1.
Transport
–
Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, the field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations, terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be public or private, depending on the country. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution. While it is subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow. A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a type of vehicle, infrastructure. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the modes, each mode has its own advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip on the basis of cost, capability, and route. Human powered transport, a form of transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power, human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing, even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish this from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift, a gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, two things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow
Transport
–
People walking in front of the
bulk carrier BW Fjord
Transport
–
French
National Police use several modes of transport, each with their distinct advantages.
Transport
–
Human-powered transport remains common in developing countries.
Transport
–
An
Air France Airbus A318 lands at
London Heathrow Airport.
2.
Aviation
–
Aviation is the practical aspect or art of aeronautics, being the design, development, production, operation and use of aircraft, especially heavier than air aircraft. The word aviation was coined by French writer and former naval officer Gabriel La Landelle in 1863, from the verb avier, itself derived from the Latin word avis and the suffix -ation. The modern age of aviation began with the first untethered human lighter-than-air flight on November 21,1783, the practicality of balloons was limited because they could only travel downwind. It was immediately recognized that a steerable, or dirigible, balloon was required, jean-Pierre Blanchard flew the first human-powered dirigible in 1784 and crossed the English Channel in one in 1785. Rigid airships became the first aircraft to transport passengers and cargo over great distances, the best known aircraft of this type were manufactured by the German Zeppelin company. The most successful Zeppelin was the Graf Zeppelin and it flew over one million miles, including an around-the-world flight in August 1929. However, the dominance of the Zeppelins over the airplanes of that period, the Golden Age of the airships ended on May 6,1937 when the Hindenburg caught fire, killing 36 people. The cause of the Hindenburg accident was blamed on the use of hydrogen instead of helium as the lift gas. An internal investigation by the manufacturer revealed the coating used to protect the material over the frame was highly flammable. Changes to the coating formulation reduced the risk of further Hindenburg type accidents, although there have been periodic initiatives to revive their use, airships have seen only niche application since that time. In 1799 Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Seven years later, on 14 October 1897, Aders Avion III was tested without success in front of two officials from the French War ministry, the report on the trials was not publicized until 1910, as they had been a military secret. In November 1906 Ader claimed to have made a flight on 14 October 1897. Although widely believed at the time, these claims were later discredited, however, the most widely accepted date is December 17,1903 by the Wright brothers. The Wright brothers were the first to fly in a powered and controlled aircraft, previous flights were gliders or free flight, but the Wright brothers combined both, setting the new standard in aviation records. Aircraft began to transport people and cargo as designs grew larger, the Wright brothers took aloft the first passenger, Charles Furnas, one of their mechanics, on May 14,1908. By the beginning of World War II, many towns and cities had built airports, the war brought many innovations to aviation, including the first jet aircraft and the first liquid-fueled rockets. Manufacturers such as Cessna, Piper, and Beechcraft expanded production to provide aircraft for the new middle-class market
Aviation
–
LZ 129 Hindenburg at
Lakehurst Naval Air Station, 1936
Aviation
–
First assisted take-off flight by the
Wright Brothers, December 17, 1903
Aviation
–
NASA 's
Helios researches
solar powered flight.
Aviation
–
Northwest Airlines Airbus A330-323X
3.
Cable transport
–
Cable transport is a broad class of transport modes that have cables as the foundation for transporting things, people, or vehicles. The cable may be driven or passive, items may be moved by pulling, sliding, sailing, during said period of time, several new methods were thought of and implemented including the use of steel cable to allow for greater load support and larger systems. The idea for a cable hauled street railway in California belonged to Benjamin Brooks, instead, Andrew Hallidie, a Scottish emigre, gave San Francisco the first effective and commercially successful route, using steel cables. Hallidie was a manufacturer of such cables, the system featured a man operated grip, which was able to start the carrier and stop it safely as well. The rope that was used allowed the independent use of more than one car at once. The carriers had a capacity of between 14 and 16 people but during the hours, they could fit between 24 and 26 passengers without any problems. The tickets cost about 5 cents, which was expensive for back then. The London one used fiber, instead of ropes and collars to make the connection from the grip to the rope. This caused a series of technical and safety issues, which led to replacing the lines with steam vehicles by 1848, more recent developments are being classified under the type of track that their design is based upon. In 1868 the Westside and Yonkers railway came into operation according to Andrea Marocchi, after the success of this operation, several other projects were initiated in New Zealand and Chicago. The social climate around pollution is allowing for a shift from cars back to the utilization of cable transport due to their advantages, however, for many years they were a niche form of transportation used primarily in difficult-to-operate conditions for cars. Now that Cable Transport Projects are on the incline the social effects are beginning to more significant. There are a few advantages to using cable transport including. This significantly reduces construction and maintenance costs, high safety – Accidents relating to cable transport are extremely rare. Over 10,000 CTPs transport billions of people each year yet cable transports have some the best safety records of any mode of transport, reduced operator number – Cable cars require no drivers which reduce costs and increases safety. Reliability and efficiency – Modern cable transport has, on average, energy Efficient – Due to cable transport’s use of gravity and counterbalancing, many systems generate are self-sufficient in terms of power during off-peak times. High speed – CTPs can travel up to 45 km/hr, in addition to this, by their very nature, they take the most direct route to their destinations and aren’t subject to delays such as traffic jams. Large capacity – An aerial CTP can transport up to 4,000 people in one direction per hour, ground-based increases this to 10,000 people
Cable transport
–
Cable car at
Zell am See in the Austrian Alps
4.
Land transport
–
Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power. Human-powered vehicles have also developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. Rail transport is where a train runs along a set of two steel rails, known as a railway or railroad. The rails are anchored perpendicular to ties of timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a consistent distance apart, the rails and perpendicular beams are placed on a foundation made of concrete, or compressed earth and gravel in a bed of ballast. Alternative methods include monorail and maglev, a train consists of one or more connected vehicles that run on the rails. Propulsion is commonly provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, the locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by trackside systems. Alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit, also, a train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbines. Railed vehicles move with less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient. Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities, modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to 350 km/h, freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominant solution for general freight, a road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. In urban areas, roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a function as urban space easement. The most common road vehicle is the automobile, a passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Other users of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles, as of 2002, there were 590 million automobiles worldwide. Automobiles have caused air pollution which results to people getting Asthma, road transport offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one lane to the other and from one road to another according to the need and convenience. This flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed, and it is possible to provide door to door service only by road transport. Road transport by truck is often the initial and final stage of freight transport, pipeline transport sends goods through a pipe, most commonly liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes can also send solid capsules using compressed air. For liquids/gases, any chemically stable liquid or gas can be sent through a pipeline, short-distance systems exist for sewage, slurry, water and beer, while long-distance networks are used for petroleum and natural gas
Land transport
–
Human-powered transport remains common in developing countries.
Land transport
–
The
New York City Subway is the world's largest
rapid transit system by length of routes and by number of
stations.
Land transport
–
InterCityExpress, a German
high-speed passenger train
Land transport
–
The
Harbor Freeway is often heavily congested at rush hour in
Downtown Los Angeles.
5.
Human-powered transport
–
Human-powered transport is the transport of person and/or goods using human muscle power. Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has existed since time immemorial in the form of walking, running and swimming, modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human-power. Although motorization has increased speed and load capacity, many forms of human-powered transport remain popular for reasons of lower cost, leisure, physical exercise, human-powered transport is sometimes the only type available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions. In the 1989 Race Across America, one used a experimental device comprising a rear wheel hub, a sensor. The most efficient human-powered land vehicle is the bicycle, compared to the much more common upright bicycle, the recumbent bicycle may be faster on level ground or down hills due to better aerodynamics while having similar power transfer efficiency. Velomobiles are increasingly popular in colder and/or wetter countries due to the protection they offer against the environment, freight bicycles are used to transport cargo. Cycle rickshaws can be used as taxicabs, in 2016, AeroVelo cyclist Todd Reichert achieved the human-powered speed record of 142.04 km/h with a velomobile at Battle Mountain, Nevada. Dutch cyclist Fred Rompelberg set a 268.8 km/h speed record at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah on October 3,1995 while cycling in the wake of a motor dragster pace-car, the wake of the pace-car reduced the aerodynamic drag against which Rompelberg pedalled to almost zero. Greg Kolodziejzyk set two world records recognized by both the International Human Powered Vehicle Association and Guinness World Records on July 17,2006 on a track in Eureka. The first record is for the most distance traveled in 24 hours by human power 1,041 km, and the second for the worlds fastest 1,000 km time trial. Both records were broken on August 6,2010 by Christian von Ascheberg who drove 1,000 km in 19 hours,27 minutes, in the same race he also raised the 12-hour record to 664.97 km, which is an average of 55.41 km/h. In 1969, artists in a small Northern California town began the Kinetic sculpture race which has grown to a 42 mi, three-day all terrain, human-powered sculpture race and it is held every year on the last weekend in May. The Pedaliante flew short distances fully under human power in 1936, the flights were deemed to be a result of the pilots significant strength and endurance, and not attainable by a typical human. Additional attempts were made in 1937 and 1938 using a catapult system, with the catapult launch, the plane successfully traveled the 1 km distance outlined by the competition, but was declined the prize due to the takeoff method. The first officially authenticated regularly feasible take-off and landing of an aircraft was made on 9 November 1961 by Derek Piggott in Southampton Universitys Man Powered Aircraft. Perhaps the best-known human-powered plane is the Gossamer Albatross, which flew across the English Channel in 1979. The current speed record is held by the Monarch B, built by a team at MIT in 1983, the first officially observed human-powered helicopter to have left the ground was the Da Vinci III in 1989. It was designed and built by students at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo in California and it flew for 7.1 seconds and reached a height of 8 in
Human-powered transport
–
Sherpa carrying wood to
Mount Everest base camp
Human-powered transport
–
Road cyclist
Human-powered transport
–
Skateboards are propelled by pushing (one foot riding on board, one foot pushing on ground) or by gravity
Human-powered transport
–
Trikkes by shifting the rider's body weight
6.
Rail transport
–
Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
Rail transport
–
Four
BNSF GE C44-9W diesel locomotives hauling a mixed freight train along the banks of the
Columbia River, between
Kennewick and
Wishram,
Washington State, United States
Rail transport
–
Horsecar in
Brno, Czech Republic
Rail transport
–
A British steam locomotive-hauled train
Rail transport
–
Tren a las Nubes (Train to the Clouds), located in
Salta,
Argentina
7.
Road transport
–
Road transport or road transportation is the transport of passengers or goods on roads. This transport method can be via bike or automobiles or by such as horse or oxen. Standard networks of roads were adopted by Romans, Persians, Aztec, modern roads came into adoption during the late 1700s with civil engineering. Cargo may be transported by trucking companies, while passengers may be transported via mass transit, commonly defined features of modern roads include defined lanes and signage. Within the United States, roads between regions are connected via the Interstate Highway System, the first methods of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game trail. The Persians later built a network of Royal Roads across their empire, to resolve this issue, the Romans built great roads. The Roman roads used deep roadbeds of crushed stone as a layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from the crushed stone. The Islamic Caliphate later built tar-paved roads in Baghdad, as states developed and became richer, especially with the Renaissance, new roads and bridges began to be built, often based on Roman designs. Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little innovation in road building before the 18th century. Starting in the early 18th century, the British Parliament began to pass a series of acts that gave the local powers to erect toll-gates on the roads. The toll-gate erected at Wades mill became the first effective toll-gate in England, the first scheme that had trustees who were not justices was established through a Turnpike Act in 1707, for a section of the London-Chester road between Foothill and Stony Stafford. This became the pattern for the turn piking of a number of highways. The quality of turnpike roads was varied. Although turn piking did result in some improvement to each highway, the used to deal with geological features, drainage. Road construction improved slowly, initially through the efforts of individual surveyors such as John Metcalf in Yorkshire in the 1760s, British turnpike builders began to realize the importance of selecting clean stones for surfacing, and excluding vegetable material and clay to make better lasting roads. The first professional road builder to emerge during the Industrial Revolution was John Metcalf and he believed a good road should have good foundations, be well drained and have a smooth convex surface to allow rainwater to drain quickly into ditches at the side. He understood the importance of good drainage, knowing it was rain that caused most problems on the roads, pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet established the first scientific approach to road building in France at the same time. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France and it involved a layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel
Road transport
–
A truck transporting a container on
Interstate 95 in
South Florida.
Road transport
–
Disruptions in organized
traffic flow can create delays lasting hours.
Road transport
–
Road construction, depicted on
Trajan's Column.
Road transport
–
The
Great North Road near Highgate on the approach to London before turnpiking. The highway was deeply rutted and spread onto adjoining land.
8.
Pipeline transport
–
Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods or material through a pipe. The latest data, in 2014, gives a total of less than 2,175,000 miles of pipeline in 120 countries of the world. The United States had 65%, Russia had 8%, and Canada had 3%, Pipeline and Gas Journal’s worldwide survey figures indicate that 118,623 miles of pipelines are planned and under construction. Of these,88,976 miles represent projects in the planning, Liquids and gases are transported in pipelines and any chemically stable substance can be sent through a pipeline. Pipelines exist for the transport of crude and refined petroleum, fuels - such as oil, natural gas and biofuels - and other fluids including sewage, slurry, water, pneumatic tubes using compressed air can be used to transport solid capsules. Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes which are usually buried, the oil is moved through the pipelines by pump stations along the pipeline. Natural gas are lightly pressurised into liquids known as Natural Gas Liquids, Natural gas pipelines are constructed of carbon steel. Highly toxic ammonia is theoretically the most dangerous substance to be transported through long-distance pipelines, hydrogen pipeline transport is the transportation of hydrogen through a pipe. District heating or teleheating systems use a network of insulated pipes which transport heated water, pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or oil, pose special safety concerns and there have been various accidents. Pipelines can be the target of vandalism, sabotage, or even terrorist attacks, in war, pipelines are often the target of military attacks. It is uncertain when the first crude oil pipeline was built, pipelines are generally the most economical way to transport large quantities of oil, refined oil products or natural gas over land. Natural gas are lightly pressurized into liquids knows as Natural Gas Liquids, small NGL processing facilities can be located in oil fields so the butane and propane liquid under light pressure of 125 pounds per square inch, can be shipped by rail, truck or pipeline. Propane can be used as a fuel in oil fields to heat various facilities used by the oil drillers or equipment and trucks used in the oil patch. EG, Propane will convert from a gas to a liquid under pressure,100 psi, give or take depending on temperature. Pipelines and rail cars use about double that pressure to pump at 250 psi, the distance to ship propane to markets is much shorter, as thousands of natural-gas processing plants are located in or near oil fields. Compared to shipping by railroad, pipelines have lower cost per unit, pipelines are preferable to transportation by truck for a number of reasons. Employment on completed pipelines represents only 1% of that of the trucking industry and this allows the Bakken Basin and Three Forks oil producers to get higher negotiated prices for their oil because they will not be restricted to just one wholesale market in the US. The distance from the biggest oil patch in North Dakota, is Williston, North Dakota, only about 85 miles or 137 kilometers to the Canada–US border, mutual funds and joint ventures are big investors in new oil and gas pipelines
Pipeline transport
–
An elevated section of the
Alaska Pipeline.
Pipeline transport
–
A "
Pig " launcher/receiver, belonging to the natural gas pipeline in Switzerland
Pipeline transport
–
The world's longest ammonia pipeline from
Russia to
Ukraine.
Pipeline transport
–
The
Los Angeles Aqueduct in
Antelope Valley.
9.
Spaceflight
–
Spaceflight is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board, examples of human spaceflight include the U. S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth and these operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous. Spaceflight is used in exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites, a spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled, some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact. The first theoretical proposal of space using rockets was published by Scottish astronomer and mathematician William Leitch. More well-known is Konstantin Tsiolkovskys work, Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами, spaceflight became an engineering possibility with the work of Robert H. Goddards publication in 1919 of his paper A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. His application of the de Laval nozzle to liquid fuel rockets improved efficiency enough for travel to become possible. He also proved in the laboratory that rockets would work in the vacuum of space, nonetheless and his attempt to secure an Army contract for a rocket-propelled weapon in the first World War was defeated by the November 11,1918 armistice with Germany. Nonetheless, Goddards paper was influential on Hermann Oberth, who in turn influenced Wernher von Braun. Von Braun became the first to produce modern rockets as guided weapons, von Brauns V-2 was the first rocket to reach space, at an altitude of 189 kilometers on a June 1944 test flight. At the end of World War II, von Braun and most of his rocket team surrendered to the United States, over the same period, the Soviet Union secretly tried but failed to develop the N1 rocket to give them the capability to land one person on the Moon. Rockets are the only means currently capable of reaching orbit or beyond, other non-rocket spacelaunch technologies have yet to be built, or remain short of orbital speeds. Spaceports are situated away from human habitation for noise and safety reasons. ICBMs have various special launching facilities, a launch is often restricted to certain launch windows. These windows depend upon the position of bodies and orbits relative to the launch site. The biggest influence is often the rotation of the Earth itself, once launched, orbits are normally located within relatively constant flat planes at a fixed angle to the axis of the Earth, and the Earth rotates within this orbit
Spaceflight
Spaceflight
–
Tsiolkovsky, early space theorist
Spaceflight
–
Saturn V on the launch pad before the launch of
Apollo 4
Spaceflight
–
Launched in 1959,
Luna 1 was the first known man-made object to achieve escape velocity from the Earth. (replica pictured)
10.
Maritime transport
–
Ship transport is watercraft carrying people or goods. Freight transport has been achieved widely by sea throughout recorded history, although the importance of sea travel for passengers has decreased due to aviation, it is effective for short trips and pleasure cruises. Transport by water is cheaper than transport by air, despite fluctuating exchange rates, ship transport can be realized over any distance by boat, ship, sailboat or barge, over oceans and lakes, through canals or along rivers. Virtually any material can be moved by water, however, water transport becomes impractical when material delivery is highly time-critical such as types of perishable produce. Containerization revolutionized ship transport starting in the 1970s, general cargo includes goods packaged in boxes, cases, pallets, and barrels. When a cargo is carried in more than one mode, it is intermodal or co-modal, a nations shipping fleet consists of the ships operated by civilian crews to transport passengers or cargo from one place to another. Ores, Coal, and grains can travel along the rivers of the American midwest to Pittsburgh, professional mariners are merchant seaman, merchant sailor, and merchant mariner, or simply seaman, sailor, or mariners. The terms seaman or sailor may refer to a member of a countrys navy, according to the 2005 CIA World Factbook, the total number of merchant ships of at least 1,000 gross register tons in the world was 30,936. In 2010, it was 38,988, an increase of 26%, statistics for individual countries are available at the list of merchant navy capacity by country. A ships complement can be divided into four categories, the department, the engineering department, the stewards department. Officer positions in the department include but not limited to, Master and his Chief, Second. The official classifications for unlicensed members of the department are Able Seaman. Their time on board is spent learning the operations and tasks of life on a merchant vessel. A ships engineering department consists of the members of a crew that operate and maintain the propulsion. Marine Engineering staff also deal with the Hotel facilities on board, notably the sewage, lighting, air conditioning, on LPG and LNG tankers however, a cargo engineer works with the deck department during cargo operations, as well as being a watchkeeping engineer. Other possible positions include Motorman, Machinist, Electrician, Refrigeration Engineer, engine Cadets are trainee engineers who are completing sea time necessary before they can obtain a watchkeeping license. A typical Stewards department for a ship would be composed of a Chief Steward, a Chief Cook. All three positions are filled by unlicensed personnel
Maritime transport
–
Harbour cranes unload cargo from a container ship at the
Jawaharlal Nehru Port in
Navi Mumbai,
India.
Maritime transport
–
A container ship belonging to the French shipping line
CMA CGM.
Maritime transport
–
An able seaman stands iceberg lookout on the bow of the freighter USNS Southern Cross during a re-supply mission to
McMurdo Station, Antarctica; circa 1981.
Maritime transport
11.
History of transport
–
The history of transport is largely one of technological innovation. Advances in technology have allowed people to travel farther, explore more territory, even in ancient times, new tools such as foot coverings, skis, and snowshoes lengthened the distances that could be travelled. As new inventions and discoveries were applied to problems, travel time decreased while the ability to move more. Innovation continues as transport researchers are working to find new ways to reduce costs, the first earth tracks were created by humans carrying goods and often followed trails. Tracks would be created at points of high traffic density. As animals were domesticated, horses, oxen and donkeys became an element in track-creation, with the growth of trade, tracks were often flattened or widened to accommodate animal traffic. Later, the travois, a used to drag loads, was developed. Animal-drawn wheeled vehicles were developed in the Ancient Near East in the 4th or 5th millennium BC and spread to Europe and India in the 4th millennium BC. The Romans had a significant need for roads to extend and maintain their empire. The modern history of transport also involves the development of new vehicles such as new models of horse-drawn vehicles, bicycles, motor cars, motor trucks. In the stone ages primitive boats developed to permit navigation of rivers and for fishing in rivers and it has been argued that boats suitable for a significant sea crossing were necessary for people to reach Australia an estimated 40, 000-45,000 years ago. With the development of civilization, vessels evolved for expansion and generally grew in size for trade, in the Mediterranean, galleys were developed about 3000 BC. In the Industrial Revolution, the first steamboats and later diesel-powered ships were developed, eventually submarines were developed mainly for military purposes for peoples general benefit. Meanwhile, specialised craft were developed for river and canal transport, canals were developed in Mesopotamia c.4000 BC. The Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan and North India had the first canal irrigation system in the world, the longest canal of ancient times was the Grand Canal of China. Iss 1,794 kilometers long and was built to carry the Emperor Yang Guang between Beijing and Hangzhou. The project began in 605, although the oldest sections of the canal may have existed since c.486 BC, canals were developed in the Middle Ages in Europe in Venice and the Netherlands. Pierre-Paul Riquet began to organise the construction of the 240 km-long Canal du Midi in France in 1665, in the Industrial Revolution, inland canals were built in England and later the United States before the development of railways. The history of rail transportation dates back nearly 500 years, and includes systems with man or horse power and this was usually for moving coal from the mine down to a river, from where it could continue by boat, with a flanged wheel running on a rail
History of transport
–
Pilots of
611 West Lancashire Squadron lend a hand pushing an early Spitfire Mark IXb,
Biggin Hill, late 1942.
12.
Ship transport
–
Ship transport is watercraft carrying people or goods. Freight transport has been achieved widely by sea throughout recorded history, although the importance of sea travel for passengers has decreased due to aviation, it is effective for short trips and pleasure cruises. Transport by water is cheaper than transport by air, despite fluctuating exchange rates, ship transport can be realized over any distance by boat, ship, sailboat or barge, over oceans and lakes, through canals or along rivers. Virtually any material can be moved by water, however, water transport becomes impractical when material delivery is highly time-critical such as types of perishable produce. Containerization revolutionized ship transport starting in the 1970s, general cargo includes goods packaged in boxes, cases, pallets, and barrels. When a cargo is carried in more than one mode, it is intermodal or co-modal, a nations shipping fleet consists of the ships operated by civilian crews to transport passengers or cargo from one place to another. Ores, Coal, and grains can travel along the rivers of the American midwest to Pittsburgh, professional mariners are merchant seaman, merchant sailor, and merchant mariner, or simply seaman, sailor, or mariners. The terms seaman or sailor may refer to a member of a countrys navy, according to the 2005 CIA World Factbook, the total number of merchant ships of at least 1,000 gross register tons in the world was 30,936. In 2010, it was 38,988, an increase of 26%, statistics for individual countries are available at the list of merchant navy capacity by country. A ships complement can be divided into four categories, the department, the engineering department, the stewards department. Officer positions in the department include but not limited to, Master and his Chief, Second. The official classifications for unlicensed members of the department are Able Seaman. Their time on board is spent learning the operations and tasks of life on a merchant vessel. A ships engineering department consists of the members of a crew that operate and maintain the propulsion. Marine Engineering staff also deal with the Hotel facilities on board, notably the sewage, lighting, air conditioning, on LPG and LNG tankers however, a cargo engineer works with the deck department during cargo operations, as well as being a watchkeeping engineer. Other possible positions include Motorman, Machinist, Electrician, Refrigeration Engineer, engine Cadets are trainee engineers who are completing sea time necessary before they can obtain a watchkeeping license. A typical Stewards department for a ship would be composed of a Chief Steward, a Chief Cook. All three positions are filled by unlicensed personnel
Ship transport
–
Harbour cranes unload cargo from a container ship at the
Jawaharlal Nehru Port in
Navi Mumbai,
India.
Ship transport
–
A container ship belonging to the French shipping line
CMA CGM.
Ship transport
–
An able seaman stands iceberg lookout on the bow of the freighter USNS Southern Cross during a re-supply mission to
McMurdo Station, Antarctica; circa 1981.
Ship transport
13.
Off-road transport
–
Off-road transport is moving people or articles without the use of paved roads, typically using off-road vehicles. Off-roading is the activity of driving or riding a vehicle on unsurfaced roads or tracks, made of such as sand, gravel, riverbeds, mud, snow, rocks. Off-road racing is a format of racing where various classes of modified vehicles compete in races through off-road environments. An off-road vehicle is considered to be any type of vehicle which is capable of driving on and it is generally characterized by having large tires with deep, open treads, a flexible suspension, or even caterpillar tracks. Other vehicles that do not travel public streets or highways are generally termed off-highway vehicles, including tractors, forklifts, cranes, backhoes, bulldozers, Off-road vehicles have an enthusiastic following because of their many uses and versatility. The use of higher clearance and higher traction vehicles enables access on trails and forest roads that have rough, all-terrain tyre Land Rover Traction engine Unimog Off-road transport in the context of tree-felling from the University of New Brunswick
Off-road transport
–
Mercedes-Benz
Unimog in the Dunes of
Erg Chebbi in
Morocco. Note the high ground clearance due to
Portal gear axles
14.
Space transport
–
Spaceflight is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board, examples of human spaceflight include the U. S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth and these operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous. Spaceflight is used in exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites, a spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft—both when unpropelled, some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact. The first theoretical proposal of space using rockets was published by Scottish astronomer and mathematician William Leitch. More well-known is Konstantin Tsiolkovskys work, Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами, spaceflight became an engineering possibility with the work of Robert H. Goddards publication in 1919 of his paper A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. His application of the de Laval nozzle to liquid fuel rockets improved efficiency enough for travel to become possible. He also proved in the laboratory that rockets would work in the vacuum of space, nonetheless and his attempt to secure an Army contract for a rocket-propelled weapon in the first World War was defeated by the November 11,1918 armistice with Germany. Nonetheless, Goddards paper was influential on Hermann Oberth, who in turn influenced Wernher von Braun. Von Braun became the first to produce modern rockets as guided weapons, von Brauns V-2 was the first rocket to reach space, at an altitude of 189 kilometers on a June 1944 test flight. At the end of World War II, von Braun and most of his rocket team surrendered to the United States, over the same period, the Soviet Union secretly tried but failed to develop the N1 rocket to give them the capability to land one person on the Moon. Rockets are the only means currently capable of reaching orbit or beyond, other non-rocket spacelaunch technologies have yet to be built, or remain short of orbital speeds. Spaceports are situated away from human habitation for noise and safety reasons. ICBMs have various special launching facilities, a launch is often restricted to certain launch windows. These windows depend upon the position of bodies and orbits relative to the launch site. The biggest influence is often the rotation of the Earth itself, once launched, orbits are normally located within relatively constant flat planes at a fixed angle to the axis of the Earth, and the Earth rotates within this orbit
Space transport
Space transport
–
Tsiolkovsky, early space theorist
Space transport
–
Saturn V on the launch pad before the launch of
Apollo 4
Space transport
–
Launched in 1959,
Luna 1 was the first known man-made object to achieve escape velocity from the Earth. (replica pictured)
15.
Infrastructure
–
Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. The word was imported from French, where it means subgrade, the word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra, meaning below, and structure. The military use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s and this crisis discussion contributed to an increase in infrastructure asset management and maintenance planning in the US. Public-policy discussions have been hampered by lack of a definition for infrastructure. A1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the public works infrastructure. The OECD also classifies communications as a part of infrastructure, the American Society of Civil Engineers has not defined the term, though issuing a US Infrastructure Report Card every 2-4 years. Hard infrastructure refers to the physical networks necessary for the functioning of an industrial nation. The term critical infrastructure distinguishes those infrastructure elements that, if damaged or destroyed. Similarly, a booking system might be critical infrastructure for an airline. These elements of infrastructure are the focus of efforts in the aftermath of natural disasters. The term infrastructure may be confused with the following overlapping or related concepts, service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term public works includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as buildings, such as schools. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services, public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by private companies, generally, most roads, major ports and airports, water distribution systems and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for taxes, tolls, or metered user fees. Major investment projects are financed by the issuance of long-term bonds. Government owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the sector or in public-private partnerships. As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2. 3% and 3. 6% of GDP since 1950, many financial institutions invest in infrastructure
Infrastructure
–
Grand Coulee Dam
16.
Vehicle
–
A vehicle is a mobile machine that transports people or cargo. Typical vehicles include wagons, bicycles, motor vehicles, railed vehicles, Land vehicles are classified broadly by what is used to apply steering and drive forces against the ground, wheeled, tracked, railed or skied. ISO 3833-1977 is the standard, also used in legislation, for road vehicles types, terms. Boats were used between 4000 BC-3000 BC in Sumer, ancient Egypt and in the Indian Ocean, there is evidence of camel pulled wheeled vehicles about 3000–4000 BC. Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, in 200 CE, Ma Jun built a south-pointing chariot, a vehicle with an early form of guidance system. Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages, the earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a stained-glass window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau dating from around 1350. In 1515, Cardinal Matthäus Lang wrote a description of the Reisszug, the line originally used wooden rails and a hemp haulage rope and was operated by human or animal power, through a treadwheel. 1769 Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot is often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle or automobile in 1769. In Russia, in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin developed a human-pedalled, three-wheeled carriage with modern features such as a flywheel, brake, gear box and bearings, however and it was introduced by Drais to the public in Mannheim in summer 1817. 1903 Wright brothers flew the first controlled, powered aircraft 1907 First helicopters Gyroplane no.1, there are over 1 billion bicycles in use worldwide. In 2002 there were an estimated 590 million cars and 205 million motorcycles in service in the world, at least 500 million Chinese Flying Pigeon bicycles have been made, more than an other single model of vehicle. The most-produced model of vehicle is the Honda Super Cub motorcycle. The most-produced car model is the Toyota Corolla, with at least 35 million made by 2010, by far, most vehicles use wheels which employ the principle of rolling to enable displacement with very little rolling friction. It is essential that a vehicle have a source of energy to drive it, energy can be extracted from the surrounding environment, as in the case of a sailboat, a solar-powered car or a streetcar. Energy can also be stored, in any form, provided it can be converted on demand, the most common type of energy source is fuel. Batteries also facilitate the use of motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures. Like fuel, batteries store energy and can cause burns
Vehicle
–
Buses are a common form of vehicles used for public transport.
Vehicle
–
A Slavic dugout boat from the 10th century
Vehicle
–
Automobiles are among the most commonly used engine-powered vehicles
Vehicle
–
The most common model of vehicle in the world, the
Flying Pigeon bicycle.
17.
Business operations
–
The outcome of business operations is the harvesting of value from assets owned by a business. Assets can be physical or intangible. An example of value derived from an asset, like a building, is rent. An example of value derived from an asset, like an idea, is a royalty. The effort involved in harvesting this value is what constitutes business operations cycles, the following basic tenets illustrate this interdependency, The more recurring income an asset generates, the more valuable it becomes. For example, the products that sell at the highest volumes and prices are usually considered to be the most valuable products in a product portfolio. The more valuable a product becomes the more recurring income it generates, for example, a luxury car can be leased out at a higher rate than a normal car. The intrinsic value and income-generating potential of an asset cannot be realized without a way to secure it, for example, petroleum deposits are worthless unless processes and equipment are developed and employed to extract, refine, and distribute it profitably. The business model of a business describes the means by which the three management imperatives are achieved, in this sense, business operations is the execution of the business model. This is the most straightforward and well-understood management imperative of business operations, the funds directly acquired by the business in exchange for the goods and services it delivers is the businesss revenue. The cost of developing, producing, and delivering these goods, a business whose revenues are sufficiently greater than its expenses makes profit or income. As such, generating recurring revenue is not the focus of operations management, efficient processes that reduce costs even while prices remain the same expand the gap between revenue and expenses and derive higher profitability. Types of recurring income- Long term sales contracts - monthly to yearly based contracts for a service and/or product, multiple revenue streams - different sources of business income that support each other, example - sell printers and toners. The more profitable a business is, the more valuable it is, a businesss profitability is measured on the basis of how much income it generates for the, amount of assets its business operations employ — its business return. Amount of revenue it realizes — its business margin, growth strategies Expand market, offer product or service to a wider section of an existing market or to a new demographic, psychographic or geographic market. Develop brand, a recognised, respected and developed brand is highly valuable, develop through research, design and marketing of companies name, logo and tagline. Management systems Show growth potential, create a business that has potential to be efficiently expanded, example, developing an efficient business system and operating manuals allows the business to potentially be franchised or licensed. Maintain intangible assets, Maintaining intangible assets can protect elements that add value to a business - patenting, copyrighting or trademarking anything believed to be an intangible asset
Business operations
–
Business administration
18.
Environmental impact of aviation
–
The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat, noise, particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming. From 1992 to 2005, passenger kilometers increased 5. 2% per year, and in the European Union, greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. These concerns are highlighted by the present volume of commercial aviation, globally, about 8.3 million people fly daily, twice the total in 1999. U. S. airlines alone burned about 16.2 billion gallons of fuel during the months between October 2013 and September 2014. Emissions weighting factor i. e. the factor by which aviation CO2 emissions should be multiplied to get the CO2-equivalent emissions for annual fleet average conditions is in the range 1. 3–2.9. In 1999 the contribution of civil aircraft-in-flight to global CO2 emissions was estimated to be around 2%, a 2007 report from Environmental Change Institute / Oxford University posits a range closer to 4 percent cumulative effect. The level and effects of CO2 emissions are currently believed to be broadly the same regardless of altitude, at the high altitudes flown by large jet airliners around the tropopause, emissions of NOx are particularly effective in forming ozone in the upper troposphere. High altitude NOx emissions result in greater concentrations of O3 than surface NOx emissions, the effect of O3 concentrations are regional and local. NOx emissions also reduce ambient levels of methane, another greenhouse gas, but this effect does not offset the O3 forming effect of NOx emissions. It is now believed that aircraft sulfur and water emissions in the stratosphere tend to deplete O3 and these effects have not been quantified. This problem does not apply to aircraft that fly lower in the troposphere, one of the products of burning hydrocarbons in oxygen is water vapour, a greenhouse gas. Water vapour produced by aircraft engines at high altitude, under certain conditions, condenses into droplets to form Condensation trails. Contrails are visible line clouds that form in cold, humid atmospheres and are thought to have a warming effect. Contrails are extremely rare from lower-altitude aircraft, or from aircraft or rotorcraft. Cirrus clouds have been observed to develop after the persistent formation of contrails and have found to have a global warming effect over-and-above that of contrail formation alone. However, a 2015 study found that artificial cloudiness caused by contrail outbreaks reduce the difference between daytime and nighttime temperatures, the former are decreased and the latter are increased, in comparison to temperatures the day before and the day after such outbreaks. On days with outbreaks the day/night temperature difference was diminished by about 6F° in the U. S, south and 5F° in the Midwest. Least significant is the release of soot and sulfate particles, soot absorbs heat and has a warming effect, sulfate particles reflect radiation and have a small cooling effect
Environmental impact of aviation
–
Contrails
Environmental impact of aviation
–
A
C-141 Starlifter leaves
contrails over
Antarctica.
Environmental impact of aviation
–
Cirrus cloud formation
19.
Air France
–
Air France, stylized as AIRFRANCE, is the French flag carrier headquartered in Tremblay-en-France. It is a subsidiary of the Air France–KLM Group and a member of the SkyTeam global airline alliance. The airlines global hub is at Charles de Gaulle Airport with Orly Airport, Air Frances corporate headquarters, previously in Montparnasse, Paris, are located on the grounds of Charles de Gaulle Airport, north of Paris. During the Cold War, from 1950 until 1990, it was one of the three main Allied scheduled airlines operating in Germany at West Berlins Tempelhof and Tegel airports. In 1990, it acquired the operations of French domestic carrier Air Inter and it served as Frances primary national flag carrier for seven decades prior to its 2003 merger with KLM. Between April 2001 and March 2002, the airline carried 43.3 million passengers and had a revenue of €12. 53bn. In November 2004, Air France ranked as the largest European airline with 25. 5% total market share, Air France operates a mixed fleet of Airbus and Boeing widebody jets on long-haul routes, and uses Airbus A320 family aircraft on short-haul routes. Air France introduced the A380 on 20 November 2009 with service to New York Citys JFK Airport from Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, the carriers regional airline subsidiary, HOP. operates the majority of its regional domestic and European scheduled services with a fleet of regional jet aircraft. Of these airlines, SGTA was the first commercial company in France. The constituent members of Air France had already built extensive networks across Europe, to French colonies in North Africa, during World War II, Air France moved its operations to Casablanca. In 1936, Air France added French-built twin engine Potez 62 aircraft to its featuring a two compartment cabin that could accommodate 14 to 16 passengers. A high wing monoplane, it had a fuselage with composite coating while the wings were fabric covered with a metal leading edge. Equipped with Hispano-Suiza V-engines, they were used on routes in Europe, South America, on 26 June 1945 all of Frances air transport companies were nationalised. On 29 December 1945, a decree of the French Government granted Air France the management of the entire French air transport network, Air France appointed its first flight attendants in 1946. The same year the airline opened its first air terminal at Les Invalides in central Paris and it was linked to Paris Le Bourget Airport, Air Frances first operations and engineering base, by coach. At that time the network covered 160,000 km, claimed to be the longest in the world, Société Nationale Air France was set up on 1 January 1946. European schedules were initially operated by a fleet of Douglas DC-3 aircraft, on 1 July 1946, Air France started direct flights between Paris and New York via refuelling stops at Shannon and Gander. Douglas DC-4 piston-engine airliners covered the route in just under 20 hours, in September 1947 Air Frances network stretched east from New York, Fort de France and Buenos Aires to Shanghai
Air France
–
The inauguration of the Aérogare des Invalides on 21 August 1951
Air France
–
Air France
Douglas DC-3 at
Manchester Airport in 1952
Air France
–
Lockheed Super Constellation of Air France at London (Heathrow) Airport in April 1955
Air France
–
Passengers disembarking from a Sud-Est SE-161
20.
Airbus A318
–
The Airbus A318 is the smallest member of the Airbus A320 family of short- to medium-range, narrow-body, commercial passenger twin-engine jet airliners manufactured by Airbus. The A318 carries up to 132 passengers and has a range of 3,100 nmi. Final assembly of the takes place in Hamburg, Germany. It is intended primarily for service, although British Airways uses them on their London City Airport to New York-JFK Airport transatlantic route. The aircraft shares a type rating with all other Airbus A320 family variants. It is the largest commercial aircraft certified by the European Aviation Safety Agency for steep approach operations, the A318 entered service in July 2003 with Frontier Airlines. Relative to other Airbus A320 family variants, it has sold in small numbers with total orders for only 80 aircraft placed. The first member of the A320 family was the A320 which was launched in March 1984, the family was soon extended to include the stretched A321, the shortened A319, and the further shortened A318. The A320 family pioneered the use of digital fly-by-wire flight control systems, as well as side stick controls, the A318 was born out of mid-1990s studies between Aviation Industries of China, Singapore Technologies Aerospace, Alenia and Airbus on a 95- to 125-seat aircraft project. The programme was called the AE31X, and covered the 95-seat AE316, the former was to have an overall length of 31.3 metres, while the AE317 would be longer by 3.2 metres, at 34.5 metres. The engines would be supplied from two BMW Rolls-Royce BR715s, CFM56-9s, or Pratt & Whitney PW6000s, with a maximum weight of 53.3 tonnes for the smaller version and 58 tonnes for the AE317. The thrust requirements were 77. 9–84.6 kilonewtons and 84. 6–91.2 kilonewtons, range was settled at 5,200 kilometres and 5,800 kilometres for the high gross weight versions of both variants. Both would share a wingspan of 31.0 metres and a deck similar to that of the A320 family. Costing $2 billion to develop, aircraft production was to place in China. The aircraft was first named A319M5 in as early as March 1995, the final proposal was for an aircraft seating 107 passengers in a two-class layout with a range of 3,350 kilometres. The aircrafts production took advantage of welding, eliminating the necessity for heavy rivets and bolts. Overall, the A318 is over six metres shorter and around 3 t lighter than the A320, to compensate for the reduced moment arm, it has a larger vertical stabiliser. Pilots who are trained on the other variants may fly the A318 with no further certification, since it features a flight deck
Airbus A318
–
A318
Airbus A318
–
An Airbus A318 of British Airways at London City Airport
Airbus A318
–
The Airbus A318, in Airbus's corporate livery at the FIDAE 2006 air show on
Santiago de Chile International Airport.
Airbus A318
–
Avianca Airbus A318 landing
21.
London Heathrow Airport
–
Heathrow Airport is a major international airport in London, United Kingdom. In 2016, it handled a record 75.7 million passengers, Heathrow lies 14 miles west of Central London, and has two parallel east–west runways along with four operational terminals on a site that covers 12.27 square kilometres. London Heathrow is the hub for British Airways and the primary operating base for Virgin Atlantic. In September 2012, the UK government established the Airports Commission, in July 2015, the commission backed a third runway at Heathrow and the government approved a third runway in October 2016. Heathrow is 14 mi west of central London, near the end of the London Borough of Hillingdon on a parcel of land that is designated part of the Metropolitan Green Belt. The airport is surrounded by the areas of Harlington, Harmondsworth, Longford and Cranford to the north and by Hounslow. To the south lie Bedfont and Stanwell while to the west Heathrow is separated from Slough in Berkshire by the M25 motorway, Heathrow falls entirely under the TW postcode area. As the airport is west of London and as its runways run east–west, for a chronicled history of Heathrow Airport, see History of Heathrow Airport. Heathrow Airport originated in 1929 as an airfield on land south-east of the hamlet of Heathrow from which the airport takes its name. At that time there were farms, market gardens and orchards there, there was a Heathrow Farm about where Terminal 1 is now, a Heathrow Hall and a Heathrow House. This hamlet was largely along a lane which ran roughly along the east. Development of the whole Heathrow area as a much larger airport began in 1944. But by the time the airfield was nearing completion, World War II had ended, the government continued to develop the airport as a civil airport, it opened as London Airport in 1946 and was renamed Heathrow Airport in 1966. Heathrow Airport is used by over 80 airlines flying to 185 destinations in 84 countries, the airport is the primary hub of British Airways and is a base for Virgin Atlantic. It has four terminals and a cargo terminal. Of Heathrows 73.4 million passengers in 2014, 93% were international travellers, the busiest single destination in passenger numbers is New York, with over 3 million passengers flying between Heathrow and JFK Airport in 2013. As the required length for runways has grown, Heathrow now has two parallel runways running east–west. These are extended versions of the two east–west runways from the original hexagram, from the air, almost all of the original runways can still be seen, incorporated into the present system of taxiways
London Heathrow Airport
–
Aerial view of Heathrow Airport
London Heathrow Airport
–
Heathrow Airport Heathrow
London Heathrow Airport
–
A
Qantas Boeing 747-400 on approach to London Heathrow 27L runway.
London Heathrow Airport
–
Central waiting area in Terminal 5
22.
Fixed-wing aircraft
–
A fixed-wing aircraft is an aircraft, such as an aeroplane, which is capable of flight using wings that generate lift caused by the vehicles forward airspeed and the shape of the wings. Fixed-wing aircraft are distinct from rotary-wing aircraft, in which the form a rotor mounted on a spinning shaft. Glider fixed-wing aircraft, including free-flying gliders of various kinds and tethered kites, powered fixed-wing aircraft that gain forward thrust from an engine include powered paragliders, powered hang gliders and some ground effect vehicles. The wings of an aircraft are not necessarily rigid, kites, hang-gliders, variable-sweep wing aircraft. Most fixed-wing aircraft are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, kites were used approximately 2,800 years ago in China, where materials ideal for kite building were readily available. Some authors hold that leaf kites were being flown much earlier in what is now Indonesia, by at least 549 AD paper kites were being flown, as it was recorded in that year a paper kite was used as a message for a rescue mission. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources list other uses of kites for measuring distances, testing the wind, lifting men, signaling, and communication for military operations. Stories of kites were brought to Europe by Marco Polo towards the end of the 13th century, although they were initially regarded as mere curiosities, by the 18th and 19th centuries kites were being used as vehicles for scientific research. This machine may have been suspended for its flight, some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century poet Abbas Ibn Firnas and the 11th-century monk Eilmer of Malmesbury, both experiments injured their pilots. In 1799, Sir George Cayley set forth the concept of the aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, in 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider LAlbatros artificiel pulled by a horse on a beach. In 1884, the American John J. Montgomery made controlled flights in a glider as a part of a series of gliders built between 1883-1886, other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, and Octave Chanute. In the 1890s, Lawrence Hargrave conducted research on wing structures and his box kite designs were widely adopted. Although he also developed a type of aircraft engine, he did not create. Sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, in 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising. The test showed that it had enough lift to take off, the craft was uncontrollable, which Maxim, it is presumed, realized, because he subsequently abandoned work on it. By 1905, the Wright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable flight for substantial periods, the flight was certified by the FAI. This was the first controlled flight, to be officially recognised, the Bleriot VIII design of 1908 was an early aircraft design that had the modern monoplane tractor configuration
Fixed-wing aircraft
–
A
Boeing 737 aeroplane - an example of a fixed-wing aircraft
Fixed-wing aircraft
–
A
delta -shaped
kite
Fixed-wing aircraft
–
Boys flying a kite in 1828 Germany, by
Johann Michael Voltz
Fixed-wing aircraft
–
Le Bris and his glider, Albatros II, photographed by
Nadar, 1868
23.
Airplane
–
An airplane or aeroplane is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine or propeller. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations, the broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. Commercial aviation is a massive industry involving the flying of tens of thousands of daily on airliners. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, the Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, recognized as the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight. They built on the works of George Cayley dating from 1799, between 1867 and 1896, the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal also studied heavier-than-air flight. Following its limited use in World War I, aircraft continued to develop. Airplanes had a presence in all the battles of World War II. The first jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178 in 1939, the first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in service for more than 50 years. Aéroplane originally referred just to the wing, as it is a plane moving through the air, in an example of synecdoche, the word for the wing came to refer to the entire aircraft. In the United States and Canada, the airplane is used for powered fixed-wing aircraft. In the United Kingdom and most of the Commonwealth, the aeroplane is usually applied to these aircraft. Many stories from antiquity involve flight, such as the Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus, and this machine may have been suspended for its flight. Some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century poet Abbas ibn Firnas, leonardo da Vinci researched the wing design of birds and designed a man-powered aircraft in his Codex on the Flight of Birds. In 1799, George Cayley set forth the concept of the airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, in 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider LAlbatros artificiel pulled by a horse on a beach. Then Alexander F. Mozhaisky also made some innovative designs, in 1883, the American John J. Montgomery made a controlled flight in a glider. Other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower steam engines driving two propellers
Airplane
–
Boeing 737 -700 jet airliner
Airplane
–
Le Bris and his
glider, Albatros II, photographed by
Nadar, 1868
Airplane
–
Otto Lilienthal in mid-flight, c. 1895
Airplane
–
An
Antonov An-2 biplane
24.
Helicopters
–
A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward and these attributes allow helicopters to be used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-wing aircraft and many forms of VTOL aircraft cannot perform. English language nicknames for helicopter include chopper, copter, helo, heli, Helicopters were developed and built during the first half-century of flight, with the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 being the first operational helicopter in 1936. Some helicopters reached limited production, but it was not until 1942 that a helicopter designed by Igor Sikorsky reached full-scale production, with 131 aircraft built. Though most earlier designs used more than one rotor, it is the single main rotor with anti-torque tail rotor configuration that has become the most common helicopter configuration. Tandem rotor helicopters are also in use due to their greater payload capacity. Coaxial helicopters, tiltrotor aircraft, and compound helicopters are all flying today, quadcopter helicopters pioneered as early as 1907 in France, and other types of multicopter have been developed for specialized applications such as unmanned drones. The earliest references for vertical flight came from China, since around 400 BC, Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. This bamboo-copter is spun by rolling a stick attached to a rotor, the spinning creates lift, and the toy flies when released. The 4th-century AD Daoist book Baopuzi by Ge Hong reportedly describes some of the ideas inherent to rotary wing aircraft, designs similar to the Chinese helicopter toy appeared in Renaissance paintings and other works. In the 18th and early 19th centuries Western scientists developed flying machines based on the Chinese toy. It was not until the early 1480s, when Leonardo da Vinci created a design for a machine that could be described as an aerial screw, that any recorded advancement was made towards vertical flight. His notes suggested that he built flying models, but there were no indications for any provision to stop the rotor from making the craft rotate. As scientific knowledge increased and became accepted, people continued to pursue the idea of vertical flight. In July 1754, Russian Mikhail Lomonosov had developed a small coaxial modeled after the Chinese top but powered by a spring device. It was powered by a spring, and was suggested as a method to lift meteorological instruments. Sir George Cayley, influenced by a fascination with the Chinese flying top, developed a model of feathers, similar to that of Launoy and Bienvenu. By the end of the century, he had progressed to using sheets of tin for rotor blades and his writings on his experiments and models would become influential on future aviation pioneers
Helicopters
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A police department
Bell 206 helicopter
Helicopters
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A decorated Japanese taketombo bamboo-copter
Helicopters
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Leonardo's "aerial screw"
Helicopters
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Prototype created by
M. Lomonosov, 1754
25.
Airships
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An airship or dirigible balloon is a type of aerostat or lighter-than-air aircraft that can navigate through the air under its own power. Aerostats gain their lift from large gas bags filled with a gas that is less dense than the surrounding air. In early dirigibles, the gas used was hydrogen, due to its high lifting capacity. Helium gas has almost the same lifting capacity and is not flammable, unlike hydrogen, significant amounts were first discovered in the United States and for a while helium was only used for airships by the United States. Most airships built since the 1960s have used helium, though some have used hot air, the envelope of an airship may form a single gas bag, or may contain a number of internal gas-filled cells. An airship also has engines, crew, and optionally also payload accommodation, the main types of airship are non-rigid, semi-rigid, and rigid. Non-rigid airships, often called blimps, rely on internal pressure to maintain the shape of the airship, semi-rigid airships maintain the envelope shape by internal pressure, but have some form of supporting structure, such as a fixed keel, attached to it. Rigid airships have a structural framework which maintains the shape and carries all structural loads. Rigid airships were first flown by Count Zeppelin and the vast majority of rigid airships built were manufactured by the firm he founded, as a result, rigid airships are called zeppelins. S. Navy helium-filled rigids, the USS Akron and USS Macon respectively, during the pioneer years of aeronautics, terms such as airship, air-ship, air ship and ship of the air meant any kind of navigable or dirigible flying machine. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. Nowadays the term airship is used only for powered, dirigible balloons, semirigid architecture is the more recent and the late appearance is caused by both advancements about deformable structures and exigiency of reducing weight and volume of the airships. They have a structure that ensure to keep the shape jointly with overpressure of the gas envelope. An aerostat is an aircraft which remain aloft using buoyancy or static lift, Airships are a type of aerostat. The term aerostat has also used to indicate a tethered or moored balloon as opposed to a free-floating balloon. A blimp is a non-rigid aerostat, in American usage it refers specifically to a non-rigid type of dirigible balloon or airship. In British usage it refers to any non-rigid aerostat, including balloons and other kite balloons, having a streamlined shape. The initials LZ, for Luftschiff Zeppelin, usually prefixed their crafts serial identifiers, streamlined Parsifal-shaped rigid airships are usually referred to as Zeppelin, because of the fame that this company has acquired due to the number of airships it produced
Airships
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A modern airship,
Zeppelin NT D-LZZF in 2010
Airships
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Dirigible airships compared with related aerostats, from a turn-of-the-20th-century encyclopedia
Airships
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US Navy airships and balloons, 1931: in the background, ZR-3, in front of it, (l to r) J-3 or 4, K-1, ZMC-2, in front of them, "Caquot" observation balloon, and in foreground free balloons used for training.
Airships
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A gondola fitted with twin propellers
26.
Jet stream
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Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow, meandering air currents found in the atmosphere of some planets, including Earth. On Earth, the jet streams are located near the altitude of the tropopause and are westerly winds. Their paths typically have a meandering shape, Jet streams may start, stop, split into two or more parts, combine into one stream, or flow in various directions including opposite to the direction of the remainder of the jet. The strongest jet streams are the jets, at 9–12 km above sea level. The Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere each have a polar jet, the Coriolis force is caused by the planets rotation on its axis. On other planets, internal heat rather than solar heating drives their jet streams, the Polar jet stream forms near the interface of the Polar and Ferrel circulation cells, while the subtropical jet forms near the boundary of the Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells. During the Northern Hemisphere summer, easterly jets can form in tropical regions, low-level jets also are typical of various regions such as the central United States. Meteorologists use the location of some of the jet streams as an aid in weather forecasting, often, the airlines work to fly with the jet stream for this reason. Clear-air turbulence, a hazard to aircraft passenger safety, is often found in a jet streams vicinity. After the 1883 eruption of the Krakatoa volcano, weather watchers tracked and mapped the effects on the sky over several years and they labelled the phenomenon the equatorial smoke stream. In the 1920s, a Japanese meteorologist, Wasaburo Oishi, detected the jet stream from a site near Mount Fuji and he tracked pilot balloons, also known as pibals, as they rose into the atmosphere. Oishis work largely went unnoticed outside Japan because it was published in Esperanto, American pilot Wiley Post, the first man to fly around the world solo in 1933, is often given some credit for discovery of jet streams. Post invented a suit that let him fly above 6,200 metres. In the year before his death, Post made several attempts at a high-altitude transcontinental flight, german meteorologist Heinrich Seilkopf is credited with coining a special term, Strahlströmung, for the phenomenon in 1939. Many sources credit real understanding of the nature of jet streams to regular, flyers consistently noticed westerly tailwinds in excess of 100 mph in flights, for example, from the US to the UK. Similarly in 1944 a team of American meteorologists in Guam, including Reid Bryson, had enough observations to forecast very high west winds that would slow bombers going to Japan. Polar jet streams are located near the 250 hPa pressure level, or 7 to 12 kilometres above sea level, while the weaker subtropical jet streams are much higher. Jet streams wander laterally dramatically, and have large changes in their altitude, the Polar jets, at lower altitude, and often intruding into mid-latitudes, strongly affects weather and aviation
Jet stream
–
Clouds along a jet stream over Canada.
Jet stream
Jet stream
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General configuration of the polar and subtropical jet streams
Jet stream
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Cross section of the subtropical and polar jet streams by latitude
27.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
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Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP. The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The IPCC does not carry out its own research, nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself. The IPCC bases its assessment on the literature, which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources. Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute to writing and reviewing reports, IPCC reports contain a Summary for Policymakers, which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments. Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries, the IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change, producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments. The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared, in equal parts, in this way, it was formed as a hybrid between a scientific body and an intergovernmental political organisation. The aims of the IPCC are to assess scientific information relevant to, Human-induced climate change, The impacts of human-induced climate change, korean economist Hoesung Lee has been the chair of the IPCC since October 8,2015, following the election of the new IPCC Bureau. Before this election, the IPCC was led by his vice-Chair Ismail El Gizouli, the previous chairs were Rajendra K. Pachauri, elected in May 2002, Robert Watson in 1997, and Bert Bolin in 1988. The chair is assisted by an elected bureau including vice-chairs, working group co-chairs, the IPCC Panel is composed of representatives appointed by governments and organizations. Participation of delegates with appropriate expertise is encouraged, plenary sessions of the IPCC and IPCC Working groups are held at the level of government representatives. Non Governmental and Intergovernmental Organizations may be allowed to attend as observers, Sessions of the IPCC Bureau, workshops, expert and lead authors meetings are by invitation only. Attendance at the 2003 meeting included 350 government officials and climate change experts, after the opening ceremonies, closed plenary sessions were held. The meeting report states there were 322 persons in attendance at Sessions with about seven-eighths of participants being from governmental organizations, there are several major groups, IPCC Panel, Meets in plenary session about once a year and controls the organizations structure, procedures, and work program. The Panel is the IPCC corporate entity, Secretariat, Oversees and manages all activities. 30 members include IPCC Vice-Chairs, Co-Chairs and Vice-Chairs of Working Groups, Working Groups, Each has two Co-Chairs, one from the developed and one from developing world, and a technical support unit. Working Group I, Assesses scientific aspects of the climate system, Co-Chairs, Valérie Masson-Delmotte and Panmao Zhai Working Group II, Assesses vulnerability of socio-economic and natural systems to climate change, consequences, and adaptation options. Co-Chairs, Hans-Otto Pörtner and Debra Roberts Working Group III, Assesses options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions, the organisation is required to comply with the Financial Regulations and Rules of the WMO
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
–
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
28.
Radiative forcing
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Radiative forcing or climate forcing is defined as the difference of insolation absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space. Typically, radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per meter of the Earths surface. A positive forcing warms the system, while negative forcing cools it, causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases, commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols. Almost all of the energy that affects Earths climate is received as radiant energy from the Sun, the planet and its atmosphere absorb and reflect some of the energy, while long-wave energy is radiated back into space. The balance between absorbed and radiated energy determines the global temperature. Because the atmosphere absorbs some of the re-radiated long-wave energy, the planet is warmer than it would be in the absence of the atmosphere, any such alteration is a radiative forcing, and changes the balance. This happens continuously as sunlight hits the surface, clouds and aerosols form, in this report radiative forcing values are for changes relative to preindustrial conditions defined at 1750 and are expressed in Watts per square meter. In simple terms, radiative forcing is. the rate of energy change per unit area of the globe as measured at the top of the atmosphere, a typical value of λ is 0.8 K/, which gives a warming of 3K for doubling of CO2. Radiative forcing can be estimated in different ways for different components, for solar irradiance, the radiative forcing is simply the change in the average amount of solar energy absorbed per square meter of the Earths area. Since the Earths cross-sectional area exposed to the Sun is equal to 1/4 of the area of the Earth. This must be multiplied by the fraction of incident sunlight that is absorbed, F=, the albedo is approximately 0.3, so F is approximately equal to 0.7. Thus, the forcing is the change in the solar intensity divided by 4. Likewise, a change in albedo will produce a solar forcing equal to the change in albedo divided by 4 multiplied by the solar constant and these calculations can often be simplified into an algebraic formulation that is specific to that gas. The relationship between carbon dioxide and radiative forcing is logarithmic and thus increased concentrations have a progressively smaller warming effect, a different formula applies for other greenhouse gases such as methane and N2O or CFCs, with coefficients that can be found e. g. in the IPCC reports. Radiative forcing is a way to compare different causes of perturbations in a climate system. We propose an alternative, the troposphere and stratosphere forcing. We present GCM calculations showing that it is a more reliable predictor of this GCMs surface temperature change than radiative forcing. It is a candidate to supplement radiative forcing as a metric for comparing different mechanisms, in this quote, GCM stands for global circulation model, and the word predictive does not refer to the ability of GCMs to forecast climate change
Radiative forcing
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Incoming solar radiation
29.
Ground transportation
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Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power. Human-powered vehicles have also developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. Rail transport is where a train runs along a set of two steel rails, known as a railway or railroad. The rails are anchored perpendicular to ties of timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a consistent distance apart, the rails and perpendicular beams are placed on a foundation made of concrete, or compressed earth and gravel in a bed of ballast. Alternative methods include monorail and maglev, a train consists of one or more connected vehicles that run on the rails. Propulsion is commonly provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, the locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by trackside systems. Alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit, also, a train can be powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbines. Railed vehicles move with less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient. Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities, modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds up to 350 km/h, freight trains traditionally used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains have become the dominant solution for general freight, a road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. In urban areas, roads may pass through a city or village and be named as streets, serving a function as urban space easement. The most common road vehicle is the automobile, a passenger vehicle that carries its own motor. Other users of roads include buses, trucks, motorcycles, bicycles, as of 2002, there were 590 million automobiles worldwide. Automobiles have caused air pollution which results to people getting Asthma, road transport offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from one lane to the other and from one road to another according to the need and convenience. This flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed, and it is possible to provide door to door service only by road transport. Road transport by truck is often the initial and final stage of freight transport, pipeline transport sends goods through a pipe, most commonly liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes can also send solid capsules using compressed air. For liquids/gases, any chemically stable liquid or gas can be sent through a pipeline, short-distance systems exist for sewage, slurry, water and beer, while long-distance networks are used for petroleum and natural gas
Ground transportation
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Human-powered transport remains common in developing countries.
Ground transportation
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The
New York City Subway is the world's largest
rapid transit system by length of routes and by number of
stations.
Ground transportation
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InterCityExpress, a German
high-speed passenger train
Ground transportation
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The
Harbor Freeway is often heavily congested at rush hour in
Downtown Los Angeles.
Transport portal
