhua ancestry, his city rapidly fell into the Tepanec orbit and became a tributary of Azcapotzalco. During his reign Mexica forces fought for Azcapotzalco against various city states, notably Chalco, expeditions were sent against Cuauhnahuac and Xochimilco. Tribute was due to the Tecpanec rulers every full moon, a said to be oppressive. In spite of the hostility of Azcapotzalco, Tenochtitlan progressed, the island on which the city was situated was enlarged to the east with the addition of dirt and rock. The Mexica were careful, however, to maintain a distance from the mainland. Built in the middle of Lake Texcoco, Tenochtitlan suffered from limited farmland, Acamapichtli built up the citys agricultural base by expanding the chinampa system around the island, and by capturing lakeshore chinampas from other cities, particularly Xochimilco. He also made improvements to the citys architecture — the earliest excavated level of the Great Pyramid, Temple II, dates to his reign. During his reign, the city was divided into four neighborhoods or calpullis, Moyotlán in the southwest, Zoquipan in the southeast, Cuecopan in the northwest, houses of cane and reeds were replaced with houses of stone. A great temple, or teocalli, was also constructed and it is said that during his reign, the first Aztec laws were made
modern Nahuatl pronunciation (help·info)), Huehuemotecuhzoma or Montezuma I (Classical Nahuatl: Motēuczōma Ilhuicamīna [moteːkʷˈsoːma ilwikaˈmiːna], Classical Nahuatl: Huēhuemotēuczōma [weːwemoteːkʷˈsoːma]), was the second Aztec emperor and fifth king of Tenochtitlan. During his reign, the Aztec Empire was consolidated,[1] major expansion was undertaken, and Tenochtitlan started becoming the dominant partner of the Aztec Triple Alliance. Often mistaken for his popular descendent, Moctezuma II, Moctezuma I greatly contributed to the famed Aztec Empire that thrived until Spanish arrival, and he ruled over a period of peace from 1440 to 1453. Moctezuma brought social, economical, and political reform to strengthen Aztec rule, and Tenochititlan benefited from relations with other tribes.[2]
"Montezuma I.". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. 1900.
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