1.
Transport
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Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, the field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations, terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be public or private, depending on the country. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution. While it is subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow. A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a type of vehicle, infrastructure. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the modes, each mode has its own advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip on the basis of cost, capability, and route. Human powered transport, a form of transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power, human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing, even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish this from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift, a gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, two things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow
2.
Aviation
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Aviation is the practical aspect or art of aeronautics, being the design, development, production, operation and use of aircraft, especially heavier than air aircraft. The word aviation was coined by French writer and former naval officer Gabriel La Landelle in 1863, from the verb avier, itself derived from the Latin word avis and the suffix -ation. The modern age of aviation began with the first untethered human lighter-than-air flight on November 21,1783, the practicality of balloons was limited because they could only travel downwind. It was immediately recognized that a steerable, or dirigible, balloon was required, jean-Pierre Blanchard flew the first human-powered dirigible in 1784 and crossed the English Channel in one in 1785. Rigid airships became the first aircraft to transport passengers and cargo over great distances, the best known aircraft of this type were manufactured by the German Zeppelin company. The most successful Zeppelin was the Graf Zeppelin and it flew over one million miles, including an around-the-world flight in August 1929. However, the dominance of the Zeppelins over the airplanes of that period, the Golden Age of the airships ended on May 6,1937 when the Hindenburg caught fire, killing 36 people. The cause of the Hindenburg accident was blamed on the use of hydrogen instead of helium as the lift gas. An internal investigation by the manufacturer revealed the coating used to protect the material over the frame was highly flammable. Changes to the coating formulation reduced the risk of further Hindenburg type accidents, although there have been periodic initiatives to revive their use, airships have seen only niche application since that time. In 1799 Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Seven years later, on 14 October 1897, Aders Avion III was tested without success in front of two officials from the French War ministry, the report on the trials was not publicized until 1910, as they had been a military secret. In November 1906 Ader claimed to have made a flight on 14 October 1897. Although widely believed at the time, these claims were later discredited, however, the most widely accepted date is December 17,1903 by the Wright brothers. The Wright brothers were the first to fly in a powered and controlled aircraft, previous flights were gliders or free flight, but the Wright brothers combined both, setting the new standard in aviation records. Aircraft began to transport people and cargo as designs grew larger, the Wright brothers took aloft the first passenger, Charles Furnas, one of their mechanics, on May 14,1908. By the beginning of World War II, many towns and cities had built airports, the war brought many innovations to aviation, including the first jet aircraft and the first liquid-fueled rockets. Manufacturers such as Cessna, Piper, and Beechcraft expanded production to provide aircraft for the new middle-class market
3.
Human-powered transport
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Human-powered transport is the transport of person and/or goods using human muscle power. Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has existed since time immemorial in the form of walking, running and swimming, modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human-power. Although motorization has increased speed and load capacity, many forms of human-powered transport remain popular for reasons of lower cost, leisure, physical exercise, human-powered transport is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions. In the 1989 Race Across America, one used a experimental device comprising a rear wheel hub, a sensor. The most efficient human-powered land vehicle is the bicycle, compared to the much more common upright bicycle, the recumbent bicycle may be faster on level ground or down hills due to better aerodynamics while having similar power transfer efficiency. Velomobiles are increasingly popular in colder and/or wetter countries due to the protection they offer against the environment, freight bicycles are used to transport cargo. Cycle rickshaws can be used as taxicabs, in 2016, AeroVelo cyclist Todd Reichert achieved the human-powered speed record of 142.04 km/h with a velomobile at Battle Mountain, Nevada. Dutch cyclist Fred Rompelberg set a 268.8 km/h speed record at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah on October 3,1995 while cycling in the wake of a motor dragster pace-car, the wake of the pace-car reduced the aerodynamic drag against which Rompelberg pedalled to almost zero. Greg Kolodziejzyk set two world records recognized by both the International Human Powered Vehicle Association and Guinness World Records on July 17,2006 on a track in Eureka. The first record is for the most distance traveled in 24 hours by human power 1,041 km, and the second for the worlds fastest 1,000 km time trial. Both records were broken on August 6,2010 by Christian von Ascheberg who drove 1,000 km in 19 hours,27 minutes, in the same race he also raised the 12-hour record to 664.97 km, which is an average of 55.41 km/h. In 1969, artists in a small Northern California town began the Kinetic sculpture race which has grown to a 42 mi, three-day all terrain, human-powered sculpture race and it is held every year on the last weekend in May. The Pedaliante flew short distances fully under human power in 1936, the flights were deemed to be a result of the pilots significant strength and endurance, and not attainable by a typical human. Additional attempts were made in 1937 and 1938 using a catapult system, with the catapult launch, the plane successfully traveled the 1 km distance outlined by the competition, but was declined the prize due to the takeoff method. The first officially authenticated regularly feasible take-off and landing of an aircraft was made on 9 November 1961 by Derek Piggott in Southampton Universitys Man Powered Aircraft. Perhaps the best-known human-powered plane is the Gossamer Albatross, which flew across the English Channel in 1979. The current speed record is held by the Monarch B, built by a team at MIT in 1983, the first officially observed human-powered helicopter to have left the ground was the Da Vinci III in 1989. It was designed and built by students at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo in California and it flew for 7.1 seconds and reached a height of 8 in
4.
Rail transport
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Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
5.
Road transport
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Road transport or road transportation is the transport of passengers or goods on roads. This transport method can be via bike or automobiles or by such as horse or oxen. Standard networks of roads were adopted by Romans, Persians, Aztec, modern roads came into adoption during the late 1700s with civil engineering. Cargo may be transported by trucking companies, while passengers may be transported via mass transit, commonly defined features of modern roads include defined lanes and signage. Within the United States, roads between regions are connected via the Interstate Highway System, the first methods of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game trail. The Persians later built a network of Royal Roads across their empire, to resolve this issue, the Romans built great roads. The Roman roads used deep roadbeds of crushed stone as a layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from the crushed stone. The Islamic Caliphate later built tar-paved roads in Baghdad, as states developed and became richer, especially with the Renaissance, new roads and bridges began to be built, often based on Roman designs. Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little innovation in road building before the 18th century. Starting in the early 18th century, the British Parliament began to pass a series of acts that gave the local powers to erect toll-gates on the roads. The toll-gate erected at Wades mill became the first effective toll-gate in England, the first scheme that had trustees who were not justices was established through a Turnpike Act in 1707, for a section of the London-Chester road between Foothill and Stony Stafford. This became the pattern for the turn piking of a number of highways. The quality of turnpike roads was varied. Although turn piking did result in some improvement to each highway, the used to deal with geological features, drainage. Road construction improved slowly, initially through the efforts of individual surveyors such as John Metcalf in Yorkshire in the 1760s, British turnpike builders began to realize the importance of selecting clean stones for surfacing, and excluding vegetable material and clay to make better lasting roads. The first professional road builder to emerge during the Industrial Revolution was John Metcalf and he believed a good road should have good foundations, be well drained and have a smooth convex surface to allow rainwater to drain quickly into ditches at the side. He understood the importance of good drainage, knowing it was rain that caused most problems on the roads, pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet established the first scientific approach to road building in France at the same time. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France and it involved a layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel
6.
Pipeline transport
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Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods or material through a pipe. The latest data, in 2014, gives a total of less than 2,175,000 miles of pipeline in 120 countries of the world. The United States had 65%, Russia had 8%, and Canada had 3%, Pipeline and Gas Journal’s worldwide survey figures indicate that 118,623 miles of pipelines are planned and under construction. Of these,88,976 miles represent projects in the planning, Liquids and gases are transported in pipelines and any chemically stable substance can be sent through a pipeline. Pipelines exist for the transport of crude and refined petroleum, fuels - such as oil, natural gas and biofuels - and other fluids including sewage, slurry, water, pneumatic tubes using compressed air can be used to transport solid capsules. Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes which are usually buried, the oil is moved through the pipelines by pump stations along the pipeline. Natural gas are lightly pressurised into liquids known as Natural Gas Liquids, Natural gas pipelines are constructed of carbon steel. Highly toxic ammonia is theoretically the most dangerous substance to be transported through long-distance pipelines, hydrogen pipeline transport is the transportation of hydrogen through a pipe. District heating or teleheating systems use a network of insulated pipes which transport heated water, pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or oil, pose special safety concerns and there have been various accidents. Pipelines can be the target of vandalism, sabotage, or even terrorist attacks, in war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks. It is uncertain when the first crude oil pipeline was built, pipelines are generally the most economical way to transport large quantities of oil, refined oil products or natural gas over land. Natural gas are lightly pressurized into liquids knows as Natural Gas Liquids, small NGL processing facilities can be located in oil fields so the butane and propane liquid under light pressure of 125 pounds per square inch, can be shipped by rail, truck or pipeline. Propane can be used as a fuel in oil fields to heat various facilities used by the oil drillers or equipment and trucks used in the oil patch. EG, Propane will convert from a gas to a liquid under pressure,100 psi, give or take depending on temperature. Pipelines and rail cars use about double that pressure to pump at 250 psi, the distance to ship propane to markets is much shorter, as thousands of natural-gas processing plants are located in or near oil fields. Compared to shipping by railroad, pipelines have lower cost per unit, pipelines are preferable to transportation by truck for a number of reasons. Employment on completed pipelines represents only 1% of that of the trucking industry and this allows the Bakken Basin and Three Forks oil producers to get higher negotiated prices for their oil because they will not be restricted to just one wholesale market in the US. The distance from the biggest oil patch in North Dakota, is Williston, North Dakota, only about 85 miles or 137 kilometers to the Canada–US border, mutual funds and joint ventures are big investors in new oil and gas pipelines
7.
Spaceflight
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Spaceflight is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board, examples of human spaceflight include the U. S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth and these operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous. Spaceflight is used in exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites, a spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled, some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact. The first theoretical proposal of space using rockets was published by Scottish astronomer and mathematician William Leitch. More well-known is Konstantin Tsiolkovskys work, Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами, spaceflight became an engineering possibility with the work of Robert H. Goddards publication in 1919 of his paper A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. His application of the de Laval nozzle to liquid fuel rockets improved efficiency enough for travel to become possible. He also proved in the laboratory that rockets would work in the vacuum of space, nonetheless and his attempt to secure an Army contract for a rocket-propelled weapon in the first World War was defeated by the November 11,1918 armistice with Germany. Nonetheless, Goddards paper was influential on Hermann Oberth, who in turn influenced Wernher von Braun. Von Braun became the first to produce modern rockets as guided weapons, von Brauns V-2 was the first rocket to reach space, at an altitude of 189 kilometers on a June 1944 test flight. At the end of World War II, von Braun and most of his rocket team surrendered to the United States, over the same period, the Soviet Union secretly tried but failed to develop the N1 rocket to give them the capability to land one person on the Moon. Rockets are the only means currently capable of reaching orbit or beyond, other non-rocket spacelaunch technologies have yet to be built, or remain short of orbital speeds. Spaceports are situated away from human habitation for noise and safety reasons. ICBMs have various special launching facilities, a launch is often restricted to certain launch windows. These windows depend upon the position of bodies and orbits relative to the launch site. The biggest influence is often the rotation of the Earth itself, once launched, orbits are normally located within relatively constant flat planes at a fixed angle to the axis of the Earth, and the Earth rotates within this orbit
8.
Maritime transport
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Ship transport is watercraft carrying people or goods. Freight transport has been achieved widely by sea throughout recorded history, although the importance of sea travel for passengers has decreased due to aviation, it is effective for short trips and pleasure cruises. Transport by water is cheaper than transport by air, despite fluctuating exchange rates, ship transport can be realized over any distance by boat, ship, sailboat or barge, over oceans and lakes, through canals or along rivers. Virtually any material can be moved by water, however, water transport becomes impractical when material delivery is highly time-critical such as types of perishable produce. Containerization revolutionized ship transport starting in the 1970s, general cargo includes goods packaged in boxes, cases, pallets, and barrels. When a cargo is carried in more than one mode, it is intermodal or co-modal, a nations shipping fleet consists of the ships operated by civilian crews to transport passengers or cargo from one place to another. Ores, Coal, and grains can travel along the rivers of the American midwest to Pittsburgh, professional mariners are merchant seaman, merchant sailor, and merchant mariner, or simply seaman, sailor, or mariners. The terms seaman or sailor may refer to a member of a countrys navy, according to the 2005 CIA World Factbook, the total number of merchant ships of at least 1,000 gross register tons in the world was 30,936. In 2010, it was 38,988, an increase of 26%, statistics for individual countries are available at the list of merchant navy capacity by country. A ships complement can be divided into four categories, the department, the engineering department, the stewards department. Officer positions in the department include but not limited to, Master and his Chief, Second. The official classifications for unlicensed members of the department are Able Seaman. Their time on board is spent learning the operations and tasks of life on a merchant vessel. A ships engineering department consists of the members of a crew that operate and maintain the propulsion. Marine Engineering staff also deal with the Hotel facilities on board, notably the sewage, lighting, air conditioning, on LPG and LNG tankers however, a cargo engineer works with the deck department during cargo operations, as well as being a watchkeeping engineer. Other possible positions include Motorman, Machinist, Electrician, Refrigeration Engineer, engine Cadets are trainee engineers who are completing sea time necessary before they can obtain a watchkeeping license. A typical Stewards department for a ship would be composed of a Chief Steward, a Chief Cook. All three positions are filled by unlicensed personnel
9.
Vehicle
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A vehicle is a mobile machine that transports people or cargo. Typical vehicles include wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles, railed vehicles, Land vehicles are classified broadly by what is used to apply steering and drive forces against the ground, wheeled, tracked, railed or skied. ISO 3833-1977 is the standard, also used in legislation, for road vehicles types, terms. Boats were used between 4000 BC-3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean, there is evidence of camel pulled wheeled vehicles about 3000–4000 BC. Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, in 200 CE, Ma Jun built a south-pointing chariot, a vehicle with an early form of guidance system. Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages, the earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau dating from around 1350. In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, the line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope and was operated by human or animal power, through a treadwheel. 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in 1769. In Russia, in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern features such as a flywheel, brake, gear box and bearings, however and it was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817. 1903 Wright brothers flew the first controlled, powered aircraft 1907 First helicopters Gyroplane no.1, there are over 1 billion bicycles in use worldwide. In 2002 there were an estimated 590 million cars and 205 million motorcycles in service in the world, at least 500 million Chinese Flying Pigeon bicycles have been made, more than an other single model of vehicle. The most-produced model of vehicle is the Honda Super Cub motorcycle. The most-produced car model is the Toyota Corolla, with at least 35 million made by 2010, by far, most vehicles use wheels which employ the principle of rolling to enable displacement with very little rolling friction. It is essential that a vehicle have a source of energy to drive it, energy can be extracted from the surrounding environment, as in the case of a sailboat, a solar-powered car or a streetcar. Energy can also be stored, in any form, provided it can be converted on demand, the most common type of energy source is fuel. Batteries also facilitate the use of motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures. Like fuel, batteries store energy and can cause burns
10.
Pack animal
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Traditional pack animals are diverse, including camels, goats, yaks, reindeer, water buffalo, and llamas, as well as the more familiar horses, donkeys and mules. The term pack animal is used in contrast to draft animal. For instance, sled dogs pull loads but do not normally carry them, traditional pack animals include ungulates such as camels, the yak, reindeer, goats, water buffalo and llama, and domesticated members of the horse family including horses, donkeys and mules. Occasionally, dogs can be used to carry small loads, hauling of goods in wagons with horses and oxen gradually displaced the use of packhorses, which had been important until the Middle Ages, by the sixteenth century. Pack animals may be fitted with saddles and may also carry saddlebags. The use of animals is considered a valid means of viewing and experiencing some National Parks in America, subject to guidelines. In the 21st century, special forces have received guidance on the use of horses, mules, llamas, camels, dogs, the maximum load for a camel is roughly 300 kg. Yaks are loaded differently according to region, in Sichuan,75 kg is carried for 30 km in 6 hours. In Qinghai, at 4100 m altitude, packs of up to 300 kg are routinely carried, llamas can carry roughly 1/4 of their body weight, so an adult male of 200 kg can carry some 50 kg. The US Army specifies a maximum of 20 percent of weight for mules walking up to 20 miles a day in mountains. However an 1867 text mentioned a load of up to 800 pounds, in India, the prevention of cruelty rules limit mules to 200 kg and ponies to 70 kg. Reindeer can carry up to 40 kg for a period in mountains
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