1.
Western Electric
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Western Electric Company was an American electrical engineering and manufacturing company that served as the primary supplier to AT&T from 1881 to 1996. The company was responsible for technological innovations and seminal developments in industrial management. It also served as the agent for the member companies of the Bell System. In 1856, George Shawk purchased an engineering business in Cleveland. On December 31,1869, he partners with Enos M. Barton and, later the same year. In 1872 Barton, and Gray moved the business to Clinton Street, Chicago, Illinois, in 1875, Gray sold his interests to Western Union, including the caveat that he had filed against Alexander Graham Bells patent application for the telephone. Western Electric was the first company to join in a Japanese joint venture with foreign capital, in 1899, it invested in a 54% share of the Nippon Electric Company, Ltd. Western Electrics representative in Japan was Walter Tenney Carleton, in 1901, Western Electric secretly purchased a controlling interest in a principal competitor, the Kellogg Switchboard & Supply Company, but was later forced by a lawsuit to sell. On July 24,1915, employees of the Hawthorne Works boarded the SS Eastland in downtown Chicago for a company picnic, the ship rolled over at the dock and over 800 people died. In 1920, Alice Heacock Seidel was the first of Western Electrics female employees to be given permission to stay on after she had married and this set a precedent in the company, which previously had not allowed married women in their employ. Miss Heacock had worked for Western Electric for sixteen years before her marriage, if the women at the top were permitted to remain after marriage then all women would expect the same privilege. How far and how fast the policy was expanded is shown by the fact that a few years later women were given maternity leaves with no loss of time on their service records. In 1925, ITT purchased the Bell Telephone Manufacturing Company of Brussels, Belgium, the company manufactured rotary system switching equipment under the Western Electric brand. Early on, Western Electric also managed an electrical equipment distribution business, Bell Telephone Laboratories was half-owned by Western Electric, the other half belonging to AT&T. Western Electric used various logos during its existence, starting in 1914 it used an image of AT&Ts statue Spirit of Communication. In 1915, Western Electric Manufacturing was incorporated in New York, New York, as an owned subsidiary of AT&T, under the name Western Electric Company. AT&T and Bell System companies were rumored to employ small armies of inspectors to check household line voltage levels to determine if non-leased phones were in use by consumers. Western Electric telephones were owned not by end customers but by the local Bell System telephone companies—all of which were subsidiaries of AT&T, each phone was leased from the phone company on a monthly basis by customers who generally paid for their phone as part of the recurring lease fees
2.
Nortel
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It was founded in Montreal, Quebec in 1895 as the Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company. At its height, Nortel accounted for more than a third of the valuation of all the companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange. Nortel had filed for protection from its creditors in the United States, Canada, in June 2009, the company announced it would cease operations and sell off all of its business units. The period of protection was extended to February 2,2013. As part of the proceedings in the United States, Nortel Networks Inc. publishes monthly operating reports outlining cash receipts and disbursements. By 2016 Nortel had sold billions of dollars worth of assets and he later refined its design at Brantford after producing his first working prototype in Boston. In addition to phones, four years later, the department started manufacturing its first switchboard, the small manufacturing department expanded yearly with the growth and popularity of the telephone to 50 employees in 1888. By 1890 it had transformed into its own branch of operations with 200 employees. As the manufacturing branch expanded, its production ability increased beyond the demand for phones and this was a problem because the Bell Telephone Company of Canadas charter would not allow them to build other products. This company was incorporated as the Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company Limited, Northern Electric and Manufacturing Company Limited was incorporated on 7 December 1895, by the following corporate members, Charles Fleetford Sise Sr. McFarlane, manager, all of the city and district of Montreal, the initial stock capital was $50,000 at $100 per share, with 93 percent held by the Bell Telephone Company of Canada and the remainder held by the seven corporate members above. The first general meeting was held on March 24,1896. In December 1899, The Bell Telephone Company of Canada bought a company for $500,000. Northern Electric and Manufacturing further expanded its line in 1900. In 1911 the Wire and Cable company changed its name to the Imperial Wire, the construction of a new manufacturing plant started in 1913 at Shearer Street in Montreal, Canada, as preparations began for the two manufacturing companies integration. This facility at Shearer Street was the manufacturing centre until the mid-1950s. Edward Fleetford Sise was the president and his brother Paul Fleetford Sise was the vice-president, during the First World War Northern Electric manufactured the Portable Commutator, a one-wire telegraphic switchboard for military operations in the field. In 1922, Northern started to produce, for $5, the Peanut vacuum tube, the use of alternating current was still under development during this time
3.
Model 500 telephone
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The Western Electric model 500 telephone series was the standard domestic desk telephone set issued by the Bell System in North America from 1950 through the 1984 Bell System divestiture. Millions of model 500-series phones were produced and were present in most homes in North America, many are still in use today because of their durability and ample availability. Its modular construction compared to previous types simplified manufacture and repair, touch-tone service was introduced to residential customers in 1963 with the model 1500 telephone, which had a push-button pad for the ten digits. The model 2500 telephone, introduced in 1968, added the * and # keys, the Western Electric 500-type telephone replaced the 300-type which had been produced since 1936. Development started in 1946 and lead to pre-production units in 1948, third and fourth quarter production was estimated at 49,000 and 93,000, respectively. Including 20,000 units of a special set, approximately 183,000 units were produced by the end of the first production year. In the following years, systematic replacement of 25 million 300-type telephones commenced because of the much improved electrical and this also permitted the use of thinner loop wires and thus delivered cost-savings in the build-out of the network. The replacement of 300-series telephones with 500-series sets created large stockpiles of 300-type components that had not reached their intended service life and this program commenced in 1955, and the converted set was labeled as the model 5302 telephone. It was produced until the mid-1960s in the shops of each Bell Operating Company. From the 1949 field trials until 1953, only sets of the 500-type telephone were manufactured. The introduction of telephones in color occurred in stages from 1954 until 1957, as manufacturing capability was refined. As with most telephones of the time in the United States, choices for telephone styles and colors were limited. Most phones made by Western Electric, starting in about 1968, carried this disclaimer molded into their housing, telephones were also sometimes labeled with a sticker or ink stamp marking the name of the operating company that owned the telephone. In 1983, after the court ordered the Bell System divestiture, many customers were offered the option to buy the leased telephones they had in service. The Western Electric model 500 improved upon several design features over the earlier telephones, thus, the phone could be tested and serviced easily without the housing. This design improved manufacturing and servicing efficiency, the earlier 302 had been equipped with an enamel-coated dial plate that displayed the numerals and letters through the holes of the rotary finger-wheel. Years of use caused the lettering and numbering, and even the porcelain coating, the design of the 500 improved this by molding the characters into the plastic, through a double-injection molding process. This design was carried over to the 1500 and 2500-series telephones and was used in the keys to eliminate wear
4.
Henry Dreyfuss
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Henry Dreyfuss was an American industrial designer. His design philosophy was based on applied common sense and scientific principles and resulted in significant contributions to human factor analysis, Dreyfuss was a native of Brooklyn, New York. As one of the celebrity industrial designers of the 1930s and 1940s, Dreyfuss dramatically improved the look, feel, as opposed to Raymond Loewy and other contemporaries, Dreyfuss was not a stylist, he applied common sense and a scientific approach to design problems. His work both popularized the field for consumption, and made significant contributions to the underlying fields of ergonomics, anthropometrics. Until 1920 Dreyfuss studied as an apprentice to theatrical designer Norman Bel Geddes, his later competitor and it was an immediate and long-lasting commercial success. As of 2005 his firm continues to operate as Henry Dreyfuss Associates in Ann Arbor, Michigan, Dreyfuss and his associates designed some of the most ubiquitous and iconic products of twentieth century America. S. In 1960 he published The Measure of Man, a collection of reference charts providing designers precise specifications for product designs. In 1965, Dreyfuss became the first President of the Industrial Designers Society of America, in 1969, Dreyfuss retired from the firm he founded, but continued serving many of the companies he worked with as board member and consultant. In 1972 Dreyfuss published The Symbol Sourcebook, A Comprehensive Guide to International Graphic Symbols and this visual database of over 20,000 symbols continues to provide a standard for industrial designers around the world. On October 5,1972, Dreyfuss and his ill wife Doris Marks Dreyfuss took their lives together. Dreyfuss is survived by a daughter, eight grandchildren, and twelve great grandchildren, Symbol Sourcebook, An Authoritative Guide to International Graphic Symbols. New York, John Wiley & Sons, Henry Dreyfuss, Industrial Designer, The Man in the Brown Suit. Designing Modern America, Broadway to Main Street, ISBN 0-300-10804-4 Henry Dreyfuss Associates website Video on Dreyfusss design for Honeywell thermostat and for his Bell Telephone, at Wikimedia Commons
5.
Ericsson DBH 1001 telephone
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The Ericsson DBH1001 of 1931 was a collaborative project between the Elektrisk Bureau in Oslo, LM Ericsson and Televerket. It was designed by electrical engineer Christian Bjerknes and Norwegian artist Jean Heiberg and it was the first Bakelite phone with integral cradle, dial and ringer, and was very modern for its time. Until the early 1930s, the housing of the Swedish phone models was made from pressed steel, material change from steel to Bakelite brought new opportunities in design, while also reducing the production time for the housing. The Bakelite phone was not only compact but also light at just below 3kg, the device with its simple, curved angular design became an instant hit with the industry as well as the consumers, and was highly influential. In most of Europe, it was called the Swedish type of telephone and in the United Kingdom, already in the mid 1930s, Ericsson showed a white Bakelite phone in advertisements, often in the hands of a young woman. However, this seems never to have been offered to the public. At the 1939 World Fair in New York City, Ericsson showed a transparent variant made of acrylic, the standard color of the phone was black, but there were also variants in drab brown, red, and green. The process of using Bakelite did not permit the production of bright colors, the device was manufactured from 1933 in a smaller format, and from 1947 redesigned with softer, more rounded edges as the model designated M50. It was also offered in white melamine, the metal dial rotor was replaced with a plastic version, and a spiral cord became standard. During 1950, Ericsson also experimented with a version, instead of the rotary dial. In 1962, the Bakelite Phone was replaced by the Ericsson Dialog model
6.
Bell System
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On December 31,1983, the system was broken up into independent companies by a U. S. Justice Department mandate. Ma Bell is also used to refer to the female voices behind recordings for the Bell System, Mary Moore, Jane Barbe. In 1877, the American Bell Telephone Company, named after Alexander Graham Bell, opened the first telephone exchange in New Haven, within a few years local exchange companies were established in every major city in the United States. In 1899, American Telephone & Telegraph acquired the assets of its parent, originally American Bell had created AT&T to provide long-distance calls between New York and Chicago and beyond. AT&T became the parent of American Bell, and thus the head of the Bell System, because regulatory and tax rules were leaner in New York than in Boston, after 1934, AT&T was regulated by the Federal Communication Commission. Receiving a U. S. patent for the invention of the telephone on March 7,1876, Alexander Graham Bell formed the Bell Telephone Company in 1877, on April 30,1907, Theodore Newton Vail returned as President of AT&T. Vail believed in the superiority of one system and AT&T adopted the slogan One Policy, One System. This would be the philosophy for the next 70 years. Under Vail, AT&T began buying up many of the telephone companies including Western Union telegraph. Anxious to avoid action from government antitrust suits, AT&T entered into an agreement known as the Kingsbury Commitment with the federal government. S. The Bell trademark pictured here was used from 1921 through 1939 by both the AT&T corporation and the regional operating corporations to co-brand themselves under a single Bell System trademark, the regional operating corporations name was placed where name of associated company appears in this template version of the trademark. Bell system telephones and related equipment were made by Western Electric, member telephone companies paid a fixed fraction of their revenues as a license fee to Bell Labs. As a result of this monopoly, by 1940 the Bell System effectively owned most telephone service in the United States, from local. This allowed Bell to prohibit their customers from connecting phones not made or sold by Bell to the system without paying fees, Northern Electric was spun off in 1956 by Western Electric, but AT&T did not spin off Bell Canada until 1975. The Bell Systems Caribbean regional operating companies were sold to the ITT Corporation, before 1956, the Bell Systems reach was truly gargantuan. The 1984 Bell System divestiture brought an end to the branded as the Bell System. The suit was settled on January 8,1982, superseding the former restrictions that AT&T and the DOJ had agreed upon in 1956. Currently, the word mark Bell, the logo, and other related trademarks, are held by each of the remaining Bell companies, namely AT&T, Verizon, CenturyLink, and Cincinnati Bell
7.
Induction coil
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An induction coil or spark coil is a type of electrical transformer used to produce high-voltage pulses from a low-voltage direct current supply. To create the changes necessary to induce voltage in the secondary coil. Invented in 1836 by Nicholas Callan, Charles Page and others and it was widely used in x-ray machines, spark-gap radio transmitters, arc lighting and quack medical electrotherapy devices from the 1880s to the 1920s. Today its only use is as the ignition coils in internal combustion engines. An induction coil consists of two coils of insulated wire wound around a common iron core. One coil, called the winding, is made from relatively few turns of coarse wire. The other coil, the winding, typically consists of many turns of fine wire. An electric current is passed through the primary, creating a magnetic field, because of the common core, most of the primarys magnetic field couples with the secondary winding. The primary behaves as an inductor, storing energy in the magnetic field. When the primary current is interrupted, the magnetic field rapidly collapses. This causes a voltage pulse to be developed across the secondary terminals through electromagnetic induction. Because of the number of turns in the secondary coil. This voltage is sufficient to cause an electric spark, to jump across an air gap separating the secondarys output terminals. For this reason, induction coils were called spark coils, the size of induction coils is usually specified by the length of spark it can produce, a 4 inch induction coil is one that could produce a 4 inch spark. This form of specification was, though imprecise, until the advent of the cathode ray oscilloscope the most reliable measure of voltage of such asymmetric waveforms. To do that, induction coils use a magnetically activated vibrating arm called an interrupter or break to rapidly connect, the interrupter is mounted on the end of the coil next to the iron core. When the power is turned on, the current in the primary coil produces an increasing magnetic field. After a time, the magnetic attraction overcomes the spring force
8.
Capacitor
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A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy in an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance, a capacitor was therefore historically first known as an electric condenser. The physical form and construction of practical capacitors vary widely and many types are in common use. Most capacitors contain at least two electrical conductors often in the form of plates or surfaces separated by a dielectric medium. A conductor may be a foil, thin film, sintered bead of metal, the nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitors charge capacity. Materials commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, paper, mica, Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not dissipate energy. No current actually flows through the dielectric, instead, the effect is a displacement of charges through the source circuit, if the condition is maintained sufficiently long, this displacement current through the battery ceases. However, if a voltage is applied across the leads of the capacitor. Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The unit of capacitance in the International System of Units is the farad, capacitance values of typical capacitors for use in general electronics range from about 1 pF to about 1 mF. The capacitance of a capacitor is proportional to the area of the plates. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and it has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance, Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies, in resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow. The property of energy storage in capacitors was exploited as dynamic memory in digital computers. Von Kleists hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric, von Kleist found that touching the wire resulted in a powerful spark, much more painful than that obtained from an electrostatic machine
9.
Zinc
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Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table, in some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium, both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state, and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earths crust and has five stable isotopes, the most common zinc ore is sphalerite, a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the United States, Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity. Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century, the mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to the 6th century BC. To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called philosophers wool or white snow. The element was named by the alchemist Paracelsus after the German word Zinke. German chemist Andreas Sigismund Marggraf is credited with discovering pure metallic zinc in 1746, work by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta uncovered the electrochemical properties of zinc by 1800. Corrosion-resistant zinc plating of iron is the application for zinc. Other applications are in batteries, small non-structural castings. A variety of compounds are commonly used, such as zinc carbonate and zinc gluconate, zinc chloride, zinc pyrithione, zinc sulfide. Zinc is an essential mineral perceived by the public today as being of exceptional biologic and public health importance, Zinc deficiency affects about two billion people in the developing world and is associated with many diseases. In children, deficiency causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, infection susceptibility, enzymes with a zinc atom in the reactive center are widespread in biochemistry, such as alcohol dehydrogenase in humans. Consumption of excess zinc can cause ataxia, lethargy and copper deficiency, Zinc is a bluish-white, lustrous, diamagnetic metal, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish.6 pm. The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 °C, above 210 °C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating. Zinc is a conductor of electricity. For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting and boiling points, the melting point is the lowest of all the transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium. Many alloys contain zinc, including brass, Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium, and sodium
10.
Thermoplastic
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A thermoplastic, or thermosoftening plastic, is a plastic material, a polymer, that becomes pliable or moldable above a specific temperature and solidifies upon cooling. Most thermoplastics have a molecular weight. The polymer chains associate through intermolecular forces, which weaken rapidly with increased temperature, thermoplastics differ from thermosetting polymers, which form irreversible chemical bonds during the curing process. Thermosets do not melt, but decompose and do not reform upon cooling, above its glass transition temperature and below its melting point, the physical properties of a thermoplastic change drastically without an associated phase change. Some thermoplastics do not fully crystallize below the transition temperature. Amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics are used when high optical clarity is necessary, amorphous and semi-amorphous plastics are less resistant to chemical attack and environmental stress cracking because they lack a crystalline structure. Brittleness can be decreased with the addition of plasticizers, which increases the mobility of amorphous chain segments to effectively lowers the transition temperature. Modification of the polymer through copolymerization or through the addition of side chains to monomers before polymerization can also lower it. Naval Research Laboratory developed thermoplastic armor, that can be repaired in the field by a user via tools for pressing irons, acrylic, a polymer called poly, is also known by trade names such as Lucite, Perspex and Plexiglas. It serves as a substitute for glass for items such as aquariums, motorcycle helmet visors, aircraft windows, viewing ports of submersibles. It is extensively used to make signs, including lettering and logos, in medicine, it is used in bone cement and to replace eye lenses. Acrylic paint consists of PMMA particles suspended in water, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene is a terpolymer synthesized from styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene. ABS is a material that exhibits high impact resistance and mechanical toughness. It poses few risks to health under normal handling. It is used in consumer products, such as toys, appliances. Nylon belongs to a class of polymers called polyamides and it has served as a substitute mainly for hemp, cotton and silk, in products such as parachutes, cords, sails, flak vests and womens clothing. Nylon fibers are useful in making fabrics, rope, carpets and musical strings, whereas in bulk form, Nylon is used for mechanical parts including machine screws, gears, in addition, it is used in the manufacture of heat-resistant composite materials. Polylactic acid is a biodegradable thermoplastic aliphatic polyester derived from renewable resources, such as starch, tapioca roots, chips or starch
11.
War Production Board
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The War Production Board was an agency of the United States government that supervised war production during World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt established it in August 1939, with Executive Order 9024, the WPB replaced the Supply Priorities and Allocation Board and the Office of Production Management. It rationed such commodities as gasoline, heating oil, metals, rubber, paper and it was dissolved shortly after the defeat of Japan in 1945, and was replaced by the Civilian Production Administration in late 1945. In 1942-45, WPB supervised the production of $183 billion worth of weapons and supplies, britain, the USSR and other allies produced an addition 30%, while the Axis produced only 30%. One fourth of the US output was warplanes, one fourth was warships, meanwhile, the civilian standard of living was about level. The first chairman of the Board was Donald M. Nelson and he was succeeded by Julius A. Krug, who served from 1944 until the Board was dissolved. The WPB had advisory, policy-making, and progress-reporting divisions, the WPB managed twelve regional offices, and operated one hundred twenty field offices throughout the nation. They worked alongside state war production boards, which maintained records on state war production facilities and also helped state businesses obtain war contracts, the national WPBs primary task was converting civilian industry to war production. It initiated events such as scrap metal drives, which were carried out locally to great success, for example, a national scrap metal drive in October 1942 resulted in an average of almost eighty-two pounds of scrap per American. The WPB and the nations factories effected a great turnaround, military aircraft production, which totaled 6,000 in 1940, jumped to 85,000 in 1943. The WPB ensured that each received the materials it needed to produce the most war goods in the shortest time. Without American production the Allies could never have won the war, from 1942 to 1945 the WPB directed a total production of $185 billion worth of armaments and supplies. At wars end, most production restrictions were lifted. William Beverly Murphy, president and CEO of Campbell Soup Company Charles E. Wilson, the Civilian Production Board was consolidated with other agencies to form the Office of Temporary Controls—an agency in the Office for Emergency Management of the Executive Office of the President. The latter had previously been established pursuant to the Reorganization Act of 1939, studies in industrial price control by United States Office of Temporary Controls. 1947 Problems in price control, legal phases by United States Office of Temporary Controls,1947 Problems in price control by United States Office of Temporary Controls. 1948 The beginnings of OPA by United States Office of Temporary Controls, Office of Temporary Controls, Office of Price Administration,1947 Guaranteed wages by United States Office of Temporary Controls. Freedoms Forge, How American Business Produced Victory in World War II, new York, Harcourt, Brace, & Co.1948
12.
Neoprene
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Neoprene or polychloroprene is a family of synthetic rubbers that are produced by polymerization of chloroprene. Neoprene exhibits good chemical stability and maintains flexibility over a temperature range. Neoprene is produced by polymerization of chloroprene. In commercial production, this polymer is prepared by free radical emulsion polymerization, polymerization is initiated using potassium persulfate. Bifunctional nucleophiles, metal oxides, and thioureas are used to crosslink individual polymer strands, outside of Russia and China, about 300,000 tons of neoprene are produced annually. After DuPont purchased the patent rights from the university, Wallace Carothers of DuPont took over development of Nieuwlands discovery in collaboration with Nieuwland himself. Arnold Collins at DuPont focused on monovinyl acetylene and allowed it to react with hydrogen chloride gas, DuPont first marketed the compound in 1931 under the trade name DuPrene, but its commercial possibilities were limited by the original manufacturing process, which left the product with a foul odor. A new process was developed, which eliminated the odor-causing byproducts and halved production costs, to prevent shoddy manufacturers from harming the products reputation, the trademark DuPrene was restricted to apply only to the material sold by DuPont. By 1939, sales of neoprene were generating profits over $300,000 for the company, Neoprene resists degradation more than natural or synthetic rubber. This relative inertness makes it suited for demanding applications such as gaskets, hoses. It can be used as a base for adhesives, noise isolation in power transformer installations and it resists burning better than exclusively hydrocarbon based rubbers, resulting in its appearance in weather stripping for fire doors and in combat related attire such as gloves and face masks. Because of its tolerance of extreme conditions, neoprene is used to line landfills, neoprenes burn point is around 260°C. Neoprene foam is used in many applications. Neoprene foam can be produced in either closed-cell or open-cell form, the closed-cell form is waterproof, less compressible and more expensive. The open-cell form can be breathable, Neoprene is used as a load bearing base, usually between two prefabricated reinforced concrete elements or steel plates as well to evenly guide force from one element to another. Neoprene is commonly used as a material for fly fishing waders, Neoprene waders are usually about 5 mm thick, and in the medium price range as compared to cheaper materials such as nylon and rubber. However, neoprene is less expensive than breathable fabrics, a foamed neoprene containing gas cells is used as an insulation material, most notably in wetsuits. Foamed neoprene is used in other insulation and shock-protection applications
13.
Model 5302 telephone
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The 302 had been issued since 1937, but starting in 1950, units were replaced with the new 500 series sets, without having served their useful component life. The 5300 and 5400 series of telephones consisted of the 300-series and this was accomplished with a new housing, new number ring and dial plate, and a ringer volume control that could be adjusted by users. The model numbering for these sets was derived from the converted 300 or 400 series units by prefixing those model numbers with the digit 5, in addition to the model 5302, the series also consisted of the models 5304,5306, and 5410 telephone sets. Conceived years after the 1949 introduction of the Model 500, the model 5302 telephone was an adaptation from the pre-WWII era model 302 to the 500-series desk top telephones. The 5302 essentially was a 302 telephone under a new cover, the new shell design was based on the 500 design and accommodated the front-to-back shorter model 302 base. As the model 302 had the dial and hook switch mounted on the shell, the 5302 accommodated that design, in contrast to the model 500. The 5300 type telephone housings were also produced in quantities in the pastel colors blue, pink, beige, and white. The cradle can accommodate the earlier F1 handset from the 302 or the newer, wider G-type of the 500, a special G-type handset, commonly referred to as GF but labeled G1, produced for the Model 5302 consisted of Bakelite and was completed by August 1955. It used an F1 transmitter and contained an insert to allow for the use of an HA receiver. The use of the old transmitter and receiver avoided elevating sidetone on short loops as was the result with the more efficient G handset when used without equalization circuitry, when issued with the G1 handset, as in the 500 model phone, the handset contained U1 and T1 elements. Internal Bell System documents time the introduction of this model into the half of 1955. The 5302 sets were not manufactured on the production lines. The 5300-series phones were produced in several variants other than the standard single-line model, the party line models were the 5304 and 5306, and the 5410 was a two-line model. The 5302 was primarily produced in black, but several colors were also available, Bell System Practices http, //www. arctos. com/dial/ http, //www. paul-f. com/we300typ. htm#5300 - Photos and additional information
14.
Automatic Electric
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Automatic Electric Company was the largest of the manufacturing units of the Automatic Electric Group. It was an equipment supplier for independent telephone companies in North America. With its line of telephone exchanges, it was also a long-term supplier of switching equipment to the Bell System. In 1889, Almon Strowger, of Kansas City, Missouri, was inspired by the idea of manufacturing automatic telephone exchanges that would not require switchboard operators and he founded the Strowger Automatic Telephone Exchange Company in 1891, which held the first patents for the automatic telephone exchange. Subsequently, in 1901, Strowger helped form the Automatic Electric Company to which he leased his patents exclusively, Automatic switches proliferated in independent telephone companies in the 1910s and 1920s, well before the Bell System started deployment of Panel switch technology in the 1920s. In 1919 the Bell System was impacted considerably by organized operator strikes, as a result, Automatic Electric became a long-term supplier of step-by-step switching equipment to the Bell System. General Telephone and Electronics acquired Automatic Electric through a merger with Theodore Gary & Company in 1955, lenkurt, a manufacturer of carrier equipment, was purchased by GT&E in 1959, and held separately from Automatic Electric. In 1989, the assets of the company were placed into a joint venture between AT&T and GTE called AG Communication Systems. At the same time, GTE Communications systems spun off their business to a joint venture called Fujitsu GTE, later to be renamed as Fujitsu Business Communication systems. AG Communication Systems ceased separate existence in 2004, and became incorporated into Lucent. Alcatel-Lucent also owns many of the assets of the Western Electric Company, Automatic Electrics former rival, among other equipment, Automatic Electric manufactured automatic stepping switches which enabled Strowgers vision. These switches allowed customers to connect their own calls without operator assistance, the GTD-5 EAX, GTE Automatic Electrics digital class 4/5 central office telephone switch, was first deployed on June 26,1982. The original facilities of the Automatic Electric Company were located in a complex erected at the intersection of Morgan Street. Automatic Electric was later located in Northlake, Illinois, and maintained research and development facilities in Melrose Park and Elmhurst, AE acquired a manufacturing facility in Genoa, Illinois, from Leich Electric, and, in 1978, opened a research and development branch in Phoenix, Arizona. In the mid-1960s, a plant was built in Huntsville. Public coin-operated telephones and the Styleline series of telephones were manufactured there. A smaller rental telephone refurbishment operation was moved to the Huntsville plant in the 1970s. The plant was closed in the mid-1980s as domestic labour and production rose sharply against overseas competitors
15.
Stromberg-Carlson
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Stromberg-Carlson was a telecommunications equipment and electronics manufacturing company in the United States. It was formed in 1894 as a partnership by Alfred Stromberg and it was one of five companies that controlled the national supply of telephone equipment until after World War II. In 1894, Alexander Graham Bells patent for the telephone expired, Stromberg-Carlson was originally located in Chicago, with Carlson managing manufacturing and Stromberg responsible for marketing. Stromberg-Carlson quickly established a reputation for reliable equipment and stable prices, a bitter stockholder fight ensued, and the takeover attempt failed. Stromberg-Carlson reincorporated as a New York state corporation in 1902, where state law better protected the company from takeover efforts, in 1904, Stromberg-Carlson was purchased by Home Telephone Company, a relatively large service provider based in Rochester, New York. The new owners quickly relocated all Stromberg-Carlson operations to New York, the company branched out to become a major manufacture of consumer electronics including home telephones, radio receivers and, after World War II, television sets. In 1955, Stromberg-Carlson was purchased by General Dynamics, within a year, all three of its broadcasting stations had been sold to different buyers. In 1970, Stromberg delivered the first CrossReed PBX to the newly constructed Disney World in Orlando Florida, over the next 10 years more than 7,000 CrossReeds were delivered globally. During the 1970s, Stromberg developed what is arguably the first fully digital PBX, the first DBX was installed at Export, Pennsylvania in 1977 and consisted of 960 ports. While this first field trial had limited success, Stromberg went on to develop the DBX-240, DBX-1200, by 1980 General Dynamics was undergoing a significant change and in 1982, General Dynamics sold the Stromberg-Carlson operations in several parts. The Stromberg key-systems was sold to ComDial, the PBX/DBX division was sold to United Technologies, Plessey eventually sold Stromberg Carlson, the DCO business unit, to Siemens AG in 1991. The new company, Siemens Stromberg-Carlson, became the third largest vendor of central office switches in the United States—with a combined installed base of 5 million access lines. They continued to manufacture the Siemens DCO as well as the Siemens EWSD out of the Lake Mary facility, in 2006 the DCO line of Siemens Stromberg-Carlson was sold to GENBAND, a Next Generation Networking company based in Texas. Stromberg-Carlson produced several unique switching systems, including, XY, a flat motion switch logically similar to Strowger switching. The XY Selector was not invented by SC, but licensed from L. M. Ericsson of Sweden in the late 40s, XY was very popular with REA funded independent telephone companies and out sold all other vendors in the less than 1000 line applications in the 50s. The largest XY ever in service was installed in Anchorage, AK by RCA Corporation for the U. S. Air Force, later purchased by Anchorage Telephone Co, it eventually grew to over 10,000 lines. CrossReed 400/800/1600, a controlled, wired-logic PBX with expansion up to 2,400 ports. ESC, an electronic, wired logic, reed-switch with a matrix similar to the AE EAX
16.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands, also informally known as Holland is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
17.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
18.
Model 102 telephone
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The model 102 telephone was a version of Western Electrics first widely distributed telephone set that featured the transmitter and receiver in a common handset. Although this type designation was not used before ca,1930, predecessor types were produced starting approximately in 1927 with the A handset mounting. Earlier telephones by Western Electric had been of the type which featured a transmitter fixed to the base. The design of the A handset mounting was inherited from the desk stands. The B type was produced between 1928 and 1932, later models, the D handset mounting, starting in 1930, used an oval foot print to improve physical stability during dialing. The model 102 telephone consisted of the handset mounting typically placed on the desk top and this box was typically mounted on a wall near the phone or on the side of a desk. This resulted in lowering their voice to the point where the other party found them difficult to hear. This problem was resolved when the 102 was upgraded in approximately 1930 to the 202 telephone, first, the transmitters of the day did not work well unless oriented in a vertical plane. The problems were aggravated by the signal boosting circuitry used in the set which resulted in a strong signal at the receiver of the speech of the user. Sidetone is desirable only to some fraction of volume so that the user has the assurance that the telephone is working correctly, strong sidetone may cause users to lower the voice to unacceptable levels, so that the recipient receives insufficient signal level. In the 1920s, developments in anti-sidetone circuitry and non-positional transmitters, the resulting E1 handset was ready for production in 1927. This handset was paired with a base that was essentially a candlestick with a neck of approximately one inch in height. The cradle incorporated the hookswitch as a vertical plunger actuating the electrical switch contacts and this initial design was tested in the central offices and released in limited supply as Western Electrics first handset subscriber telephone, the model A1. Although the E1 handset was built to complement the anti-sidetone circuitry, however, the solid Bakelite construction of the handset suppressed acoustic feedback to acceptable levels. As work continued on the circuitry, a new base was designed for the E1 handset to replace the shortened candlestick. The new mount was designated by the part number B1, and was similar in shape to the A-base, but with more flowing lines. This is the combination that is most commonly associated with the designation 102, during the models production life, however, it was just referred to by its component parts. The B-type desk set was followed by a wall-mounted handset telephone, designated as the C-type hangup telephone, in use, the B-type telephone base proved unstable during dialing, and was replaced with the D-type handset mounting in 1930
19.
Model 202 telephone
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The model 202 telephone was a desktop telephone produced by Western Electric from 1930 through ca. 1937, as well as by Northern Electric in Canada, refurbished units appeared into the 1950s. It was a version of the 102-type telephone, and contained newly developed anti-sidetone circuitry to reduce electronic feedback from the transmitter to the receiver. This sidetone created an unpleasant experience for users, hearing their own voice very loudly, the first versions of the 202 were produced by installing into existing model 102s newly developed circuitry that electrically cancels a major fraction of sidetone feedback into the receiver. The first generation of 102 and 202-type telephones featured a circular base and it was a redesigned shape of its predecessor the A1 which was a direct derivative of the candlestick telephone with a shortened vertical shaft. The circular base proved unstable during dialing, and therefore a new, wider, elliptical base was developed and introduced in 1930 and this new D1 base remained the handset mounting paired with the E1 handset for the remainder of the 202 production run. The 202 telephone, like the 102, consisted of two distinct parts, the desk-top set, containing only the dial and a cradle that secured a handset, which combined the receiver and the transmitter elements in one unit, in the on-hook position. The cradle contained a plunger that operated the hookswitch located underneath the cradle, the desk set was connected to the subscriber set with a four-conductor mounting cord. The subscriber set was mounted either on the wall in close proximity. Newly manufactured units used a handset, designated E1, whose development period began in ca.1921 and was completed in its features by 1927. It was primarily molded in Bakelite, but the receiver and transmitter assemblies had a metal core. Its transmitter assembly that was surrounded by a hollow enclosure known colloquially as a spit cup, the barrier-button transmitter element exhibited a cone shape into the spit cup and is known as a bullet transmitter among collectors. This feature was eliminated halfway through the handset production run. The F1 element had a disk shape and was protected by a simple plastic screen as moisture barrier. This element became the transmitter of a new handset type in 1937. When this new handset became available, 202-type telephones were routinely refurbished with the new handset, with the introduction of anti-sidetone circuits in 1930, Western Electric began assigning assembly codes to telephones based on the electrical configuration. Until then, telephones were primarily referred to by the numbers used to construct them. The vast majority of the production run of the 202-type telephones were produced in black finish
20.
Telephone
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A telephone, or phone, is a telecommunications device that permits two or more users to conduct a conversation when they are too far apart to be heard directly. In 1876, Scottish emigrant Alexander Graham Bell was the first to be granted a United States patent for a device that produced clearly intelligible replication of the human voice and this instrument was further developed by many others. The telephone was the first device in history that people to talk directly with each other across large distances. Telephones rapidly became indispensable to businesses, government, and households, the essential elements of a telephone are a microphone to speak into and an earphone which reproduces the voice in a distant location. Until approximately the 1970s most telephones used a dial, which was superseded by the modern DTMF push-button dial. The receiver and transmitter are usually built into a handset which is held up to the ear, the dial may be located either on the handset, or on a base unit to which the handset is connected. The transmitter converts the sound waves to electrical signals which are sent through the network to the receiving phone. The receiving telephone converts the signals into audible sound in the receiver, telephones permit duplex communication, meaning they allow the people on both ends to talk simultaneously. The first telephones were connected to each other from one customers office or residence to another customers location. Being impractical beyond just a few customers, these systems were replaced by manually operated centrally located switchboards. For greater mobility, various systems were developed for transmission between mobile stations on ships and automobiles in the middle 20th century. Hand-held mobile phone]s was introduced for personal service starting in 1973, by the late 1970s several mobile telephone networks operated around the world. In 1983, the Advanced Mobile Phone System was launched, offering a standardized technology providing portability for users far beyond the residence or office. These analog cellular system evolved into digital networks with better security, greater capacity, better regional coverage, the public switched telephone network, with its hierarchical system of many switching centers, interconnects telephones around the world for communication with each other. With the standardized international numbering system, E.164, each line has an identifying telephone number. Although originally designed for voice communications, convergence has enabled most modern cell phones to have many additional capabilities. Since 1999, the trend for mobile phones is smartphones that integrate all mobile communication, a traditional landline telephone system, also known as plain old telephone service, commonly carries both control and audio signals on the same twisted pair of insulated wires, the telephone line. The control and signaling equipment consists of three components, the ringer, the hookswitch, and a dial, the ringer, or beeper, light or other device, alerts the user to incoming calls
21.
Candlestick telephone
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The candlestick telephone is a style of telephone that was common from the late 1890s to the 1940s. A candlestick telephone is often referred to as a desk stand. Candlestick telephones featured a mouth piece mounted at the top of the stand, when the telephone was not in use, the receiver rested in the fork of the switch hook protruding to the side of the stand, thereby disconnecting the audio circuit from the telephone network. Candlestick telephones were designed in a variety of styles with varying features. Most recognizable, candlesticks featured a base with a cylindrical neck extending upright for up to 10 inches in length. At the top of the stand was mounted a carbon microphone to speak into, in order to make or answer a telephone call, the user lifted the receiver off the switch hook, thereby activating an internal switch connecting the telephone to the telephone line. Candlestick telephones required the installation of a subscriber set, which housed the ringer to announce incoming calls. When automatic telephone exchanges were introduced, the base of a candlestick also featured a rotary dial, candlestick telephones were produced in various models by many manufacturers. The main producers of these telephones were Western Electric, Automatic Electric Co, kellogg Switchboard & Supply Company, and Stromberg-Carlson. The first tube shaft candlestick telephone was the Western Electric #20B Desk Phone patented in 1904, however, despite ceasing new production, many candlestick telephones remained in operation, maintained by the telephone companies, throughout the 1940s and into the 1950s. Many retro-style versions of the telephone were made long after the original phones were obsolete by companies such as Radio Shack. The cradle contained a plunger that operated the hookswitch in the base below, the A1 was only distributed for a very short time until the B-type telephone mount was completed in 1927, a streamlined design that replaced the tube-shaft with a sculpted cone shape. By 1930 this round base was redesigned into the oval-footprint D-mounting to avoid instability of the unit when dialing, at the same time the electric circuitry was upgraded to produce the model 202 telephone, which reduced the strong sidetone characteristic of earlier designs. The Hush-A-Phone was like a mini megaphone created in 1920 for slipping over the candlestick phone, the Ericofon, or Cobra Phone is a plastic one-piece telephone, in the candlestick/upright style, created by the Ericsson Company and marketed throughout the second half of the 20th century. It was the first commercially marketed telephone design to incorporate the dial, history and Photos of Antique Phones Website supporting the Ericofon
22.
Trimline telephone
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The Trimline telephone is a series of telephones produced by Western Electric, the manufacturing unit of the Bell System, and first introduced in 1965. This was accomplished by moving the dial from the base to the underside of the handset. The same concept was used for cellular telephone and cordless telephone models. To miniaturize the rotary dial sufficiently to fit in the Trimline handset, like in the Princess line, the dial was lit when the handset was removed from the base. The Trimline was also one of the first phones to use the predecessor of the now-ubiquitous RJ11 modular phone plug and jack. First introduced in 1965, the Trimline included a dial and was encased in a sleek. Cushioned clamp-on adaptors were manufactured and sold by third parties to make it easier to cradle the handset, the first Trimline models used incandescent dial lights powered by a power transformer plugged into a standard 120VAC outlet. The bulky transformer and the need for a conveniently-placed 120-volt outlet was criticized by many consumers, years later, Western Electric redesigned the Trimline to use a low-power green LED backlit dial powered by current from the phone line, eliminating the need for a separate transformer. Always eager to re-use its older stocks of turned-in rental phones, AT&T later repainted and sold early-model non-LED Trimlines as non-lighted models, the Trimline handset was produced in both rotary dial and Touch-Tone versions. Rotary dial Trimline production began in late 1965 and Touch Tone dials were added the year in mid-1966. The Trimline base was available in desk-top and wall-mount versions, the handsets and bases were interchangeable. The Trimline was the first US telephone to achieve some recognition in Europe. Today, similarly designed telephones are sold by many companies, AT&T retained the Trimline name for the later Trimline III, a more compact successor featuring squared corners and straight lines. In the 21st century, Advanced American Telephones produces the Trimline models 205,210, in the Trimline version designed for connection to an RJ11 telephone jack, pins 2 and 5 may carry very low voltage AC or DC power. Typically, the power on pins 2 and 5 came from a transformer plugged into an outlet near one telephone jack. The early Trimline and Princess phone dial light incandescent lamps were rated at 6.3 Volts,0.25 Amp, later Trimline versions had LED light sources, powered directly from the phone line, and the last Western Electric-made Princess version had no dial light. 1965 Original Trimline introduced in the winter of 1965, only rotary dial versions produced that first year, and availability was limited. 1966 Touch Tone keypads become available in addition to dial models at mid-year, first touch-tone phones lack pound and star buttons and so only have ten buttons
23.
Princess telephone
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The Princess telephone was introduced by the Bell System in 1959. It was a telephone designed for convenient use in the bedroom. It was commonly advertised with the slogan Its little. Its lovely. It lights, which was suggested by Robert Karl Lethin, the Princess was initially designed by the famed industrial designer Henry Dreyfuss, having designed previous Western Electric models with the Bell Labs engineers. Later redesigns involved Donald Genaro of the Dreyfuss design firm, Genaro redesigned the case so that it could be more easily picked up. Contemporary advertising demonstrates that this telephone was marketed to women, hence its model name. The model was available in a range of colors, including pink, red, yellow, moss green, black, white, beige, ivory, light blue, turquoise. The telephone was produced at the Western Electric Indianapolis, and later Shreveport Works plants, the Trimline telephone is often confused with the Princess because the Trimline dial lights up, even though the dial on the Trimline is in the handset. The Princess required an external electric transformer to power the lighted dial, the dial was mounted in the center on the base of the telephone. When Western Electric commenced production they did not yet have a small enough to fit inside the case. The phone was introduced without containing a ringer, but an external ringer box could be added, early versions of the Princess, those not containing a ringer, had the model number 701B. Customers complained that the phone was so light that it would slide on surfaces while dialing, later models included the M1A ringer. The rotary dial version with ringer was known as the 702B, the model 711B had a slide switch or push-button and was a two-line phone with exclusion on the first line. The ten-button Touch Tone version was known as the 1702B, the modular cord version of this was the 2702BM. The internal network of the Princess was reduced in size the same year, allowing a small, in the mid 1970s, AT&T introduced modular connectors for the line cord and handset cords, requiring the RJ11 standard home telephone jack. Most customers who had Princess telephones were converted to modular jacks, in 1983, AT&T was preparing itself for divestiture of the Bell System. It started American Bell, Inc. a separate subsidiary of Western Electric. AT&T introduced a non-light up dial with white keys to be sold in Phone Center Stores and these sets were marked CS on the bottom, for consumer sales. Post-divestiture colors added after 1984 included peach, dark gray, slate blue, in 1993, the Princess was extensively redesigned
24.
Design Line telephone
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Design Line, also known as Deco-Tel, is a brand name that AT&T has used for several of its specialty telephone designs to fulfill the demand by customers for more variety in telephone models. In the early 1970s, well before the Bell System divestiture, customers in increasing numbers chose to install and use telephones not manufactured by Western Electric, to fulfill the demand, the Bell System decided to offer a series of specialty telephones that could be purchased or leased. The series was called the Design Line telephones, the phones were among the few that could be purchased in the early 1970s. Western Electric broke tradition, by obtaining housings for some of the sets from other manufacturers or local contractors in Indianapolis, in all cases, Western Electric supplied the internal electrical components of the phones, such as ringer, receiver, transmitter, and induction coils. Early Design Line sets displayed this disclaimer, The telephone housing is your property, to assure quality of service, all working parts, e. g. dial, cords, and electrical components remain the property and responsibility of the Bell Telephone Company. As a consequence, Bell customers still had to pay a lease fee in order to rent the phones internal components. Design Line phones are among the few lines of phones produced by Western Electric that were renowned for looks than durability. Because the majority of the Design Line phone housings were not made by Western Electric, beginning in around 1980, the Bell System allowed customers to own the entire phone, including internal components. Sets were marked with CS to indicate the phone was entirely customer owned, the arrangement in which Western Electric components were installed into Japanese-made housings ended around the time of divestiture. Character phones, such as the Mickey Mouse phone, were made in China using the Trimline handset and these phones were still sold as a part of the Design Line series. In 1985, AT&T Technologies redesigned its consumer products to be cheaper to build and be more competitive in the marketplace by adding electronic ringers. In 1986, they moved telephone production out of the United States, after this time several new Design Line series telephones were marketed and discontinued. One example of a Design Line phone was model 140, marketed in the mid 90s, in 2000, Lucent Technologies spun off its consumer telephone division, resulting in the Design Line being redesigned. The basic design was retained, except that the handset was more rectangular in shape, the phone also replaced the traditional 100 series for consumer use, as Lucent kept the phones because of their high demand for business use after spinning off its consumer division. Bell System Practices Western Electric Design Line Telephones Western Electric Telephone Models
25.
Telephone exchange
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A telephone exchange is a telecommunications system used in the public switched telephone network or in large enterprises. In historical perspective, telecommunication terms have been used with different semantics over time, the term telephone exchange is often used synonymously with central office, a Bell System term. Often, an office is defined as a building used to house the inside plant equipment of potentially several telephone exchanges. Such an area has also referred to as the exchange. Central office locations may also be identified in North America as wire centers, All central offices within a larger region, typically aggregated by state, were assigned a common numbering plan area code. For corporate or enterprise use, a telephone exchange is often referred to as a private branch exchange. Smaller installations might deploy a PBX or key telephone system in the office of a receptionist and this made it possible for subscribers to call each other at homes, businesses, or public spaces. These made telephony an available and comfortable communication tool for everyday use, one of the first to propose a telephone exchange was Hungarian Tivadar Puskás in 1877 while he was working for Thomas Edison. The first experimental telephone exchange was based on the ideas of Puskás, the worlds first commercial telephone exchange opened on November 12,1877 in Friedrichsberg close to Berlin. George W. Coy designed and built the first commercial US telephone exchange opened in New Haven. The switchboard was built from carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids and bustle wire, Charles Glidden is also credited with establishing an exchange in Lowell, MA. with 50 subscribers in 1878. In Europe other early telephone exchanges were based in London and Manchester, Belgium had its first International Bell exchange a year later. In 1887 Puskás introduced the multiplex switchboard, later exchanges consisted of one to several hundred plug boards staffed by switchboard operators. Each operator sat in front of a panel containing banks of ¼-inch tip-ring-sleeve jacks. In front of the jack panel lay a horizontal panel containing two rows of patch cords, each connected to a cord circuit. When a calling party lifted the receiver, the loop current lit a signal lamp near the jack. The operator responded by inserting the rear cord into the jack and switched her headset into the circuit to ask, Number. For a local call, the operator inserted the front cord of the pair into the partys local jack
26.
Panel switch
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The Panel Machine Switching System is an early type of automatic telephone exchange for urban service, introduced in the Bell System in the 1920s. Both systems had many features in common, the first Panel-type exchanges were placed in service in Newark, New Jersey, on January 16,1915 at the Mulberry central office, and on June 12 in the Waverly central office. These system were semi-mechanical systems using telephones at customer stations without a dial, operators answered calls and keyed the station number into the panel switch. Most Panel installations were replaced by modern systems during the 1970s, the Panel switch was named for its tall panels covered with 500 rows of terminals. Each panel had a motor to drive usually sixty selectors by electromagnetically controlled clutches. The selector was similar in effect to a stepping switch though it moved continuously over the contacts, each selector had five brushes, each of which could select from 100 terminals arranged in groups. As in the Strowger system, each office could address up to 10,000 numbered lines. The panel system was designed to interconnect the offices of a city or a calling area. Each office was assigned a two- digit office code, callers dialed the office code followed by the station number. In most situations this led to six-digit numbers, but from the beginning the panel system handled seven-digit numbers, for two reasons. Party line numbers were listed with one of the letters J, M, R, the caller dialed the office code, the line number, and the digit corresponding to the letter. The panel system was designed to work with manual offices of up to 10,500 lines, to call a line in a manual office, callers dialed the office code followed by the line number, just as they would when calling a number in a fully automatic office. For lines 10,000 and up, callers dialed the office code. A subscribers line had two appearances in an office, one on the originating side, and one on the terminating side. The cutoff relay was controlled by a lead that, as with the multiple switchboard. The final selector performed a sleeve test to detect a busy line when a subscriber was called, supervision was supplied by a District circuit, similar to the plug and light cord circuit that plugged into a line jack on a switchboard. Some District frames were equipped with the more complex supervisory and timing circuits required to generate coin collect, many of the urban and commercial areas where Panel was first used had message rate service rather than flat rate calling. The introduction of direct distance dialing in the 1950s required the addition of automatic number identification equipment for centralized automatic message accounting
27.
Number Five Crossbar Switching System
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The Number Five Crossbar Switching System or 5XB switch, designed by Bell Labs and made by Western Electric, was in use in Bell System telephone exchanges from 1948 to the early 1990s. Its principal use was as a Class 5 telephone switch, though variants were used as combined class 4/5 in rural areas and as a TWX switch, 5XB was originally intended to bring the benefits of crossbar switching to small towns with only a few thousand telephone lines. The earlier 1XB urban crossbar was impractically expensive in small installations, 5XB was converted to wire spring relays in the 1950s and otherwise upgraded in the 1960s to serve exchanges with tens of thousands of lines. It also used entirely the same four stage switching fabric for incoming as for outgoing calls, all lines were terminated on Line Link Frames and all trunks and most service circuits on trunk link frames. Each TLF was connected to all LLF by at least ten junctors Line Link Frames were tiers of 10x20 crossbar switches in two or more bays. The switches in the first bay had their horizontal multiples, or banjo wires cut in half, effectively dividing each switch into a Line Switch and a Line Junctor Switch. Each of the ten Junctor Switches had ten junctors on its ten verticals, thus, the Line Link Frame terminated 100 Junctors. Each Junctor had full availability to however many hundreds of lines there were, the number of lines, thus the Line Concentration Ratio was engineered for the expected occupancy. Each line switch in this first, mixed bay had nine lines on nine of its verticals, in addition to the 90 lines on these switches, each LLF had at least one simple line switch bay, with ten more line switches carrying 200 lines. Thus the minimum size of a LLF was 290 lines for a concentration ratio of 2.9,1. Optionally it had still another frame, with ten more switches and another 200 lines, and so forth up to a maximum Line Concentration Ratio of 5.9,1 since they all shared the same hundred Line Links. The line circuit was much like that in 1XB with a Line Relay for alerting the exchange to a condition. For control purposes the subscriber lines on the switches of the LLF were divided into Vertical Groups of fifty, staff in Centrex offices spent much time standing on ladders, rewiring the Class of Service data fields at the top of LLF. Late in the career of 5XB, junctor group size and thus link efficiency of the largest offices was increased by the use of Auxiliary Line Link Frames, the ALL was a bay with ten junctor switches, divided as usual into left and right halves. One half had on its levels the Line Links of an even numbered LLF and, on its verticals, the Junctors of the odd numbered one. By this means, each LLF could use the Junctors of its mate, since they were odd and even, their Junctors appeared on opposite sides of the Trunk Junctor Switches, thus giving access to the mate Trunk Links as well. Connections through the ALL were only used in heavy traffic periods, Junctors were wired from LLF through the Junctor Grouping Frame to the levels of Trunk Junctor Switches in the Trunk Link Frame. Unlike earlier designs, the junctors had no supervisory relays or other active hardware, the basic design of the TLF had ten Junctor Switches with their horizontal multiples split in half, hence two hundred Junctors, and two hundred Trunk Links to the ten Trunk Switches
28.
Number One Electronic Switching System
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The Number One Electronic Switching System was the first large-scale stored program control telephone exchange or electronic switching system in the Bell System. It was manufactured by Western Electric and placed into service in Succasunna, New Jersey, the switching fabric was composed of a reed relay matrix controlled by wire spring relays which in turn were controlled by a central processing unit. The 1AESS central office switch incorporated higher processing capacities based on the 1A Processor in 1976, the voice switching fabric plan was similar to that of the earlier 5XB switch in being bidirectional and in using the call-back principle. The largest full access matrix switches in the system, however, were 8x8 rather than 10x10 or 20x16, thus they required eight stages rather than four to achieve large enough junctor groups in a large office. Crosspoints being more expensive in the new system but switches cheaper, the fabric was divided into Line Networks and Trunk Networks of four stages, and partially folded to allow connecting line-to-line or trunk-to-trunk without exceeding eight stages of switching. For a switch with 1000 input customers and 1000 output customers, when one considers that a large telephone system can have many more than 1000 x 1000 customers, the hardware to establish a full interconnection can grow rapidly and exceed practical implementations. Agner Krarup Erlang first theorized a compromise which is based upon the concept that not all lines are connected at the same time. From statistical theory, it is possible to design hardware that can connect most of the calls, in the sense of a high percentage and these are commonly referred to as blocking switches and are the most common in modern telephone exchanges. They are generally implemented as smaller switch fabrics in cascade, in many, a randomizer is used to select the start of a path through the multistage fabric so that the statistical properties predicted by the theory can be gained. Links were designated A, B, C, and J for Junctor, a Links were internal to the LSF or TSF, B Links connected LSF or TSF to JSF, C were internal to JSF, and J links or Junctors connected to another net in the exchange. All JSFs had a unity concentration ratio, that is the number of B links within the network equalled the number of junctors to other networks, most LSFs had a 4,1 Line Concentration Ratio, that is the lines were four times as numerous as the B links. In some urban areas 2,1 LSF were used, the B links were often multipled to make a higher LCR, such as 3,1 or 5,1. Line Networks always had 1024 Junctors, arranged in 16 grids that each switched 64 junctors to 64 B links, four grids were grouped for control purposes in each of four LJFs. TSF had a unity concentration, but a TN could have more TSFs than JSFs, thus their B links were usually multipled to make a Trunk Concentration Ratio of 1.25,1 or 1.5,1, the latter being especially common in 1A offices. TSFs and JSFs were identical except for their position in the fabric, each JSF or TSF was divided into 4 two-stage grids. Early TNs had four JSF, for a total of 16 grids,1024 J links, starting in the mid-1970s, larger offices had their B links wired differently, with only two B links from each Trunk Junctor Grid to each Trunk Switch Grid. This allowed a larger TN, with 8 JSF containing 32 grids, thus the junctor groups could be larger and more efficient. These TN had eight TSF, giving the TN a unity concentration ratio
29.
5ESS Switching System
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The 5ESS Switching System is a Class 5 telephone electronic switching system developed by Western Electric for the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and the Bell System in the United States. The 5ESS came to market as the Western Electric No.5 ESS and it first commenced service in Seneca, Illinois on 25 March 1982, and was destined to replace the Number One Electronic Switching System and other electromechanical systems in the 1980s and 1990s. The 5ESS was also used as a Class 4 telephone switch or as a hybrid Class 4/Class 5 switch in markets too small for the 4ESS, approximately half of all US central offices are served by 5ESS switches. The 5ESS is also exported internationally, and manufactured outside the US under license, the development effort for 5ESS required five thousand employees, producing 100 million lines of system source code, with 100 million lines of header files and makefiles. Evolution of the system took place over 20 years, while three releases were often being developed simultaneously, each taking three years to develop. The 5ESS-2000 version, introduced in the 1990s, increased the capacity of the module, with more peripheral modules. A follow-on version, the 5ESS-R/E, was in development during the late 1990s, the 5ESS technology was transferred to the AT&T Network Systems division upon the breakup of the Bell System. The division was divested by AT&T as Lucent Technologies, and after becoming Alcatel-Lucent, the SM performs multiplexing, analog and digital coding, and other work to interface with external equipment. Each has a controller, a computer with duplicated CPUs and memories, like most common equipment of the exchange. Distributed systems lessen the load on the Central Administrative Module or main computer, power for all circuitry is distributed as –48 VDC, and converted locally to logic levels or telephone signals. Each Switching Module handles several hundred to a few telephone lines or several hundred trunks or combination thereof. Each has its own processors, also called Module Controllers, which perform most call handling processes, originally the peripheral processors were to be Intel 8086, but those proved inadequate and the system was introduced with Motorola 68000 series processors. The name of the cabinet that houses this equipment was changed at the time from Interface Module to Switching Module. Peripheral units are on shelves in the SM, in most exchanges the majority are Line Units and Digital Line Trunk Units. Each SM has Local Digital Service Units to provide services to lines and trunks in the SM. Global Digital Service Units provide less-frequently used services to the entire exchange, t-carrier spans are terminated, originally one per card but in later models usually two, in Digital Line Trunk Units which concentrate their DS0 channels into the TSI. These may serve either interoffice trunks or, using Integrated Subscriber Loop Carrier, subscriber lines, higher-capacity DS3 signals can also have their DS0 signals switched in Digital Network Unit SONET units, without demultiplexing them into DS1. Newer SMs have DNUS and Optical OIU interfaces with an amount of capacity
30.
Vitaphone
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Vitaphone was a sound film system used for feature films and nearly 1,000 short subjects made by Warner Bros. and its sister studio First National from 1926 to 1931. Vitaphone was the last major analog sound-on-disc system and the one which was widely used. The soundtrack was not printed on the film itself, but issued separately on phonograph records, the discs, recorded at 33 1⁄3 rpm and typically 16 inches in diameter, would be played on a turntable physically coupled to the projector motor while the film was being projected. Many early talkies, such as The Jazz Singer, used the Vitaphone system, the name Vitaphone derived from the Latin and Greek words, respectively, for living and sound. The Vitaphone trademark was later associated with cartoons and other subjects that had optical soundtracks. Wente had created in 1916 and greatly improved in 1922, the business was established at Western Electrics Bell Laboratories in New York City and acquired by Warner Bros. in April 1925. Warner Bros. introduced Vitaphone on August 6,1926 with the release of their silent feature Don Juan, the feature was preceded by a program of short subjects with live-recorded sound, nearly all featuring classical instrumentalists and opera stars. Don Juan was able to draw huge sums of money at the box office, after its financial failure, Paramount head Adolph Zukor offered Sam Warner a deal as an executive producer for Paramount if he brought Vitaphone with him. Harry eventually agreed to accept Sams demands, dance band leader Henry Halstead is given credit for starring in the first Vitaphone short subject filmed in Hollywood instead of New York. Carnival Night in Paris featured the Henry Halstead Orchestra and a cast of hundreds of costumed dancers in a Carnival atmosphere, from the perspective of the cast and crew on the sound stage, there was little difference between filming with Vitaphone and a sound-on-film system. In the early years of sound, the cameras and their operators were enclosed in soundproofed booths with small windows made of thick glass. Cables suspended the microphones in fixed positions just above camera range, the recording machines were usually located in a separate building to completely isolate them from sound stage floor vibrations and other undesirable influences. The audio signal was sent from a monitoring and control booth to the recording room over a heavy shielded cable. Synchronization was maintained by driving all the cameras and recorders with synchronous electric motors powered from a common source, except for the unusual disc size and speed, the physical record-making process was the same one employed by contemporary record companies to make smaller discs for home use. The recording lathe cut an audio-signal-modulated spiral groove into the surface of a thick round slab of wax-like material rotating on a turntable. If problems were found, the scene could then be re-shot while everything was still in place, a Vitaphone-equipped theater had normal projectors which had been furnished with special phonograph turntables and pickups, a fader, an amplifier, and a loudspeaker system. The projectors operated just as motorized silent projectors did, but at a speed of 24 frames per second. When the projector was started, it rotated the linked turntable, the Vitaphone process made several improvements over previous systems, Amplification – The Vitaphone system used electronic amplification based on Lee De Forests Audion tube
31.
Victor Orthophonic Victrola
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The Victor Orthophonic Victrola, first demonstrated publicly in 1925, was the first consumer phonograph designed specifically to play electrically recorded discs. The combination was recognized instantly as a step forward in sound reproduction. Electrical recording was developed by Western Electric, although an electrical process was developed by Orlando R. Marsh. Western Electric demonstrated their process to record manufacturers, who were unwilling to adopt it because they realized it would make their entire existing record catalogs obsolete. However, parched revenues caused by the new medium of radio forced Victor and Columbia to give in, the design of the Orthophonic was informed by progress in telephony and transmission-line theory. It was developed by two Western Electric researchers, Joseph Maxfield and H. Harrison, the design was released by Victor as the Orthophonic. Its first public demonstration was front-page news in The New York Times, john Philip Sousa Gentleman, that is a band. This is the first time I have ever heard music with any soul to it produced by a talking machine. The new instrument is a feat of mathematics and physics and it is not the result of innumerable experiments, but was worked out on paper in advance of being built in the laboratory. The new machine has a range of from 100 to 5,000 frequencies, or five, the phonograph tone is eliminated by the new recording and reproducing process. A Wanamakers ad from October 31,1925, invited people to come to Wanamakers Salon of Music, blinking unbelieving eyes and promising you will never forget it if you live to be one hundred. The Orthophonics set the standard in sound reproduction, backed by advertising which rightly claimed that their sound was vastly superior to any other machine, they sold very well. As part of a publicity blitz, Victor designated November 2,1925 as Victor Day and, list prices ranged from $95 to $300 depending on cabinetry. $375 Victrolas with Radiola incorporated a five-tube Radiola tuned radio frequency receiver with orthophonic reproduction, dance music enthusiasts were not initially impressed, and indeed liked the tonal coloration of existing acoustic discs, it was classical music that sold the new device. The Orthophonic became recognized as a status symbol, Victor Talking Machine Company, Electrical recording era Youtube video, Victor Orthophonic Vicrola, Credenza model, playing No More Worryin by Paul Whiteman and his orchestra
32.
Dual-tone multi-frequency signaling
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DTMF was first developed in the Bell System in the United States, and became known under the trademark Touch-Tone for use in push-button telephones supplied to telephone customers, starting in 1963. DTMF is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23 and it is also known in the UK as MF4. The Touch-Tone system using a telephone keypad gradually replaced the use of dial and has become the industry standard for landline. Other multi-frequency systems are used for internal signaling within the telephone network, prior to the development of DTMF, telephone numbers were dialed by users with a loop-disconnect signaling, more commonly known as pulse dialing in the U. S. The exchange equipment responds to the dial pulses either directly by operating relays, the physical distance for which this type of dialing was possible was restricted by electrical distortions and was only possible on direct metallic links between end points of a line. Placing calls over longer distances required either operator assistance or provision of special subscriber trunk dialing equipment, operators used an earlier type of multi-frequency signaling. Multi-frequency signaling is a group of signaling methods that use a mixture of two pure tone sounds, various MF signaling protocols were devised by the Bell System and CCITT. This semi-automated signaling and switching proved successful in both speed and cost effectiveness, the DTMF system uses a set of eight audio frequencies transmitted in pairs to represent 16 signals, represented by the ten digits, the letters A to D, and the symbols # and *. AT&T described the product as a method for pushbutton signaling from customer stations using the transmission path. DTMF was known throughout the Bell System by the trademark Touch-Tone, the term was first used by AT&T in commerce on July 5,1960 and was introduced to the public on November 18,1963, when the first push-button telephone was made available to the public. It was a trademark by AT&T from September 4,1962 to March 13,1984. It is standardized by ITU-T Recommendation Q.23, in the UK, it is also known as MF4. Other vendors of compatible telephone equipment called the Touch-Tone feature tone dialing or DTMF, previously, terrestrial television stations used DTMF tones to control remote transmitters. The engineers had envisioned telephones being used to access computers, and they consulted with companies to determine the requirements. This led to the addition of the sign and asterisk or star keys as well as a group of keys for menu selection. Public payphones that accept credit cards use these codes to send the information from the magnetic strip. The AUTOVON telephone system of the United States Armed Forces used these signals to assert certain privilege, precedence is still a feature of military telephone networks, but using number combinations. For example, entering 93 before a number is a priority call, present-day uses of the A, B, C and D signals on telephone networks are few, and are exclusive to network control
33.
Bell Labs
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Nokia Bell Labs is an American research and scientific development company, owned by Finnish company Nokia. Its headquarters are located in Murray Hill, New Jersey, in addition to laboratories around the rest of the United States. The historic laboratory originated in the late 19th century as the Volta Laboratory, Bell Labs was also at one time a division of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, half-owned through its Western Electric manufacturing subsidiary. Eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories, in 1880, the French government awarded Alexander Graham Bell the Volta Prize of 50,000 francs, approximately US$10,000 at that time for the invention of the telephone. Bell used the award to fund the Volta Laboratory in Washington, D. C. in collaboration with Sumner Tainter, the laboratory is also variously known as the Volta Bureau, the Bell Carriage House, the Bell Laboratory and the Volta Laboratory. The laboratory focused on the analysis, recording, and transmission of sound, Bell used his considerable profits from the laboratory for further research and education to permit the diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf. This resulted in the founding of the Volta Bureau c,1887, located at Bells fathers house at 1527 35th Street in Washington, D. C. where its carriage house became their headquarters in 1889. In 1893, Bell constructed a new building, close by at 1537 35th St. specifically to house the lab, the building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972. In 1884, the American Bell Telephone Company created the Mechanical Department from the Electrical, the first president of research was Frank B. Jewett, who stayed there until 1940, ownership of Bell Laboratories was evenly split between AT&T and the Western Electric Company. Its principal work was to plan, design, and support the equipment that Western Electric built for Bell System operating companies and this included everything from telephones, telephone exchange switches, and transmission equipment. Bell Labs also carried out consulting work for the Bell Telephone Company, a few workers were assigned to basic research, and this attracted much attention, especially since they produced several Nobel Prize winners. Until the 1940s, the principal locations were in and around the Bell Labs Building in New York City. Of these, Murray Hill and Crawford Hill remain in existence, the largest grouping of people in the company was in Illinois, at Naperville-Lisle, in the Chicago area, which had the largest concentration of employees prior to 2001. Since 2001, many of the locations have been scaled down or closed. The Holmdel site, a 1.9 million square foot structure set on 473 acres, was closed in 2007, the mirrored-glass building was designed by Eero Saarinen. In August 2013, Somerset Development bought the building, intending to redevelop it into a commercial and residential project. The prospects of success are clouded by the difficulty of readapting Saarinens design and by the current glut of aging, eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories
34.
Graybar
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Graybar is an American employee-owned corporation, based in Clayton, Missouri. It conducts a wholesale business for electrical, communications and data networking products. It is included on the Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations, founded in 1869 in Cleveland, Ohio, by Elisha Gray and Enos Barton, it was the origin of the Western Electric Company. On December 11,1925, it was incorporated as Graybar Electric Company. During the post-Civil War Reconstruction Era, an entrepreneur named Enos Barton worked for Western Union in Rochester, during this period, Barton met George Shawk, the foreman of the companys Cleveland, Ohio shop. When that shop was closed down, Shawk bought some of the equipment and went into business for himself, making various kinds of electrical and other apparatus, while on a trip to Rochester, he and Barton, who was then 26, agreed to go into partnership. To raise the $400 her son needed for his share of the business venture, the new firm, located at 93 St. Clair Street in Cleveland, grew. In May 1869, Elisha Gray, an Oberlin College professor and inventor of telegraphic equipment, up until then, Gray had been one of the firms top customers. He had invented a needle annunciator for hotels and elevators, a telautograph, Gray and Barton joined forces with an investment of $2,500 each, with Gray as the senior partner. The success of the new company attracted the attention of General Anson Stager and he offered to enter the business as an equal partner with Gray and Barton, providing the companys headquarters was moved from Cleveland to Chicago, Illinois. In December 1869, the moved to 162 S. The great Great Chicago Fire in 1871 came within two blocks of its small plant, the destruction caused by the fire resulted in greater growth for Gray & Barton, as the company sold fire alarms and helped rebuild the Western Union infrastructure in the city. After several relocations, all in Chicago, the business was incorporated as the Western Electric Manufacturing Company in 1872 to meet the requirements of the telegraph supply business. The new company so closely allied with the elder Western that three of its five directors were Western Union executives, moreover, Stager was named president, although it was Barton as secretary/treasurer who actually handled day-to-day affairs. In 1876, he filed a caveat with the U. S, patent Office, announcing his intention to soon patent an invention that would transmit vocal sounds telegraphically. Gray dubbed his telephone the harmonic telegraph, only hours earlier, however, Alexander Graham Bell applied for a patent for the same idea, which became known as the telephone. As it turned out, what Bell actually patented would have never worked, therefore it was Bells patent and not Gray’s that launched the telecommunications industry. Stager served as president of Western Electric until shortly before his death in 1885, Western Electric Company was the first company to join in a Japanese joint venture with foreign capital
35.
Alcatel-Lucent
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Alcatel-Lucent S. A. was a French global telecommunications equipment company, headquartered in Boulogne-Billancourt, France. As of January 2016, the company is part of Nokia, the company focused on fixed, mobile and converged networking hardware, IP technologies, software and services, with operations in more than 130 countries. Alcatel-Lucents chief executive officer was Michel Combes and the chairman of the board was Philippe Camus. Camus joined the company in the quarter of 2008, alongside Ben Verwaayen as CEO, after Alcatel-Lucents first CEO Patricia Russo. For 2010, the company had revenues of €16 billion and a net loss of €334 million. For 2011, revenues were €15 billion, net loss of €1.1 billion, for 2012, revenues were €14.4 billion and net loss of €1.4 billion. On October 1,2014, it announced that it had closed the sale of its subsidiary Alcatel-Lucent Enterprise to China Huaxin Post & Telecommunication Economy Development Center, Alcatel-Lucent was formed when Alcatel merged with Lucent Technologies on December 1,2006. However, the predecessors of the company have been a part of industry since the late 19th century. The company has roots in two early telecommunications companies, La Compagnie Générale dElectricité and the Western Electric Manufacturing Company, Western Electric began in 1869 when Elisha Gray and Enos N. Barton started a manufacturing firm based in Cleveland, Ohio. By 1880, the company had relocated to Chicago, Illinois, CGE would become a leader in digital communications and would also be known for producing the TGV high-speed trains in France. Bell Telephone Laboratories was created in 1925 from the consolidation of the R&D organizations of Western Electric, Bell Labs researchers have won 7 Nobel Prizes. Also in 1925, Western Electric sold its International Western Electric Company subsidiary to ITT Corporation, CGE purchased the telecommunications part of ITT in the mid-1980s. AT&T re-entered the European telecommunications market in 1984 following the Bell System divestiture, Philips promoted the venture in part because its PRX public switching technology was ageing and it sought a partner to help fund the development costs of digital switching. In 1987, AT&T increased its holding to 60% and in 1990 it purchased the remainder of the Philips holding, in 1998, Alcatel Alsthom shifted its focus to the telecommunications industry, spinning off its Alsthom activities and changing the companys name to Alcatel. AT&T spun off Lucent Technologies in April 1996 with a public offering. In April 2004, TCL Corporation and Alcatel announced the creation of a mobile phone manufacturing joint venture, facing intense competition in the telecommunications industry, Alcatel and Lucent Technologies merged on November 30,2006. On April 5,2006, Alcatel announced that it would swap its shares of Alcatel Alenia Space and Telespazio for €673 million and a 12. 1% stake in Thales and this increased Alcatels stake in Thales to 20. 8%
36.
AT&T Corporation
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Founded in 1885 as the original American Telephone and Telegraph Company, it was at times the worlds largest telephone company, the worlds largest cable television operator, and a regulated monopoly. At its peak in the 1950s and 1960s, it employed one million people, in 2005, AT&T was purchased by Baby Bell and former subsidiary SBC Communications for more than $16 billion. SBC then changed its name to AT&T Inc, AT&T started with Bell Patent Association, a legal entity established in 1874 to protect the patent rights of Alexander Graham Bell after he invented the telephone system. Originally a verbal agreement, it was formalized in writing in 1875 as Bell Telephone Company, in 1880 the management of American Bell had created what would become AT&T Long Lines. The project was the first of its kind to create a nationwide long-distance network with a commercially viable cost-structure, the project was formally incorporated in New York State as a separate company named American Telephone and Telegraph Company on March 3,1885. With this assets transfer, AT&T became the parent of both American Bell and the Bell System. AT&T was involved mainly in the business and, although it was a partner with RCA, was reluctant to see radio grow because such growth might diminish the demand for wired services. It established station WEAF in New York as what was termed a toll station, AT&T could provide no programming, but anyone who wished to broadcast a message could pay a toll to AT&T and then air the message publicly. The original studio was the size of a telephone booth, the idea, however, did not take hold, because people would pay to broadcast messages only if they were sure that someone was listening. As a result, WEAF began broadcasting entertainment material, drawing amateur talent found among its employees, throughout most of the 20th century, AT&T held a monopoly on phone service in the United States and Canada through a network of companies called the Bell System. At this time, the company was nicknamed Ma Bell, on April 30,1907, Theodore Newton Vail became President of AT&T. Vail believed in the superiority of one system and AT&T adopted the slogan One Policy, One System. This would be the philosophy for the next 70 years. Under Vail, AT&T began buying up many of the telephone companies including Western Union telegraph. Anxious to avoid action from government antitrust suits, AT&T and the government entered into an agreement known as the Kingsbury Commitment. These actions brought unwanted attention from antitrust regulators, in the Kingsbury Commitment, AT&T and the government reached an agreement that allowed AT&T to continue operating as a monopoly. While AT&T periodically faced scrutiny from regulators, this state of affairs continued until the breakup in 1984. The United States Justice Department opened the case United States v. AT&T in 1974 and this was prompted by suspicion that AT&T was using monopoly profits from its Western Electric subsidiary to subsidize the cost of its network, a violation of anti-trust law
37.
International Bell Telephone Company
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IBTC rapidly evolved into an important European telephone service provider and manufacturer, with major operations in several countries. AT&T, its U. S. parent, later sold its entire European division and IBTCs subsidiaries to the International Telephone & Telegraph Company of Cuba in 1925, ending a 46-year presence on the Continent. During his tour of the continent the Belgian government offered him the greatest financial incentives to establish his European subsidiarys headquarters in their country, BTMC was created as a joint venture by the International Bell Telephone Company of New York and the Western Electric Company of Chicago. BTMC came under majority ownership by the telephone manufacturer Western Electric, Western Electric was itself later majority owned by the American Bell Telephone Company, returning control of BTMC back to the Bell organization. BTMC was owned 45% by American Bell Telephone, and 55% by Bells major U. S. supplier, Western Electric, a U. S. company formed during the era of the telegraph, became American Bells sole telephone supplier the same year. Barton had earlier sent him to Australia and New Zealand to help with operations there, Welles would lead the overseas BTMC company for the next 30 years assisted by Louis De Groof, a Belgian authorised agent. IBTC started up subsidiary manufacturing plants in cities throughout all of Europe. In the year after its founding BTMC employed 35 people, and its workshops were accommodated within a plant at No.4 Boudewijnstraat. The Antwerp facility was responsible for introducing the telephone to much of Europe, with its first manual. In 1884 the very first European intercity line was created between Antwerp and Brussels, and in 1887 the first international line in Europe was opened between Brussels and Paris, francis Welles retired from BTMC in 1913 and returned to the United States shortly before the First World War. Welles and was succeeded by Alexis Mois, the Great War inflicted severe damage to BTMCs operations and production facilities, much of which was destroyed or seized by the invading German army. The companys U. S. managers immediately departed for the United Kingdom or returned home, while many plant employees had been seconded to the Belgian army, or moved to other unoccupied countries. In its early existence the Bell Telephone Manufacturing Company of Belgium took on the role of a child of two often squabbling parents, Western Electric and the American Bell Telephone Company. However even through a succession of owners the BTMC has retained its original name, the first telephone exchanges in Belgium were opened in 1878. A company was formed in Brussels in 1879, and others followed, competition was recognised as unsatisfactory, and the various companies were encouraged to amalgamate. The Compagnie Belge du Téléphone Bell was formed in 1882, as the Belgian subsidiary of the International Bell Telephone Company of New York. By the end of 1886, the Belgian division had a total 6,900 kilometers of lines, and 3,532 subscribers in seven cities, including Brussels, Antwerp, Charleroi, Ghent, Verviers. The first exchange in Switzerland was opened in Zurich, operated under a license granted by the IBTC to a group of men on July 24,1880
38.
NEC
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NEC Corporation is a Japanese multinational provider of information technology services and products, headquartered in Minato, Tokyo, Japan. NEC provides IT and network solutions to enterprises, communications services providers and to government agencies. The company was known as the Nippon Electric Company, Limited and its NEC Semiconductors business unit was one of the worldwide top 20 semiconductor sales leaders before merging with Renesas Electronics. NEC is a member of the Sumitomo Group, kunihiko Iwadare and Takeshiro Maeda established Nippon Electric Limited Partnership on August 31,1898 by using facilities that they had bought from Miyoshi Electrical Manufacturing Company. Iwadare acted as the partner, Maeda handled company sales. Western Electric, which had an interest in the Japanese phone market, was represented by Walter Tenney Carleton, Carleton was also responsible for the renovation of the Miyoshi facilities. It was agreed that the partnership would be reorganized as a company when treaty would allow it. On July 17,1899, the treaty between Japan and the United States went into effect. Nippon Electric Company, Limited was organized the day with Western Electric Company to become the first Japanese joint-venture with foreign capital. Ernest Clement and Carleton were named as directors, Maeda and Mototeru Fujii were assigned to be auditors. Iwadare, Maeda and Carleton handled the overall management, the company started with the production, sales and maintenance of telephones and switches. NEC modernized the facilities with the construction of the Mita Plant in 1901 at Mita Shikokumachi. It was completed in December 1902, the Japanese Ministry of Communications adopted a new technology in 1903, the common battery switchboard supplied by NEC. The common battery switchboards powered the subscriber phone, eliminating the need for a permanent magnet generator in each subscribers phone, the switchboards were initially imported, but were manufactured locally by 1909. NEC started exporting telephone sets to China in 1904, in 1905, Iwadare visited Western Electric in the U. S. to see their management and production control. On his return to Japan he discontinued the system of sub-contracting and replaced it with a new system where managers. Inefficiency was also removed from the production process, the company paid higher salaries with incentives for efficiency. New accounting and cost controls were put in place, and time clocks installed, between 1899 and 1907 the number of telephone subscribers in Japan rose from 35,000 to 95,000
39.
GTE
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GTE Corporation, formerly General Telephone & Electric Corporation, was the largest independent telephone company in the United States during the days of the Bell System. The company operated from 1926, with roots tracing further back than that, until 2000, when it merged with Bell Atlantic, the combined company took the name Verizon. The company was founded in 1918 as the Associated Telephone Utilities Company, it went bankrupt in 1933 during the Great Depression, in 1991, it acquired the third largest independent, Continental Telephone. It owned Automatic Electric, an equipment supplier similar in many ways to Western Electric, and Sylvania Lighting. The company acquired BBN Planet, one of the earliest Internet service providers, GTE operated in Canada via large interests in subsidiary companies such as BC Tel and Quebec-Téléphone. When foreign ownership restrictions on telecommunications companies were introduced, GTEs ownership was grandfathered, when BC Tel merged with Telus to create BCT. Telus, GTEs Canadian subsidiaries were merged into the new parent, making it the second-largest telecommunications carrier in Canada. In the Caribbean, CONTEL purchased several major stakes in the independent countries of the British West Indies. In 1920, the three formed a corporation, Commonwealth Telephone Company, with Odegard as president, Pratt as vice-president. Richland Center Telephone became part of Commonwealth Telephone, which quickly purchased telephone companies in three nearby communities, in 1922, Pratt resigned as vice-president and was replaced by Clarence R. Brown, a former Bell System employee. By the mid-1920s, Commonwealth Telephone had extended beyond Wisconsin borders and it also diversified into other utilities by acquiring two small Wisconsin electrical companies. An aggressive acquisition program was launched in eastern, midwestern. During its first six years, Associated Telephone Utilities acquired 340 telephone companies, by the time the stock market bottomed out in October 1929, Associated Telephone Utilities was operating about 500,000 telephones with revenues approaching $17 million. In January 1930, a new subsidiary, Associated Telephone Investment Company, was established, designed to support its parents acquisition program, the new companys primary business was buying company stock in order to bolster its market value. Within two years, the investment company had incurred losses, and a $1 million loan had to be negotiated. Associated Telephone Investment was dissolved but not before its parents financial plight had become irreversible, the company was reorganized that same year and resurfaced in 1935 as General Telephone Corporation, operating 12 newly consolidated companies. John Winn, a 26-year veteran of the Bell System, was named president, in 1936, General Telephone created a new subsidiary, General Telephone Directory Company, to publish directories for the parents entire service area. Following the war, General Telephone reactivated an acquisitions program that had been dormant for more than a decade, in 1950, General Telephone purchased its first telephone-equipment manufacturing subsidiary, Leich Electric Company, along with the related Leich Sales Corporation. General Telephone’s holdings included 15 telephone companies across 20 states by 1951, power was named president of the company under chairman and long-time GT executive Morris F. LaCroix, replacing the retiring Harold Bozell
40.
ITT Corporation
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ITT Corporation is an American worldwide manufacturing company based in White Plains, New York, producing specialty components for the aerospace, transportation, energy and industrial markets. The company was founded in 1920 as International Telephone & Telegraph, ITT divested its telecommunications assets in 1986, and in 1995 spun off its non-manufacturing divisions, later to be purchased by Starwood Hotels & Resorts Worldwide. In 1996, the current company was founded as a spinoff of ITT as ITT Industries, Inc. in 2011, ITT spun off its defense businesses into a company named Exelis, and its water technology business into a company named Xylem Inc. International Telephone & Telegraph was formed in 1920, created by brokers Colonel Sosthenes Behn, the brothers had acquired the Puerto Rico Telephone Company in 1914 along with the Cuban-American Telephone and Telegraph Company and a half-interest in the Cuban Telephone Company. ITTs first major expansion was in 1923 when it consolidated the Spanish Telecoms market into what is now Telefónica, from 1922 to 1925 it purchased a number of European telephone companies. In 1925, ITT purchased several companies from Western Electric, as Bell has agreed to divest itself of its international operations, Compagnie Générale dElectricité later purchased BTM, Nortel later purchased STC. Its only serious rival was the Theodore Gary & Company conglomerate, in the United States, ITT acquired the various companies of the Mackay Companies in 1928 through a specially organized subsidiary corporation, Postal Telegraph & Cable. These companies included the Commercial Cable Company, the Commercial Pacific Cable Company, Postal Telegraph, on 3 August 1933 Hitler received in one of the first meetings with US businessmen Sosthenes Behn, then the CEO of ITT, and his German representative, Henry Mann. Sutton, in his book Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler, lorenz AG, owned 25% of Focke-Wulf, the German aircraft manufacturer, builder of some of the most successful Luftwaffe fighter aircraft. In the 1960s, ITT Corporation won $27 million in compensation for damage inflicted on its share of the Focke-Wulf plant by Allied bombing during World War II. While ITT - Focke-Wulf planes were bombing Allied ships, and ITT lines were passing information German submarines, in 1943 ITT became the largest shareholder of Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau GmbH for the remainder of the war with 29%. This was due to Kaffee HAGs share falling to 27% after the death in May of Kaffee HAG chief, OMGUS documents reveal that the role of the HAG conglomerate could not be determined during WWII. In 1951, ITT purchased Philo Farnsworths television company to break into that market, at the time Farnsworth was also developing the Fusor fusion reactor, which was funded by ITT until 1967. ITT changed the name to ITT Kellogg. One prominent subsidiary of this was the American Cable and Radio Corporation and it bought Philadelphia based heating and air conditioning manufacturer John J. Nesbitt Inc. In 1968 the company purchased Levittown homebuilder Levitt and Sons for a reported $90 million and this equipment was also produced under license in Poznań, and in Yugoslavia, and elsewhere. ITT was the largest owner of the LM Ericsson company in Sweden, in 1959, Harold Geneen became CEO. Using leveraged buyouts, he turned the minor acquisitions of the 1950s into major growth during the 1960s, in 1963, ITT attempted to purchase the ABC television network for $700 million
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SS Eastland
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The SS Eastland was a passenger ship based in Chicago and used for tours. On July 24,1915, the ship rolled over onto its side while tied to a dock in the Chicago River, a total of 844 passengers and crew were killed in what was the largest loss of life from a single shipwreck on the Great Lakes. After the disaster, the Eastland was salvaged and sold to the United States Navy, after restorations and modifications, the Eastland was designated as a gunboat and renamed the USS Wilmette. It was used primarily as a vessel on the Great Lakes. The ship was commissioned during 1902 by the Michigan Steamship Company and built by the Jenks Ship Building Company of Port Huron, the ship was named during May 1903, immediately before its inaugural voyage. After its construction, the Eastland was discovered to have design flaws, the ship was top-heavy, which became evident when passengers congregated en masse on the upper decks. During July 1903, a case of overcrowding caused the Eastland to list with water flowing up one of the ships gangplanks, the situation was quickly rectified, but this was the first of several incidents. Later in the month, the stern of the ship was damaged when it was backed into the tugboat George W. Gardner. During August 1906, another incident of listing occurred which resulted in the filing of complaints against the Chicago-South Haven Line which had purchased the ship earlier that year. On August 14,1903, while on a cruise from Chicago to South Haven, Michigan and they claimed that they had not received their potatoes for a meal. When they refused to return to the hole, Captain John Pereue ordered the six men arrested at gun point. Firemen George Lippen and Benjamin Myers, who were not a part of the group of six, stoked the fires until the ship reached harbor. Upon the ships arrival in South Haven, the six men – Glenn Watson, Mike Davern, Frank La Plarte, Edward Fleming, Mike Smith, shortly thereafter, Captain Pereue was replaced. This was an event in the lives of the workers. Many of the passengers on the Eastland were Czech immigrants from Cicero,220 of them perished, during 1915, the new federal Seamens Act had been passed because of the RMS Titanic disaster three years earlier. The law required retrofitting of a set of lifeboats on the Eastland. This additional weight may have made the Eastland more dangerous as it worsened the already severe problem of being top-heavy. Some argued that other Great Lakes ships would suffer from the same problem, nonetheless, it was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson
42.
Hawthorne Works
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The Hawthorne Works was a large factory complex of the Western Electric Company in Cicero, Illinois. Named after the name of the town, Hawthorne, it opened in 1905. At its peak of operations, Hawthorne employed 45,000 workers, producing large quantities of telephone equipment, the facility is well-known for the industrial studies held there in the 1920s and the Hawthorne effect is named for the works. The Hawthorne Works complex was built at the beginning of the 20th century, Hawthorne Works was named for Hawthorne, Illinois, a small town that was later incorporated as Cicero. The facility consisted of buildings and contained a private railroad to move shipments through the plant to the nearby Burlington Northern Railroad freight depot. In the first decades, the complex was significantly expanded. The Hawthorne Works produced an output of telephone equipment. In addition, Western Electric produced a variety of consumer products and electrical equipment, such as refrigerators. The works employed up to 45,000 employees at the height of operations, workers regularly used bicycles for transit within the plant. The Hawthorne Works was in operation until 1983, when it was closed as a result of the divestiture of AT&T and it was purchased in the mid-1980s by the late Donald L. Shoemaker and replaced with a shopping center. One of the original remained at the corner of 22nd Street. Due to its significance in industrial manufacturing in the United States, the Hawthorne effect is named for the works. North American Quality pioneer Joseph Juran referred to the Hawthorne Works as the bed of the Quality Revolution. The career arcs of other notable quality professionals such as Walter Shewhart, paul Mattick, the Marxist theorist worked here as a mechanic from 1928/9 until 1932. The Hawthorne Works Museum, operated by Morton College, tells the story of the Hawthorne Works facility - its products and its employees, exhibits show Western Electric products, such as telephones, communications and electronics equipment, inventions by Bell Laboratories, local immigrant workers and local history. Media related to Hawthorne Works at Wikimedia Commons Western Electric History Western Electric Co. from Encyclopedia of Chicago Hawthorne Works Museum
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Bell System Practices
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Collectors use these documents to help date and restore vintage phones. Issuance of Bell System Practices within the Bell System started in the early 1930s, when they replaced a similar compendium, initially BSPs were identified by mixed alphanumeric sequence numbers designating a section and a specific document number within each section. The sections consisted of one letter and two digits, followed by a character and a three-digit document number. The version of document was indicated by an issue number. For example, the designation C34.175 Issue 1 identified a document entitled Station Dials -2 and 4 Types - Maintenance, in the 1950s, the format of Practices designations was changed to a nine-digit numerical format, written in three groups of three digits. The first three digits referred to the division, which indicated a broad area, such as subscriber sets or the No.1 ESS. The next three digits indicated a specific area, such as specific type of equipment used within the major division subject. The final three digits indicate the number of the document. The content could be general descriptive information, information on wiring and connections, test procedures, or piece-part replacement, starting in the 1970s the most frequently used BSPs were bundled in convenient handbooks each covering general subject matters, such as the Station Service Manual. The format and numbering system was used by Nortel and ITT Corporation due to their provenance from the Bell Systems manufacturing unit. After the Bell System divestiture of 1984 publication continued and the organization, Bellcore Recommendation—covered network maintenance and design topics transferred to Bellcore. Bell Service Practices— referred to the plant/technical reference maintained by the various Regional Bell Operating Companies, lucent Technology Practices— where manufacturers took over product lines. BellSystemPractices. org Cowboy Franks BSP Reference The TCI Library Telephone Collectors International BSP Reference, weDoPhones Historic Telephone Set BSP Reference The Phone Booth Telephone Booth BSP Reference Technical Documentation for Bell System products BSP History
