1.
Boeing 747-400
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The Boeing 747-400 is a major development and the best-selling model of the Boeing 747 family of jet airliners. While retaining the four-engine wide-body layout of its predecessors, the 747-400 embodies numerous technological and structural changes to produce a more efficient airframe. Its most distinguishing features versus preceding 747 models are 6-foot winglets mounted on 6-foot wing tip extensions, the aircraft also features an all-new interior with upgraded in-flight entertainment architecture. As on the 747-300, passenger variants include an upper deck as standard. The model has a capacity of 660 passengers with the 747-400D variant. Northwest Airlines first placed the 747-400 in commercial service in February 9,1989, the 747-400 was produced in passenger, freighter, combi, domestic, extended range passenger and extended range freighter versions. The last 747−400, a -400ERF, was delivered in 2009, the 747-400 is the second-most recent version of the Boeing 747 family, having been superseded by the improved Boeing 747-8. Following its introduction in 1969, the Boeing 747 became a success with airlines. As the worlds first wide-body jetliner, the 747 had revolutionized air travel, in 1980, Boeing announced the 747-300, its latest 747 variant featuring greater passenger capacity. This was made possible by making a stretched upper deck, previously an option on the 747-200, the SUD was almost twice as long as the original 747 upper deck. Besides increased capacity, the 747-300 did not offer any increase in range, at the same time, 747s were becoming more costly to operate due to a number of factors, notably conventional flight control systems, three-person flight crews, and fuel costs. In 1982, Boeing introduced a glass cockpit, new engines. Similar technologies were included in the design plans for newly announced rival wide-body aircraft, namely the Airbus A340. At the same time, combined sales of the 747-100, −200, and −300 models neared 700, the introduction of the 747-300 did little to stem the decline, and itself faced potential competition from more modern designs. As a result, Boeing began considering a more significant upgrade for its largest passenger jet, in September 1984, Boeing announced development of the newest 747 derivative, the Advanced Series 300, at the Farnborough Airshow. On October 22,1985, the type was launched when Northwest Airlines became the first 747-400 customer. Cathay Pacific, KLM, Lufthansa, Singapore Airlines, and British Airways also announced several months later, followed by United Airlines, Air France. Seven early customers, namely British Airways, Cathay Pacific, KLM, Lufthansa, Northwest, Qantas, while the aircraft was planned as a new-technology upgrade, Boeing originally proposed minimal design changes in order to reduce development cost and retain commonality with existing models
2.
Scale model
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This enables it to demonstrate some behavior or property of the original object without examining the original object itself. The most familiar scale models represent the appearance of an object in miniature. Scale models are used in fields including engineering, architecture, film making, military command, salesmanship. While each field may use a model for a different purpose, all scale models are based on the same principles. The detail requirements vary depending on the needs of the modeler, in general a scale model must be designed and built primarily considering similitude theory. However, other requirements concerning practical issues must also be considered, similitude is the theory and art of predicting prototype performance from scale model observations. The main requirement of similitude is all dimensionless quantities must be equal for both the model and the prototype under the conditions the modeler desires to make observations. Dimensionless quantities are generally referred to as Pi terms, or π terms, in many fields the π terms are well established. For example, in dynamics, a well known dimensionless number called the Reynolds number comes up frequently in scale model tests with fluid in motion relative to a stationary surface. An example of the Reynolds number and its use in similitude theory satisfaction can be observed in the scale model testing of fluid flow in a horizontal pipe, one method to determine the dimensionless quantities of concern for a given problem is to use dimensional analysis. Practical concerns include the cost to construct the model, available test facilities to condition and observe the model, the availability of certain materials, and even who will build it. Practical requirements are very diverse depending on the purpose of the scale model. As an example, perhaps an aerospace company needs to test a new wing shape, however, if a facility such as this one cant be used, perhaps due to cost constraints, the similitude requirements must be relaxed or the test redesigned to accommodate the limitation. In this case, concessions must be made for reasons to the similitude requirements. An example of this from fluid dynamics is flow of a liquid in a horizontal pipe, possible π terms to consider in this situation are Reynolds number, Weber number, Froude number, and Mach number. For this flow configuration, however, no tension is involved. Also, compression of the fluid is not applicable, so the Mach number can be disregarded, finally, gravity is not responsible for the flow, so the Froude number can also be disregarded. This leaves the modeler with only the Reynolds number to worry about in terms of equating its values for the scale model, in general, scale models can be classified into three classes depending on the degree of similitude satisfaction they exhibit
3.
Aircraft
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An aircraft is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the lift of an airfoil. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation, crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, but unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as type, aircraft propulsion, usage. Each of the two World Wars led to technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras, Pioneers of flight, first World War,1914 to 1918. Aviation between the World Wars,1918 to 1939, Second World War,1939 to 1945. Postwar era, also called the jet age,1945 to the present day, aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, a balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs – usually fixed-wing. In 1919 Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to ships of the air, in the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flying-ships. – though none had yet been built, the advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by an outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a balloon is an aerostat and an airship is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible, sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship. Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back and these soon became known as blimps. During the Second World War, this shape was adopted for tethered balloons, in windy weather
4.
Glider (aircraft)
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A glider is a heavier-than-air aircraft that is supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of the air against its lifting surfaces, and whose free flight does not depend on an engine. Most gliders do not have an engine, although motor-gliders have small engines for extending their flight when necessary, there is a wide variety of types differing in the construction of their wings, aerodynamic efficiency, location of the pilot, controls and intended purpose. Most exploit meteorological phenomena to maintain or even gain height, gliders are principally used for the air sports of gliding, hang gliding and paragliding. However some spacecraft have been designed to descend as gliders and in the past military gliders have been used in warfare, perhaps the simplest and most familiar types are toys such as the paper plane and balsa wood glider. Glider is the agent noun form of the verb to glide and it derives from Middle English gliden, which in turn derived from Old English glīdan. The oldest meaning of glide may have denoted a precipitous running or jumping, scholars are uncertain as to its original derivation, with possible connections to slide, and light having been advanced. Early pre-modern accounts of flight are in most cases difficult to verify and it is whether each craft was a glider, kite or parachute. Often the event is recorded a long time after it allegedly took place. A 17th-century account reports an attempt at flight by the 9th-century poet Abbas Ibn Firnas near Cordoba, according to these reports, both used a set of wings, and both blamed their crash on the lack of a tail. Hezârfen Ahmed Çelebi is alleged to have flown a glider with eagle-like wings over the Bosphorus strait from the Galata Tower to Üsküdar district in Istanbul around 1630–1632. The first heavier-than-air man-carrying aircraft that were based on published scientific principles were Sir George Cayleys series of gliders which achieved brief wing-borne hops from around 1849. Thereafter gliders were built by such as Jean Marie Le Bris, John J. Montgomery, Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, Octave Chanute. Lilienthal was the first to make repeated successful flights and was the first to use rising air to prolong his flight, using a Montgomery tandem-wing glider, Daniel Maloney was the first to demonstrate high-altitude controlled flight using a balloon-launched glider launched from 4,000 feet in 1905. The Wright Brothers developed a series of three manned gliders after preliminary tests with a kite as they worked towards achieving powered flight and they returned to glider testing in 1911 by removing the motor from one of their later designs. In the inter-war years, recreational gliding flourished in Germany under the auspices of Rhön-Rossitten, in the United States, the Schweizer brothers of Elmira, New York, manufactured sport sailplanes to meet the new demand. Sailplanes continued to evolve in the 1930s, and sport gliding has become the main application of gliders, as their performance improved, gliders began to be used to fly cross-country and now regularly fly hundreds or even thousands of kilometers in a day, if the weather is suitable. Military gliders were developed during World War II by a number of countries for landing troops, a glider – the Colditz Cock – was even built secretly by POWs as a potential escape method at Oflag IV-C near the end of the war in 1944. Foot-launched aircraft had flown by Lilienthal and at the meetings at Wasserkuppe in the 1920s
5.
Card stock
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Card stock is often used for business cards, postcards, playing cards, catalogue covers, scrapbooking, and other uses which require higher durability than regular paper. The texture is smooth, but can be textured, metallic. Most countries use the term grammage is used to describe the weight of the paper in grams per square metre, in the U. S. card stock thickness is usually measured in points or mils, the thickness of the sheet in thousandths of an inch. For example, a 10 pt. card is 0.010 in thick,12 pt. is 0.012 in. Card Stock Thickness Point size is 0.001 - not to be confused with typographical point size, paper sizes using the ISO system are often used for card stock. Card stock sizes can be labeled as A3 referencing the ISO Standard system, instead of using the physical dimensions to describe its size
6.
Polystyrene
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Polystyrene /ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn/ is a synthetic aromatic polymer made from the monomer styrene. Polystyrene can be solid or foamed, general-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and rather brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight and it is a rather poor barrier to oxygen and water vapor and has a relatively low melting point. Polystyrene is one of the most widely used plastics, the scale of its production being several million tonnes per year, Polystyrene can be naturally transparent, but can be colored with colorants. Uses include protective packaging, containers, lids, bottles, trays, tumblers, as a thermoplastic polymer, polystyrene is in a solid state at room temperature but flows if heated above about 100 °C, its glass transition temperature. It becomes rigid again when cooled and this temperature behavior is exploited for extrusion and also for molding and vacuum forming, since it can be cast into molds with fine detail. Polystyrene is very slow to biodegrade and is therefore a focus of controversy among environmentalists, Polystyrene was discovered in 1839 by Eduard Simon, an apothecary from Berlin. From storax, the resin of the American sweetgum tree Liquidambar styraciflua, he distilled an oily substance, several days later, Simon found that the styrol had thickened into a jelly he dubbed styrol oxide because he presumed an oxidation. By 1845 Jamaican-born chemist John Buddle Blyth and German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann showed that the transformation of styrol took place in the absence of oxygen. They called the product metastyrol, analysis showed that it was identical to Simons Styroloxyd. In 1866 Marcelin Berthelot correctly identified the formation of metastyrol/Styroloxyd from styrol as a polymerization process, about 80 years later it was realized that heating of styrol starts a chain reaction that produces macromolecules, following the thesis of German organic chemist Hermann Staudinger. This eventually led to the substance receiving its present name, polystyrene, the company I. G. Farben began manufacturing polystyrene in Ludwigshafen, about 1931, hoping it would be a suitable replacement for die-cast zinc in many applications. Success was achieved when they developed a reactor vessel that extruded polystyrene through a tube and cutter. In 1941, Dow Chemical invented a Styrofoam process, before 1949, the chemical engineer Fritz Stastny developed pre-expanded PS beads by incorporating aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as pentane. These beads are the raw material for moulding parts or extruding sheets, BASF and Stastny applied for a patent that was issued in 1949. The moulding process was demonstrated at the Kunststoff Messe 1952 in Düsseldorf, the crystal structure of isotactic polystyrene was reported by Giulio Natta. In 1954, the Koppers Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, developed expanded polystyrene foam under the trade name Dylite, in 1960, Dart Container, the largest manufacturer of foam cups, shipped their first order. In 1988, the first U. S. ban of general polystyrene foam was enacted in Berkeley, in chemical terms, polystyrene is a long chain hydrocarbon wherein alternating carbon centers are attached to phenyl groups
7.
Ochroma
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Ochroma is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family, Malvaceae, containing the sole species Ochroma pyramidale, commonly known as the balsa tree. It is a large, fast-growing tree that can grow up to 30 m tall, balsa wood is a very lightweight material with many uses. Balsa trees are native to southern Brazil and northern Bolivia, up to southern Mexico, a member of the mallow family, O. pyramidale is native to southern Mexico to southern Brazil, but is now found in many other countries. It is a plant, which establishes itself in clearings in forests, either man-made or where trees have fallen. It grows extremely rapidly, up to 90 ft in 10–15 years, the speed of growth accounts for the lightness of the wood, which has a lower density than cork. Trees generally do not live beyond 30 to 40 years, flowers are produced from the third year onwards, typically at the end of the rainy season when few other trees are in flower. The large flowers open in the afternoon and remain open overnight. Each may contain a pool of nectar up to 1 in deep, however most pollination occurs at night. It was once thought that the main pollinators were bats, however recent evidence suggests that two nocturnal arboreal mammals, the kinkajou and the olingo, may be the primary pollinators, ecuador supplies 95% or more of commercial balsa. In recent years, about 60% of the balsa has been plantation-grown in densely packed patches of around 1000 trees per hectare and it is evergreen or dry-season deciduous, with large weakly palmately lobed leaves. Being a deciduous angiosperm, balsa is classified as a hardwood despite the wood itself being very soft and it is the softest commercial hardwood. The trees are harvested after six to 10 years of growth, the name balsa comes from the Spanish word for raft. Balsa lumber is very soft and light, with a coarse, the density of dry balsa wood ranges from 40–340 kg/m3, with a typical density of about 160 kg/m3. The wood of the tree has large cells that are filled with water. This gives the wood a spongy texture and it also makes the wood of the living tree not much lighter than water and barely able to float. For commercial production, the wood is kiln-dried for about two weeks, leaving the hollow and empty. The large volume-to-surface ratio of the resulting thin-walled empty cells gives the wood a large strength-to-weight ratio because the cells are mostly air. Unlike naturally rotted wood, that soon disintegrates in the rainforests where balsa trees grow, however, it also is valued as a component of full-sized light wooden aeroplanes, most notably the World War II de Havilland Mosquito
8.
Bamboo
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The bamboos /bæmˈbuː/ are evergreen perennial flowering plants in the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. The dicotyledonous woody xylem is also absent, the absence of secondary growth wood causes the stems of monocots, including the palms and large bamboos, to be columnar rather than tapering. Bamboos include some of the plants in the world, due to a unique rhizome-dependent system. Certain species of bamboo can grow 91 cm within a 24-hour period, giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. Bamboos are of economic and cultural significance in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, being used for building materials, as a food source. Bamboo has a higher compressive strength than wood, brick, or concrete. The word bamboo comes from the Kannada term bambu, which was introduced to English through Indonesian, the subfamily in its current sense belongs to the BOP clade of grasses, where it is sister to the Pooideae. The woody bamboos do not form a group, instead. Altogether, more than 1,400 species are placed in 115 genera, most bamboo are native to warm and moist tropical and warm temperate climates. However, many species are found in climates, from hot tropical regions to cool mountainous regions. In the Asia-Pacific region they occur across East Asia, from 50°N latitude in Sakhalin south to Northern Australia, and west to India, China, Japan, Korea, India, and Australia, all have several endemic populations. They also occur in numbers in sub-Saharan Africa, confined to tropical areas, from southern Senegal in the north to southern Mozambique. Bamboo is also native through Central America and Mexico, northward into the Southeastern United States, canada and continental Europe is not known to have any native species of bamboo. Recently, some attempts have been made to grow bamboo on a basis in the Great Lakes region of east-central Africa. In the United States, several companies are growing, harvesting, bamboos include some of the fastest-growing plants on Earth, with reported growth rates up to 91 cm in 24 hours. Primarily growing in regions of warmer climates during the late Cretaceous period, some of the largest timber bamboo can grow over 30 m tall, and be as large as 25–30 cm in diameter. However, the range for mature bamboo is species-dependent, with the smallest bamboos reaching only several inches high at maturity. A typical height range that would cover many of the common bamboos grown in the United States is 4. 6–12 m, depending on species
9.
Fiberglass
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Fiberglass is a type of fiber-reinforced plastic where the reinforcement fiber is specifically glass fiber. The glass fiber may be arranged, flattened into a sheet. The plastic matrix may be a polymer matrix – most often based on thermosetting polymers such as epoxy, polyester resin. The glass fibers are made of various types of glass depending upon the fiberglass use and these glasses all contain silica or silicate, with varying amounts of oxides of calcium, magnesium, and sometimes boron. To be used in fiberglass, glass fibers have to be made very low levels of defects. Fiberglass is a lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it is not as strong and stiff as composites based on fiber, it is less brittle. Its bulk strength and weight are also better than many metals, other common names for fiberglass are glass-reinforced plastic, glass-fiber reinforced plastic or GFK. Because glass fiber itself is referred to as fiberglass, the composite is also called fiberglass reinforced plastic. This article will adopt the convention that fiberglass refers to the glass fiber reinforced composite material. A patent for this method of producing glass wool was first applied for in 1933, Owens joined with the Corning company in 1935 and the method was adapted by Owens Corning to produce its patented fibreglas in 1936. Originally, fibreglas was a wool with fibers entrapping a great deal of gas, making it useful as an insulator. A suitable resin for combining the fibreglass with a plastic to produce a material was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is Cyanamids resin of 1942, peroxide curing systems were used by then. With the combination of fiberglass and resin the gas content of the material was replaced by plastic and this reduced the insulation properties to values typical of the plastic, but now for the first time the composite showed great strength and promise as a structural and building material. Confusingly, many glass fiber composites continued to be called fiberglass, ray Greene of Owens Corning is credited with producing the first composite boat in 1937, but did not proceed further at the time due to the brittle nature of the plastic used. In 1939 Russia was reported to have constructed a boat of plastic materials. The first car to have a body was a 1946 prototype of the Stout Scarab
10.
BoPET
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A variety of companies manufacture boPET and other polyester films under different brand names. In the UK and US, the most well-known trade names are Mylar, Melinex, BoPET film was developed in the mid-1950s, originally by DuPont, Imperial Chemical Industries and Hoechst. In 1964, NASA launched Echo II and it was a 40 m diameter balloon constructed from a 0. 35mil thick mylar film sandwiched between two layers of 0.18 mil thick aluminum foil and bonded together. The manufacturing process begins with a film of polyethylene terephthalate being extruded onto a chill roll. It is then biaxially oriented by drawing and it is also possible to draw the film in both directions simultaneously, although the equipment required for this is somewhat more elaborate. Draw ratios are typically around 3 to 4 in each direction, once the drawing is completed, the film is heat set or crystallized under tension in the oven at temperatures typically above 200 °C. The heat setting step prevents the film from shrinking back to its original unstretched shape, the orientation of the polymer chains is responsible for the high strength and stiffness of biaxially oriented PET film, which has a typical Youngs modulus of about 4 GPa. Another important consequence of the orientation is that it induces the formation of many crystal nuclei. The crystallites that grow rapidly reach the boundary of the neighboring crystallite, as a result, biaxially oriented PET film has excellent clarity, despite its semicrystalline structure. To make handling possible, microscopic inert inorganic particles are embedded in the PET to roughen the surface of the film. Biaxially oriented PET film can be metallized by vapor deposition of a film of evaporated aluminium, gold. The result is less permeable to gases and reflects up to 99% of light. For some applications like food packaging, the aluminized boPET film can be laminated with a layer of polyethylene, the polyethylene side of such a laminate appears dull and the PET side shiny. Other coatings, such as indium tin oxide, can be applied to boPET film by sputter deposition. Uses for boPET polyester films include, but are not limited to, Laminates containing metallized boPET foil protect food against oxidation and aroma loss, examples are coffee foil packaging and pouches for convenience foods. White boPET web substrate is used as lidding for dairy goods such as yogurt, clear boPET web substrate is used as lidding for fresh or frozen ready meals. Due to its excellent heat resistance, it can remain on the package during microwave or oven heating, for protecting the spine of important documents, such as medical records. Metallized boPET film emergency blankets conserve a shock victims body heat, as a thin strip to form an airtight seal between the control surfaces and adjacent structure of aircraft, especially gliders
11.
Plastic
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Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging, other uses include automobiles, furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the ratios may be different - for example, the worlds first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term plastics. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling, the word plastic is derived from the Greek πλαστικός meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from πλαστός meaning molded. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products, thermally insulation foams. Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors, One of the most expensive commercial polymers. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents, polytetrafluoroethylene – Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumbers tape and water slides. It is more known as Teflon. Urea-formaldehyde – One of the aminoplasts and used as an alternative to phenolics. Used as an adhesive and electrical switch housings. Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, in 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages, materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk-proteins with lye. In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, the development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyears discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Parkesine is considered the first man-made plastic, the plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, In Birmingham, UK in 1856. It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London, parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 Worlds fair in London
12.
Injection moulding
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Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials including metals, glasses, elastomers, confections. Material for the part is fed into a barrel, mixed, and forced into a mould cavity. Injection moulding is used for manufacturing a variety of parts. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers which do not melt during the moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics. The versatility of injection moulding is facilitated by this breadth of design considerations, injection moulding is the most common modern method of manufacturing plastic parts, it is ideal for producing high volumes of the same object. Injection moulding uses a ram or screw-type plunger to force molten plastic material into a mould cavity and it is most commonly used to process both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers, with the volume used of the former being considerably higher. Injection moulding consists of high pressure injection of the raw material into a mould which shapes the polymer into the desired shape, moulds can be of a single cavity or multiple cavities. In multiple cavity moulds, each cavity can be identical and form the parts or can be unique. Moulds are generally made from tool steels, but stainless steels, many steel moulds are designed to process well over a million parts during their lifetime and can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars to fabricate. When thermoplastics are moulded, typically pelletised raw material is fed through a hopper into a barrel with a reciprocating screw. This process reduces its viscosity, which enables the polymer to flow with the force of the injection unit. The material feeds forward through a valve and collects at the front of the screw into a volume known as a shot. A shot is the volume of material that is used to fill the cavity, compensate for shrinkage. When enough material has gathered, the material is forced at high pressure, to prevent spikes in pressure, the process normally uses a transfer position corresponding to a 95–98% full cavity where the screw shifts from a constant velocity to a constant pressure control. Often injection times are well under 1 second, the packing pressure is applied until the gate solidifies. Due to its size, the gate is normally the first place to solidify through its entire thickness. This cooling duration is dramatically reduced by the use of cooling lines circulating water or oil from a temperature controller
13.
Wind tunnel
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A wind tunnel is a tool used in aerodynamic research to study the effects of air moving past solid objects. A wind tunnel consists of a passage with the object under test mounted in the middle. Air is made to move past the object by a fan system or other means. The test object, often called a wind tunnel model, is instrumented with sensors to measure aerodynamic forces, pressure distribution. The earliest wind tunnels were invented towards the end of the 19th century, in the days of aeronautic research. In that way an observer could study the flying object in action. The development of wind tunnels accompanied the development of the airplane, large wind tunnels were built during World War II. Wind tunnel testing was considered of importance during the Cold War development of supersonic aircraft. Determining such forces was required before building codes could specify the required strength of such buildings, in these studies, the interaction between the road and the vehicle plays a significant role, and this interaction must be taken into consideration when interpreting the test results. The advances in fluid dynamics modelling on high speed digital computers has reduced the demand for wind tunnel testing. However, CFD results are not completely reliable and wind tunnels are used to verify CFD predictions. Air velocity and pressures are measured in several ways in wind tunnels, air velocity through the test section is determined by Bernoullis principle. Measurement of the pressure, the static pressure, and the temperature rise in the airflow. The direction of airflow around a model can be determined by tufts of yarn attached to the aerodynamic surfaces, the direction of airflow approaching a surface can be visualized by mounting threads in the airflow ahead of and aft of the test model. Smoke or bubbles of liquid can be introduced into the upstream of the test model. Aerodynamic forces on the test model are usually measured with beam balances, connected to the test model with beams, strings, or cables. Pressure distributions can more conveniently be measured by the use of pressure-sensitive paint, the strip is attached to the aerodynamic surface with tape, and it sends signals depicting the pressure distribution along its surface. The aerodynamic properties of an object can not all remain the same for a scaled model, however, by observing certain similarity rules, a very satisfactory correspondence between the aerodynamic properties of a scaled model and a full-size object can be achieved
14.
Fokker F28 Fellowship
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The Fokker F28 Fellowship is a short range jet airliner designed and built by Dutch aircraft manufacturer Fokker. Announced by Fokker in April 1962, production was a collaboration between a number of European companies, namely Fokker, MBB of West Germany, Fokker-VFW, and Short Brothers of Northern Ireland. There was also government money invested in the project, with the Dutch government providing 50% of Fokkers stake, projected at first to transport 50 passengers to 1,650 km, the plane was later designed to have 60–65 seats. On the design sheet, the F28 was originally to mount Bristol Siddeley BS.75 turbofans, but the prototype flew with the lighter Rolls-Royce Spey Junior, a simplified version of the Rolls-Royce Spey. The F28 was similar in design to the British Aircraft Corporation BAC One-Eleven and Douglas DC-9, as it had a T-tail and engines mounted at the rear of the fuselage. The aircraft had wings with a slight crescent angle of sweep with ailerons at the tip, simple flaps and these were employed rather than reverse thrust as the designers felt that doing so not only reduced weight, but maintenance also. Having no reversers also meant that on unpaved airstrips there was chance of the engines ingesting debris. The leading edge was fixed and was anti-iced by bleed air from the engines, the tail cone could split and be hydraulically opened to the sides to act as a variable air brake – also used on the contemporaneous Blackburn Buccaneer. This design was used on the HS-146, which became the BAe-146. This means the engines respond faster if needed for sudden speed increases or go-arounds on the approach to landing, the Fellowship had a retractable tricycle landing gear which used large low pressure tyres enabling the use of unpaved airstrips. Large wheel brakes also helped in shortening the landing run, final assembly of the Fokker F28 was at Schiphol Airport in the Netherlands. The F28-1000 prototype, registered PH-JHG, first flew on 9 May 1967, flown by Chief Test Pilot Jas Moll, Test Pilot Abe van der Schraaf, German certification was achieved on 24 February 1969. The first order was from German airline LTU, but the first revenue-earning flight was by Braathens on 28 March 1969, the F28 with an extended fuselage was named F28-2000 and could seat up to 79 passengers instead of the 65 seats on the F28-1000. The prototype for this model was a converted F28-1000 prototype, the models F28-6000 and F28-5000 were modified F28-2000 and F28-1000 respectively, with slats, greater wingspan, and more powerful and quieter engines as the main features. The F28-6000 and F28-5000 were not a success, only two F28-6000 and no F28-5000 were built. After being used by Fokker for a time, the F28-6000 were sold to Air Mauritanie, the most successful F28 was the F28-4000, which debuted on 20 October 1976 with one of the worlds largest Fokker operators, Linjeflyg. The F28-3000, the successor to the F28-1000, featured the improvements as the F28-4000. This was also the worlds longest twin-jet route at the time, mMAa F28s also had the highest utilisation rates at the time, flying over 8 hours per day
15.
Delta Air Lines
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Delta Air Lines, Inc. is a major American airline, with its headquarters and largest hub at Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport in Atlanta, Georgia. Regional service is operated under the brand name Delta Connection, One of the five remaining legacy carriers, Delta is the sixth-oldest operating airline by foundation date, and the oldest airline still operating in the United States. The companys history can be traced back to Huff Daland Dusters, founded in 1924 in Macon, Georgia as a crop dusting operation. The company moved to Monroe, Louisiana, and was later renamed Delta Air Services, in reference to the nearby Mississippi Delta region, among predecessors of todays Delta Air Lines, Western Airlines and Northwest Airlines began flying passengers in 1926 and 1927, respectively. In 2013, Delta Air Lines was the worlds largest airline in terms of scheduled passengers carried, Delta Air Lines began as a crop dusting operation called Huff Daland Dusters, Incorporated. The company was founded on May 30,1924 in Macon, Georgia and they flew a Huff-Daland Duster, the first true crop duster, designed to combat the boll weevil infestation of cotton crops. Collett E. Woolman, one of the directors, purchased the company on September 13,1928. Service began on June 17,1929 with the flight between Dallas, Texas and Jackson, Mississippi. Delta moved its headquarters to its current location in Atlanta in 1941, and continued to grow through the addition of routes and they replaced propeller planes with jets in the 1960s and entered international competition to Europe in the 1970s and across the Pacific in the 1980s. Deltas more recent history is marked by its emergence from bankruptcy on April 25,2007, the merger was announced April 14,2008, and was set to create the worlds largest airline. After approval of the merger on October 29,2008, Northwest continued to operate as an owned subsidiary of Delta until December 31,2009 when both carriers operating certificates were merged. Delta completed the integration with Northwest on January 31,2010 when their reservation systems and websites were combined, Delta Air Lines as it exists today is the result of numerous mergers over its history. Predecessor carriers forming the current Delta Air Lines include, Chicago, Delta flew under the carrier name of Delta-C&S for the following two years. After successfully introducing 50-seat planes into the United States, it was acquired by Delta in October 1999, Comair became the main carrier of Delta Connection and operated over 400 daily flights from Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport throughout the U. S. Mexico, and Caribbean. Comair ceased operations on September 29,2012, and was folded into Delta Connection operations, Delta Express began service in October 1996 in an attempt by Delta to compete with low cost airlines on leisure-oriented routes. Its main base of operations was Orlando International Airport and it used Boeing 737–200 aircraft and it ceased operations in November 2003 after Song was established. Song began service on April 15,2003 as an airline operated by Delta to compete directly with JetBlue Airways from both airlines hub at New York–JFK. While the brand was considered an addition to the Northeast-to-Florida market
16.
Air France
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Air France, stylized as AIRFRANCE, is the French flag carrier headquartered in Tremblay-en-France. It is a subsidiary of the Air France–KLM Group and a member of the SkyTeam global airline alliance. The airlines global hub is at Charles de Gaulle Airport with Orly Airport, Air Frances corporate headquarters, previously in Montparnasse, Paris, are located on the grounds of Charles de Gaulle Airport, north of Paris. During the Cold War, from 1950 until 1990, it was one of the three main Allied scheduled airlines operating in Germany at West Berlins Tempelhof and Tegel airports. In 1990, it acquired the operations of French domestic carrier Air Inter and it served as Frances primary national flag carrier for seven decades prior to its 2003 merger with KLM. Between April 2001 and March 2002, the airline carried 43.3 million passengers and had a revenue of €12. 53bn. In November 2004, Air France ranked as the largest European airline with 25. 5% total market share, Air France operates a mixed fleet of Airbus and Boeing widebody jets on long-haul routes, and uses Airbus A320 family aircraft on short-haul routes. Air France introduced the A380 on 20 November 2009 with service to New York Citys JFK Airport from Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, the carriers regional airline subsidiary, HOP. operates the majority of its regional domestic and European scheduled services with a fleet of regional jet aircraft. Of these airlines, SGTA was the first commercial company in France. The constituent members of Air France had already built extensive networks across Europe, to French colonies in North Africa, during World War II, Air France moved its operations to Casablanca. In 1936, Air France added French-built twin engine Potez 62 aircraft to its featuring a two compartment cabin that could accommodate 14 to 16 passengers. A high wing monoplane, it had a fuselage with composite coating while the wings were fabric covered with a metal leading edge. Equipped with Hispano-Suiza V-engines, they were used on routes in Europe, South America, on 26 June 1945 all of Frances air transport companies were nationalised. On 29 December 1945, a decree of the French Government granted Air France the management of the entire French air transport network, Air France appointed its first flight attendants in 1946. The same year the airline opened its first air terminal at Les Invalides in central Paris and it was linked to Paris Le Bourget Airport, Air Frances first operations and engineering base, by coach. At that time the network covered 160,000 km, claimed to be the longest in the world, Société Nationale Air France was set up on 1 January 1946. European schedules were initially operated by a fleet of Douglas DC-3 aircraft, on 1 July 1946, Air France started direct flights between Paris and New York via refuelling stops at Shannon and Gander. Douglas DC-4 piston-engine airliners covered the route in just under 20 hours, in September 1947 Air Frances network stretched east from New York, Fort de France and Buenos Aires to Shanghai
17.
British Airways
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British Airways, often shortened to BA, is the flag carrier and the largest airline in the United Kingdom based on fleet size. When measured by passengers carried, it is second-largest in the United Kingdom behind easyJet, the airline is based in Waterside near its main hub at London Heathrow Airport. On 31 March 1974, all four companies were merged to form British Airways, after almost 13 years as a state company, British Airways was privatised in February 1987 as part of a wider privatisation plan by the Conservative government. The carrier soon expanded with the acquisition of British Caledonian in 1987, followed by Dan-Air in 1992, British Airways is a founding member of the Oneworld airline alliance, along with American Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Qantas, and the now defunct Canadian Airlines. The alliance has since grown to become the third-largest, after SkyTeam, IAG is listed on the London Stock Exchange and in the FTSE100 Index. A long-time Boeing customer, British Airways ordered 59 Airbus A320 family aircraft in August 1998, in 2007 it purchased 12 Airbus A380s and 24 Boeing 787 Dreamliners, marking the start of its long-haul fleet replacement. The centrepiece of the airlines fleet is the Boeing 777. British Airways is the largest operator of the Boeing 747-400, with 51 registered to the airline, on 1 September 1972 the management service functions of both BOAC and BEA were combined under the newly formed British Airways Group. British Airways was established as an airline on 31 March 1974 by the dissolution of BOAC, British Airways and Air France operated the supersonic airliner Aerospatiale-BAC Concorde, and the worlds first supersonic passenger service flew in January 1976 from London Heathrow to Bahrain. Services to the US began on 24 May 1976 with a flight to Washington Dulles airport, service to Singapore was established in co-operation with Singapore Airlines as a continuation of the flight to Bahrain. The final commercial Concorde flight was BA002 from New York JFK to London Heathrow on 24 October 2003, in 1981 the airline was instructed to prepare for privatisation by the Conservative Thatcher government. Sir John King, later Lord King, was appointed chairman, while many other large airlines struggled, King was credited with transforming British Airways into one of the most profitable air carriers in the world. The flag carrier was privatised and was floated on the London Stock Exchange in February 1987, British Airways effected the takeover of the UKs second airline, British Caledonian, in July of that same year. The formation of Richard Bransons Virgin Atlantic Airways in 1984 created a competitor for BA and this campaign included allegations of poaching Virgin Atlantic customers, tampering with private files belonging to Virgin and undermining Virgins reputation in the City. As a result of the case BA management apologised unreservedly, Lord King stepped down as chairman in 1993 and was replaced by his deputy, Colin Marshall, while Bob Ayling took over as CEO. Virgin filed an action in the US that same year regarding BAs domination of the trans-Atlantic routes. In 1992 British Airways expanded through the acquisition of the financially troubled Dan-Air, British Asia Airways, a subsidiary based in Taiwan, was formed in March 1993 to operate between London and Taipei. That same month BA purchased a 25% stake in the Australian airline Qantas and, with the acquisition of Brymon Airways in May, in September 1998, British Airways, along with American Airlines, Cathay Pacific, Qantas, and Canadian Airlines, formed the Oneworld airline alliance
18.
Avianca
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Avianca S. A. (acronym in Spanish for Aerovías del Continente Americano S. A. It is headquartered in Bogotá, D. C. with its hub at El Dorado International Airport. Avianca also comprises a group of seven Latin American airlines, whose operations are combined to function as one using a code sharing system. Avianca is the largest airline in Colombia and second largest in Latin America, Avianca together with its subsidiaries has the most extensive network of destinations in Latin America. It is wholly owned by Synergy Group S. A. a South American holding company established by Germán Efromovich and it is listed on the Colombia Stock Exchange. Avianca is the second oldest airline after KLM, and celebrated its 90th anniversary in 2009. It is the oldest airline in the Western Hemisphere and it became an official member of Star Alliance on 21 June 2012, after a process that lasted approximately 18 months from the initial announcement of their invitation to join the Alliance. The airline traces its history back to 5 December 1919, in the city of Barranquilla, the company accomplished their first flight between Barranquilla and the nearby town of Puerto Colombia using a Junkers F.13, transporting 57 pieces of mail. The flight was piloted by German Helmuth von Krohn and this and another aircraft of the same type were completely mechanically constructed monoplanes, the engines of which had to be modified to efficiently operate in the climate of the country. There were nine aircraft in the fleet with a range of 850 km which could carry up to four passengers. This new contract allowed SCADTA to thrive in a new frontier of aviation, by the mid-1920s, SCADTA started its first international routes that initially covered destinations in Venezuela and the United States. In 1924, the aircraft that both Ernesto Cortissoz and Helmuth von Krohn were flying crashed into an area known as Bocas de Ceniza in Barranquilla. In the early 1940s, Peter von Bauer sold his shares in the airline to the US-owned Pan American World Airways, five Colombians participated in this, Rafael María Palacio, Jacobo A. In 1946, Avianca began flights to Quito, Lima, Panama City, Miami, New York City and Europe, using Douglas DC-4s, in 1951, Avianca acquired Lockheed 749 Constellations and 1049 Super Constellations. In 1961, Avianca leased two Boeing 707 aircraft, to operate its routes and on 2 November 1961, it acquired its own Boeing 720s. In 1976, Avianca became the first Latin American airline to operate a Boeing 747. Three years later, it started operations with another 747, this time a 747 Combi, mixing cargo, in 1994, Avianca, the regional carrier SAM and the helicopter operator Helicol, merged, beginning Aviancas new system of operations. By 1996, Avianca Postal Services became Deprisa, which provided mail services
19.
FedEx
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FedEx Corporation is an American multinational courier delivery services company headquartered in Memphis, Tennessee. The name FedEx is an abbreviation of the name of the companys original air division, Federal Express. FedEx Corporation is a company, incorporated October 2,1997. FDX Corporation was founded in January 1998 with the acquisition of Caliber System Inc. by Federal Express, with the purchase of Caliber, FedEx started offering other services besides express shipping. FDX Corporation was founded to oversee all of the operations of companies and its original air division. Ron Ponder, a president at the time, was in charge of this proposed venture. In January 2000, FDX Corporation changed its name to FedEx Corporation, a new subsidiary, called FedEx Corporate Services, was formed to centralize the sales, marketing, and customer service for all of the subsidiaries. In February 2000, FedEx acquired Tower Group International, a logistics company. FedEx also acquired WorldTariff, a duty and tax information company, TowerGroup. FedEx Corp. acquired privately held Kinkos, Inc. in February 2004, the acquisition was made to expand FedExs retail access to the general public. After the acquisition, all FedEx Kinkos locations exclusively offered only FedEx shipping, in June 2008, FedEx announced that they would be dropping the Kinkos name from their ship centers, FedEx Kinkos would now be called FedEx Office. In September 2004, FedEx acquired Parcel Direct, a parcel consolidator, internal Revenue Service tentatively decided the FedEx Ground Division might be facing a tax liability of $319 million for 2002, due to misclassification of its operatives as independent contractors. FedEx denied that any irregularities in classification had occurred, but faced legal action from operatives claiming benefits that would have accrued had they been classified as employees. In June 2009, FedEx began a campaign against United Parcel Service, FedEx claimed that signing the Federal Aviation Administration re-authorization bill, which would let some of its workers unionize more easily, was equivalent to giving UPS a bailout. Independent observers heavily criticized FedExs wording, claiming that it was an abuse of the term, FedEx Express employees are regulated under the Railway Labor Act. On January 14,2013, FedEx named Henry Maier CEO and President of FedEx Ground, on July 17,2014, FedEx was indicted for conspiracy to distribute controlled substances in cooperation with the Chhabra-Smoley Organization and Superior Drugs. On July 17,2016 the The DOJ U. S. Attorneys Office confirmed in a statement that it had asked U. S. District Court Judge Charles Breyer to dismiss the indictment but also did not say why. In April 2015, FedEx acquired their rival firm TNT Express for €4.4 billion as it looks to expand their operations in Europe
20.
Polar Air Cargo
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Polar Air Cargo, Inc. a subsidiary of Atlas Air Worldwide Holdings, is an American cargo airline based in Purchase, New York. It operates scheduled services to North America, Asia, Europe. Polar was formed in 1993 as a joint venture between Southern Air Transport and GE Capital Aviation Services and it started operations in June 1993 and began with charter flights, later adding scheduled services. During 1994, Polar was certified as an air carrier by the Federal Aviation Administration and on 4 July 1994 as a US all-cargo carrier by the United States Department of Transportation. After several years of continued growth, the remainder of the company was acquired by GECAS, in November 2001, Polar was acquired by Atlas Air Worldwide Holdings, whose Atlas Air subsidiary is a provider of ACMI freighter leasing. Polar became the service provider for AAWW, while Atlas continued to supply Boeing 747 freighters on a wet-lease basis to major airlines. In October 2006, it was announced that DHL Express would be acquiring a 49% stake in Polar, Polar is still majority-owned by Atlas Air Worldwide Holdings, and has 736 employees. Polar provides scheduled service covering the transpacific, transatlantic, trans-Asia. Polar offers frequent flights to China, connecting Shanghai to Anchorage, Chicago, Los Angeles, Cincinnati, Polar also offers charter freight services, using its dedicated fleet of Boeing 767 &747 aircraft. The Polar Air Cargo fleet consists of the aircraft, http
21.
Air New Zealand
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Air New Zealand Limited is the national airline of New Zealand. Based in Auckland, the airline operates scheduled flights to 21 domestic and 31 international destinations in 19 countries around the Pacific rim. The airline has been a member of the Star Alliance since 1999, Air New Zealand originated in 1940 as Tasman Empire Airways Limited, a company operating trans-Tasman flights between New Zealand and Australia. TEAL became wholly owned by the New Zealand government in 1965, the airline served international routes until 1978, when the government merged it and the domestic New Zealand National Airways Corporation into a single airline under the Air New Zealand name. Air New Zealand was privatised in 1989, but returned to majority government ownership in 2001 after near bankruptcy due to the tie up with Australian carrier Ansett Australia. In the 2015 financial year to June, Air New Zealand carried 14.29 million passengers, Air New Zealands route network focuses on Australasia and the South Pacific, with long-haul services to eastern Asia, the Americas and the United Kingdom. It was the last airline to circumnavigate the world with flights to Heathrow via both Los Angeles and via Hong Kong, the latter ended in March 2013 when Air New Zealand stopped Hong Kong – London flights, in favour of a code sharing deal with Cathay Pacific. The airlines main hub is Auckland Airport, located near Mangere in the part of the Auckland urban area. Air New Zealand is headquartered in a building called The Hub, located 20 km from Auckland Airport, Air New Zealand currently operates a fleet of Airbus A320, Boeing 777 and Boeing 787 aircraft. Air New Zealands regional subsidiaries, Air Nelson and Mount Cook Airline, Air New Zealand was awarded Airline of the Year in 2010 and 2012 by the Air Transport World Global Airline Awards. In 2014, Air New Zealand was ranked the safest airline in the world by JACDEC, Air New Zealand began as TEAL in 1940, operating Short Empire flying boats on trans-Tasman routes. Following World War II, TEAL operated weekly flights from Auckland to Sydney, the New Zealand and Australian governments purchased 50% stakes in TEAL in 1953, and the airline ended flying boat operations in favour of land based turboprop airliners by 1960. In 1965, TEAL became Air New Zealand—the New Zealand government having purchased Australias 50% stake in the carrier, the airline further acquired wide-body McDonnell Douglas DC-10 airliners in 1973. The DC-10s introduced the new koru-inspired logo for the airline, which remains to this day, in 1978, the domestic airline National Airways Corporation and its subsidiary Safe Air were merged into Air New Zealand to form a single national airline, further expanding the carriers operations. As a result, NACs Boeing 737 and Fokker F27 aircraft joined Air New Zealands fleet alongside its DC-8, the merger also resulted in the airline having two IATA airline designators, TE from Air New Zealand and NZ from NAC. TE continued to be used for flights and NZ for domestic flights until 1990. In 1981, Air New Zealand introduced its first Boeing 747 airliner, the five 747-200s owned by Air New Zealand were all named after ancestral Maori canoes. 1985 saw the introduction of Boeing 767-200ER airliners to fill the large gap between the Boeing 737 and 747
22.
Qantas
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Qantas Airways is the flag carrier airline of Australia and its largest airline by fleet size, international flights and international destinations. It is the third oldest airline in the world, after KLM and Avianca having been founded in November 1920, the Qantas name comes from QANTAS, an acronym for its original name, Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services, and it is nicknamed The Flying Kangaroo. Qantas is a member of the Oneworld airline alliance. The airline is based in the Sydney suburb of Mascot with its hub at Sydney Airport. As of March 2014, Qantas had a 65% share of the Australian domestic market and carried 14. 9% of all passengers travelling in, various subsidiary airlines operate to regional centres and on some trunk routes within Australia under the QantasLink banner. Its subsidiary Jetconnect provides services between Australia and New Zealand, flying under the Qantas brand, Qantas was founded in Winton, Queensland on 16 November 1920 as Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Limited. The airlines first aircraft was an Avro 504K, in 1920 Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Ltd had its headquarters in Winton before moving to Longreach, Queensland in 1921 and Brisbane in 1930. In 1934, QANTAS and Britains Imperial Airways formed a new company, the new airline commenced operations in December 1934, flying between Brisbane and Darwin. QEA flew internationally from May 1935, when the service from Darwin was extended to Singapore, after World War II began, enemy action and accidents destroyed half of the fleet of ten, when most of the fleet was taken over by the Australian government for war service. Flying boat services were resumed in 1943, with flights between Swan River, Perth and Koggala lake in Ceylon and this linked up with the British Overseas Airways Corporation service to London. Qantas kangaroo logo was first used on the Kangaroo Route, begun in 1944, from Sydney to Karachi, in 1947, QEA was nationalised by the Australian government led by Labor Prime Minister Ben Chifley. QANTAS Limited was then wound up, after nationalisation, Qantas remaining domestic network, in Queensland, was transferred to the also nationally owned Trans Australian Airlines, leaving Qantas with a purely international network. Shortly after nationalisation, QEA began its first services outside the British Empire – to Tokyo, Services to Hong Kong began around the same time. In 1957 a head office, Qantas House, opened in Sydney, in June 1959 Qantas entered the jet age when the first Boeing 707-138 was delivered. On 14 September 1992, Qantas merged with nationally owned domestic airline, the airline started to be rebranded to Qantas in the following year. Qantas was gradually privatised between 1993 and 1997, under the legislation passed to allow the privatisation, Qantas must be at least 51% owned by Australian shareholders. In 1998, Qantas co-founded the oneworld alliance with American Airlines, British Airways, Canadian Airlines, the main domestic competitor to Qantas, Ansett Australia, collapsed on 14 September 2001. Market share for Qantas immediately neared 90%, but with the entry of new budget airline Virgin Blue into the domestic market, in 2004, the Qantas group expanded into the Asian budget airline market with Jetstar Asia Airways, in which Qantas owns a minority stake
23.
China Airlines
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China Airlines is the flag carrier and largest airline of the Republic of China. It is headquartered in Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport and has 12,607 regular employees, China Airlines operates over 1,400 flights weekly to 118 airports in 115 cities across Asia, Europe, North America and Oceania. The cargo division operates 91 pure freighter flights weekly, the carrier was, in 2013, the 29th and 10th largest airline in the world in terms of passenger revenue per kilometer and freight RPK, respectively. With a fleet of two PBY Amphibians, China Airlines was established on December 16,1959, with its shares held by the Republic of China government. It was founded by an air force officer and initially concentrated on charter flights. During the 1960s, China Airlines was able to establish its first scheduled routes, in October 1962, a flight from Taipei to Hualien became the airlines first domestic service. Later, with the introduction of Caravelle and Boeing 727-100s, the airlines introduced international flights to South Vietnam, Hong Kong, with the airlines first two Boeing 707 aircraft, trans-Pacific flights to San Francisco via Tokyo were initiated on February 2,1970. The expansion of the companys 707 fleet also permitted more services in Southeast Asia, Northeast Asia, shortly thereafter, four brand new Boeing 747SP were introduced in 1977. Due to political pressure, Japan ended its ties with Taiwan in 1972. The 747SP aircraft made it possible for China Airlines to fly daily nonstop services from Taipei to its North American destinations without stopping over in Japan and it also allowed the airlines to introduce flights to Saudi Arabia and South Africa. In 1979, the airlines switched all operations from the small downtown Songshan International Airport to the newly built Chiang Kai-shek International Airport, following the introduction of 747-200s, the airlines introduced its first European destination, Amsterdam. The premise being that air carriers from the PRC and Taiwan were prevented crossing paths at any Japanese airports, thus CALs Osaka service, due to the citys only airport at Itami, would not be reinstated until years later. The crossing of flag-carriers occurred almost hourly at then British-controlled Hong Kongs Kaitak International Airport, adversely, other regional airports such as Bangkok, Singapore and Manila were entirely spared of this indignity imposed on Japan by China. The next 20 years saw sporadic but far-reaching growth for the company, later, the airline inaugurated its own round-the-world flight. 1993 saw China Airlines listed on the Taiwan Stock Exchange, later CAL would place one of the largest orders for the newest Boeing 747. The new 747s and an earlier an order with Airbus for over a dozen A300B4 wide body regional jets allowed for addition destination growth, as a result, in the mid-1990s, China Airlines subsidiary Mandarin Airlines took over some of its Sydney and Vancouver international routes. The plum blossom is Taiwans National Flower, throughout the 1990s, the airline employed many ex-ROC Air Force pilots. In addition, the company began recruiting university graduates as trainees in its own training program
24.
Singapore Airlines
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Singapore Airlines Limited is the flag carrier of Singapore with its hub at Singapore Changi Airport. The airline uses the Singapore Girl as its figure in its corporate branding. The Singapore Airlines group includes many airline-related subsidiaries, SIA Engineering Company handles maintenance, repair and overhaul business across nine countries, with a portfolio of 27 joint ventures, including with Boeing and Rolls-Royce. Singapore Airlines Cargo operates SIAs freighter fleet and manages the cargo-hold capacity in SIAs passenger aircraft and it has three subsidiaries, SilkAir operates regional flights to secondary cities, while Scoot and Tigerair operate as low-cost carriers. Singapore Airlines was the customer for the Airbus A380, the worlds largest passenger aircraft. It ranks amongst the top 15 carriers worldwide in terms of passenger kilometers. On 15 December 2010, Singapore Airlines was named by the International Air Transport Association as the second largest airline in the world by market capitalisation, Singapore Airlines is majority-owned by the Singapore government investment and holding company Temasek Holdings, which holds 56% of voting stock. Singapore Airlines is headquartered at Airline House, by Changi Airport in the Changi area of Singapore, branding and publicity efforts have revolved primarily around flight crew, in contrast to most other airlines, who tend to emphasise aircraft and services in general. In particular, the promotion of its flight attendants known as Singapore Girls has been widely successful and is a common feature in most of the airlines advertisements. Although a successful marketing image for the airline, the Singapore Girl emphasis has been criticised as portraying women as subservient to males. The Singapore Airlines logo is a bird, inspired by a kris, which comes from the keris. The keris is central in Singapore Airlines branding, such as the SilverKris lounge, the logo is featured on the tailfin and in the airlines collaterals, and has remained unchanged since Singapore Airlines inception from the split of Malaysia–Singapore Airlines. The logotype and stripes underwent a minor tweak in 1987, however, the stripes and the bird remain the same. Singapore Airlines flies to 62 destinations in 32 countries on five continents from its hub in Singapore. The airline has a key role on the Kangaroo Route and it flew 11. 0% of all international traffic into and out of Australia in the month ended March 2008. On 14 October 2015, Singapore Airlines announced plans to resume the worlds longest non-stop flight between Singapore and Newark – a 15,300 km, 19-hour route that the airline had dropped in 2013. According to the airline, the route would be accommodated after the acquiring of new Ultra Long Haul Airbus A350 aircraft in 2018, a340-500 aircraft were formerly employed to serve this route until their retirement in 2013. Singapore Airlines offers five classes of service – suites, first class, business class, premium economy class, major upgrades to its cabin and in-flight service were announced on 17 October 2006, constituting the first major overhaul in over eight years and costing the airline approximately S$570 million
25.
South African Airways
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South African Airways is the flag carrier and largest airline of South Africa, with headquarters in Airways Park on the grounds of OR Tambo International Airport in Kempton Park, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng. Thuli Mpshe was appointed as the acting CEO of SAA in August after Nico Bezuidenhout, South African Airways was founded in 1934 after the acquisition of Union Airways by the South African government. The airline was initially overseen and controlled by South African Railways, sanctions by African countries which would have otherwise provided stopover airports during apartheid forced it to adopt long-range aircraft and other measures to counter these restrictions. During this time, it was known by its Afrikaans name, Suid-Afrikaanse Lugdiens. In 1997 SAA changed its name, image and aircraft livery, in 2006, SAA split from Transnet, its parent company, to operate as an independent airline. SAA is the airline of the Association of Tennis Professionals. SAA owns Mango, a low cost domestic airline, and has established links with Airlink and it currently operates as a member of the Star Alliance. South African Airways was formed on 1 February 1934 following the acquisition of Union Airways by the South African government. Forty staff members, along with one de Havilland DH.60 Gypsy Moth, one de Havilland 80A Puss Moth, upon acquisition, the government changed the airlines name to South African Airways. Came under control of the South African Railways and Harbours Administration, on 1 February the following year, the carrier acquired Suidwes Lugdiens / South West Airways, which had since 1932 been providing a weekly air-mail service between Windhoek and Kimberley. During this time, South African ordered three Junkers Ju 52/3m aircraft, which were delivered in October 1934 and entered service 10 days later and these aircraft were configured to carry 14 passengers, along with four crew. They enabled thrice-weekly Durban–Johannesburg services, with services on the Durban–East London–Port Elizabeth–George/Mossel Bay–Cape Town route. From July the following year a weekly Rand–Kimberley–Beaufort West–Cape Town service commenced, in April 1936, a fourth Ju 52/3m soon joined the fleet. Orders for a further 10 Ju 52/3m, along with eighteen Junkers Ju 86 and this raised the number of Ju 52 to fourteen, although three older models were sold when deliveries of the newer Ju 52s began. From 1 February 1934 until the start of World War II, SAA carried 118,822 passengers,3,278 tonnes of airmail and 248 tonnes of cargo, on 24 May 1940, all operations were suspended. Following the war, frequencies were increased and more routes were opened and these aircraft would prove to be unsuitable for passenger and cargo services and were returned to the SAAF after the arrival of the Junkers Ju 86s. The main aircraft of SAA in the 1930s was the Junkers JU-52, other types used in the 1930s included eighteen Junkers JU-86s, which served from 1937 onwards, and of which one spotted the Watussi off the Cape Coast at the start of the war. The slow growth continued during the 1940s, though the airline was closed for the duration of World War II
26.
Finnair
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Finnair is the flag carrier and largest airline of Finland, with its headquarters in Vantaa and its main hub at Helsinki Airport. Finnair and its subsidiaries dominate both domestic and international air travel in Finland and its major shareholder is the government of Finland, with 55. 8% of the shares. Finnair is a member of the Oneworld airline alliance, in 2015, it transported over 10 million passengers to over 60 European,13 Asian and 4 North-American destinations. At the end of 2016, the airline employed 4,937 people, Finnair is the fifth oldest airline in the world with uninterrupted existence. With no fatal or hull-loss accidents since 1963, Finnair is consistently on the list of safest airlines in the world, in 1923, consul Bruno Lucander founded Finnair as Aero O/Y. The company code, AY, originates from this, AY stands for Aero Yhtiö, Lucander had previously run the Finnish operations of the Estonian airline Aeronaut. In mid-1923 he concluded an agreement with Junkers Flugzeugwerke AG to provide aircraft, the charter establishing the company was signed in Helsinki on 12 September 1923, and the company was entered into the trade register on 11 December 1923. The first flight was on 20 March 1924 from Helsinki to Tallinn, the seaplane service ended in December 1936 following the construction of the first aerodromes in Finland. Air raids on Helsinki and other Finnish cities made World War II a difficult period for the airline, the Finnish government wanted longer routes so it acquired a majority stake in the company in 1946 and re-established services to Europe in November 1947, initially using the Douglas DC-3. In 1953, the airline began branding itself as Finnair, the Convair 440 twin-engined pressurised airliner was acquired from January 1953 and these faster aircraft were operated on the companys longer routes as far as London. In 1961, Finnair joined the jet age by adding Rolls-Royce Avon-engined Caravelles to its fleet and these were later exchanged with the manufacturer for Pratt & Whitney JT8D-engined Super Caravelles. In 1962, Finnair acquired a 27% controlling interest in a private Finnish airline, Finnair Oy became the companys official name on 25 June 1968. In 1969, it took possession of its first U. S. made jet, the first transatlantic service to New York was inaugurated on 15 May 1969. In the 1960s Finnairs head office was in Helsinki, Finnair received its first widebody aircraft in 1975, two DC-10-30 planes. The first of these arrived on 4 February 1975 and entered service on 14 February 1975, in 1979, Finnair established a subsidiary company Finnaviation for domestic operations, with a 60% stake. In 1983, Finnair became the first operator to fly non-stop from Western Europe to Japan operating Helsinki-Tokyo flights with one McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30ER, the aircraft was fitted with extra fuel tanks, taking 13 hours for the trip. The routes through Soviet airspace and with a stopover in Moscow also took 13 hours, in the spring of 1986, Soviet regulators finally cleared the way for Air France and Japan Airlines to fly nonstop Paris-Tokyo services over Soviet airspace, putting Finnair at a disadvantage. Finnair launched a Helsinki-Beijing route in 1988, making Finnair the first Western European carrier to fly non-stop between Europe and China, in 1989, Finnair became the launch customer for the McDonnell Douglas MD-11, the first of which was delivered on 7 December 1990
27.
American Airlines
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American Airlines, Inc. commonly referred to as American, is a major American airline headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas. It is the worlds largest airline measured by fleet size, revenue, scheduled passenger-kilometres flown. Regional service is operated by independent and subsidiary carriers under the name of American Eagle. American operates out of ten located in Dallas/Fort Worth, Charlotte, Chicago-OHare, Philadelphia, Miami, Phoenix, Washington, DC-National, Los Angeles, New York-JFK. American operates its primary base at Tulsa International Airport in addition to the maintenance locations located at its hubs. Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport is Americans largest passenger carrying hub handling 51.1 million passengers annually with an average of 140,000 passengers daily, the company as of 2015 employs over 113,300 people. Through the airlines parent company, American Airlines Group, it is traded under NASDAQ. American Airlines was started in 1930 via a union of more than eighty small airlines, the two organizations from which American Airlines was originated were Robertson Aircraft Corporation and Colonial Air Transport. The former was first formed in Missouri in 1921, with both being merged in 1929 into holding company The Aviation Corporation and this in turn, was made in 1930 into an operating company and rebranded as American Airways. In 1934, when new laws and attrition of mail contracts forced many airlines to reorganize, the corporation redid its routes into a connected system, between 1970 and 2000, the company grew into being an international carrier, purchasing Trans World Airlines in 2001. In 2011, due to a downturn in the airline industry, in 2013, US Airways and American Airlines merged. Eventually operations were merged under one operating certificate to create the largest United States airline which kept the American Airlines brand name, American Airlines is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas, adjacent to the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. The headquarters is located in two buildings in the CentrePort office complex and these buildings together have about 1,400,000 square feet of space. As of 2014 over 4,300 employees work at this complex, before it was headquartered in Texas, American Airlines was headquartered at 633 Third Avenue in the Murray Hill area of Midtown Manhattan, New York City. In 1979 American moved its headquarters to a site at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, Mayor of New York City Ed Koch described the move as a betrayal of New York City. American moved to two leased office buildings in Grand Prairie, Texas, the airline began leasing the facility from the airport, which owns the facility. As of 2015 American Airlines is the corporation with the largest presence in Fort Worth, in 2015 the airline announced it will build a new headquarters in Fort Worth. Groundbreaking began in the spring of 2016 and occupancy is scheduled for summer 2019, the airline plans to house 5,000 new workers in the building
28.
United Airlines
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United Continental Holdings, Inc. commonly referred to as United, is a major American airline headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. It is the worlds third-largest airline when measured by revenue, operates a domestic and international route network. In the late 1920s, just prior to the use of the United Airlines name, The Boeing Company, currently one of the worlds largest aircraft manufacturers, United was previously known as United Air Lines. United is a member of Star Alliance, the worlds largest global airline alliance. Regional service is operated by independent carriers under the brand name United Express and its main competitors are American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and Southwest Airlines. United operates out of nine airline hubs located in Chicago, Denver, Guam, Houston, Los Angeles, Newark, San Francisco, Tokyo and Washington, D. C. Chicago-OHare is Uniteds largest hub, both in terms of passengers carried annually and in terms of departures 181,488 in 2016) and this passed George Bush Intercontinental in Houston, which carried 15.5 million with 178,019 departures. The company employs over 86,000 people while maintaining its headquarters in Chicagos Willis Tower, through the airlines parent company, United Continental Holdings, it is publicly traded under NYSE, UAL with a market capitalization of over $18 billion as of September 2014. United operates maintenance bases in Cleveland and Orlando in addition to the maintenance locations located at Uniteds hubs, United Airlines traces its roots to the Varney Air Lines air mail service of Walter Varney, who also founded Varney Speed Lines from which Continental Airlines had originated. In 1927, aviation pioneer William Boeing founded his airline Boeing Air Transport to operate the San Francisco to Chicago air mail route, in 1933, United began operating the Boeing 247 airliner. It was able to fly a transcontinental flight in 20 hours, after passage of the Air Mail Act in 1934, UATC separated into United Aircraft, the Boeing Airplane Company and United Air Lines. In 1954 United Airlines became the first airline to purchase modern flight simulators which had visual, sound, purchased for US$3 million from Curtiss-Wright, these were the first of todays modern flight simulators for training of commercial passenger aircraft pilots. United merged with Capital Airlines in 1961 and regained its position as the United States largest airline, in 1968, the company reorganized, creating UAL Corporation, with United Airlines as a wholly owned subsidiary. In 1970, the UAL Corporation acquired Western International Hotels, the 1970s also saw economic turmoil, resulting in stagflation and labor unrest. The 1978 Airline Deregulation Act, resulting in industry shakeups, further added to the difficulties in a loss-making period. In 1982, United became the first carrier to operate the Boeing 767, in May 1985, the airline underwent a 29-day pilot strike over managements proposed B-scale pilot pay rates. Making it one of two US carriers permitted exclusive access to Heathrow under Bermuda II until open skies took effect in 2008, the aftermath of the Gulf War and increased competition from low-cost carriers led to losses in 1991 and 1992. In 1995, United became the first airline to introduce the Boeing 777 in commercial service, in 1997, United co-founded the Star Alliance airline partnership
29.
Lufthansa
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It operates services to 18 domestic destinations and 197 international destinations in 78 countries across Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe, using a fleet of more than 270 aircraft. Lufthansa is one of the five founding members of Star Alliance, the name of the company is derived from Luft, and Hansa. Combined with its subsidiaries, the group has 656 aircraft, as of February 2016, in 2014, the group carried over 106 million passengers. Lufthansas registered office and corporate headquarters are in Cologne, the main operations base, called Lufthansa Aviation Center, is at Lufthansas primary hub at Frankfurt Airport. The majority of Lufthansas pilots, ground staff, and flight attendants are based there, Lufthansas secondary hub is Munich Airport. Lufthansa was a state-owned enterprise until 1994, in 2014, 60% of Lufthansas shares were held by institutional investors. The remaining 40% were held by individual stock owners, since 1970, Lufthansa has involved its employees in profit sharing, giving them the opportunity to choose between cash and preference shares. When Lufthansa was privatised, employees received more than 3% of its shares, Lufthansa traces its history to 1926 when Deutsche Luft Hansa A. G. was formed in Berlin. DLH, as it was known, was Germanys flag carrier until 1945 when all services were suspended following the defeat of Nazi Germany, West Germany had not yet been granted sovereignty over its airspace, so it was not known when the new airline could become operational. Nevertheless, in 1953 Luftag placed orders for four Convair CV-340s and four Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellations and set up a maintenance base at Hamburg Airport. On 6 August 1954, Luftag acquired the name and logo of the liquidated Deutsche Lufthansa for DM30,000, on 1 April 1955 Lufthansa won approval to start scheduled domestic flights, linking Hamburg, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Cologne, and Munich. In August 1958 fifteen Lufthansa 1049Gs and 1649s left Germany each week to Canada, the special status of Berlin meant that Lufthansa was not allowed to fly to either part of Berlin until 1989. Originally thought to be only a matter, the Division of Germany turned out to be long. East Germany tried to establish its own airline in 1955 using the Lufthansa name, but this resulted in a dispute with West Germany. East Germany instead established Interflug as its national airline in 1963, in 1958 Lufthansa ordered four Boeing 707s and started jet flights from Frankfurt to New York City in March 1960. Boeing 720Bs were later bought to back up the 707 fleet, in February 1961 Far East routes were extended beyond Bangkok, Thailand, to Hong Kong and Tokyo. Lagos, Nigeria and Johannesburg, South Africa were added in 1962, Lufthansa introduced the Boeing 727 in 1964 and that May began the Polar route from Frankfurt to Tokyo via Anchorage. In February 1965 the company ordered twenty-one Boeing 737s that went into service in 1968, Lufthansa was the first customer for the Boeing 737 and was one of four buyers of the 737-100s
30.
Japan Airlines
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Japan Airlines Co. Ltd. is the flag carrier airline of Japan and the second largest in the country behind All Nippon Airways. JAL group operations include scheduled and non-scheduled international and domestic passenger and cargo services to 220 destinations in 35 countries worldwide, the group has a fleet of 279 aircraft. In the fiscal year ended 31 March 2009, the group carried over 52 million passengers and over 1.1 million tons of cargo. Japan Airlines, J-Air, JAL Express, and Japan Transocean Air are members of the Oneworld airline alliance, JAL was established in 1951 and became the national airline of Japan in 1953. After over three decades of service and expansion, the airline was privatised in 1987. In 2002, the merged with Japan Air System, Japans third-largest airline. Japan Airlines is currently a sponsor of Japan Football Association, Japan national football team, Shimizu S-Pulse. All Nippon Airways, the largest airline in Japan, is JALs main competitor, the airline was founded with an initial capital of ¥100 million, and its headquarters located in Ginza, Chūō, Tokyo. Between 27 and 29 August, the airline operated flights on a Douglas DC-3 Kinsei. On 25 October, Japans first post-war domestic airline service was inaugurated, using a Martin 2-0-2 aircraft, named Mokusei, by 1953 the JAL network extended northward from Tokyo to Sapporo and Misawa, and westward to Nagoya, Osaka, Iwakuni and Fukuoka. On 2 February 1954 the airline began flights, carrying 18 passengers from Tokyo to San Francisco on a Douglas DC-6B City of Tokyo via Wake Island. The flights between Tokyo and San Francisco are still Flights 1 and 2, to commemorate its first international service, the early flights were advertised as being operated by American crews and serviced by United Air Lines in San Francisco. The airline, in addition to the Douglas DC-3, Douglas DC-6B and Martin 2-0-2s, operated Douglas DC-4, JAL flew to Hong Kong via Okinawa by 1955, having pared down its domestic network to Tokyo, Osaka, Fukuoka and Sapporo. By 1958 the Hong Kong route had extended to Bangkok. With DC-7Cs JAL was able to fly nonstop between Seattle and Tokyo in 1959, in 1960 the airline took delivery of its first jet, a Douglas DC-8 named Fuji, introducing jet service on the Tokyo-Honolulu-San Francisco route. JAL went on to operate a fleet of 51 DC-8s, retiring the last of the type in 1987, JAL also began flying to Seattle and Hong Kong in 1960. At the end of 1961 JAL had transpolar flights from Tokyo to Seattle, Copenhagen, London and Paris via Anchorage, Alaska and to Los Angeles and San Francisco via Honolulu, during the 1960s JAL flew to many new cities including Moscow, New York and Pusan. DC-8 flights to Europe via Anchorage started in 1961, flights to Europe via India started in 1962, by 1965 Japan Air Lines was headquartered in the Tokyo Building in Marunouchi, Chiyoda, Tokyo
31.
Royal Jordanian
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Royal Jordanian is a member of the Arab Air Carriers Organization and of the Oneworld global airline alliance. The airline operates over 500 flights per week, with at least 110 daily departures, the airline was established on 9 December 1963 and started operations on 15 December 1963 after a royal decree by the late King Hussein. It was named Alia after King Husseins eldest child, Princess Alia bint Al Hussein of Jordan and it is a common misconception that the airline was named after the Kings third wife, Queen Alia whom King Hussein did not marry until 1972. The airline was founded with capital from private shareholders but the Jordanian government later took over the company, Alia started operations with two Handley Page Dart Heralds and a Douglas DC-7 aircraft, serving Kuwait City, Beirut and Cairo from Amman. In 1964, another DC-7 was added and service began to Jeddah, in 1965, Alia initiated service to Rome, its first destination in Europe. The progress made by the airline was threatened by an Israeli air raid during the 1967 Arab-Israeli War when the DC-7 aircraft were destroyed and they were replaced by two Fokker F27 Friendship airliners. In 1968, the airline expanded its route pattern to Nicosia, Benghazi, Dhahran,1969 saw the addition of service to Munich, Istanbul and Tehran. In 1970, Alia joined the jet age when they phased out the F27s, frankfurt and Abu Dhabi were added to the network. The 707s were delivered in 1971, in that year, service was initiated to Madrid, Copenhagen and Karachi. During the rest of the decade, Boeing 720s, Boeing 727s, a catering department was established, and duty-free shops were opened at Amman airport. Services were added to destinations including, Bahrain, Dubai, Muscat, Rabat, Geneva, Amsterdam, Baghdad, Bangkok, Vienna, Damascus, New York City, Houston, in 1979, Alia became a founding member of the Arab Airlines Technical Consortium. In the 1980s, Tunis and Tripoli joined the route map, lockheed L-1011 Tristars, Airbus A310s and Airbus A320s joined the fleet. In 1986, Alia changed its name to Royal Jordanian, the airlines first woman pilot flew one of their aircraft during this decade. Service was added to Belgrade, Chicago, Los Angeles, Miami, Bucharest, Singapore, Riyadh, Kuala Lumpur – in cooperation with MAS, Sanaa, Moscow, Montreal, Delhi, Calcutta and this decade also saw the introduction of the Gabriel Automated Ticket System –. Royal Jordanian and nine other Arab air carriers signed up for the Galileo CRS, the IMCS maintenance and engineering system was added, a new Amman city air terminal was opened at the 7th Circle of the Jordanian capital, and services to Rafah started, since then halted. The cities of Toronto, Colombo, Jakarta, Berlin, Mumbai, Milan, in 2000, the U. S. Federal Aviation Administration renewed the airlines maintenance and engineering departments license. The duty-free shop was among the services to be privatised, a holding company, RJI, wholly owned by the government, was incorporated as a public limited company in February 2001 to hold all the airlines and associated investments. The airlines name was changed on 5 February 2001 to Alia – The Royal Jordanian Airlines Company, on 10 February 2006, the flag carriers subsidiary Royal Wings started its first domestic service to Aqaba, the seaport on the Gulf of Aqaba, using a Fokker F27
32.
Korean Air
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Korean Air Lines Co. Ltd. operating as Korean Air, is the largest airline and flag carrier of South Korea based on fleet size, international destinations and international flights. The airlines global headquarters are located in Seoul, Republic of Korea, Korean Air was founded as Korean National Airlines in 1946. After several years of service and expansion, the airline was privatized in 1969. Korean Airs international passenger division and related subsidiary cargo division together serve 127 cities in 44 countries and it is among the top 20 airlines in the world in terms of passengers carried and is also the top-ranked international cargo airline. Incheon International Airport serves as Korean Airs international hub, Korean Air also maintains a satellite headquarters campus at Incheon. The majority of Korean Airs pilots, ground staff, and flight attendants are based in Seoul, Korean Air is the parent company of Jin Air and is a founding member of the SkyTeam airline alliance. Skyteam has since become the largest in the world, surpassing Star Alliance and it was voted Asias best airline by Business Traveler readers in 2012. Korean Air was founded by the South Korean government in 1962 as Korean Air Lines to replace Korean National Airlines, on 1 March 1969, the Hanjin Transport Group took control of the airline. Long-haul freight operations were introduced on 26 April 1971, followed by services to Los Angeles International Airport on 19 April 1972. International flights to Hong Kong, Taiwan and Los Angeles were flown with Boeing 707s until the introduction of the Boeing 747 in 1973. In 1973, the airline introduced Boeing 747s on its Pacific routes and started a European service to Paris, France using the 707 and then McDonnell Douglas DC-10. In 1975, the airline became one of the earliest Asian airlines to operate Airbus aircraft with the purchase of three Airbus A300s, which were put into service on Asian routes. Since South Korean aircraft were prohibited from flying in Soviet Union and North Korean airspace at the time and this livery was introduced on its Fokker F28 Fellowships. It was designed in cooperation between Korean Air and Boeing, some older 747 aircraft were also converted for freight service. In the 1980s, Korean Airs head office was in the KAL Building on Namdaemunno, Jung-gu, Jin Air started its scheduled passenger service from Seoul to Jeju on 17 July 2008. Korean Air announced that some of its 737s and A300s would be given to Jin Air, by 2009, Korean Airs image had become more prestigious, differing from the airlines late-1990s image, which had been tarnished by several fatal accidents. In mid-2010, a deal with games company Blizzard Entertainment sent a 747-400. In August 2010, Korean Air announced heavy second-quarter losses despite record high revenue, in August 2010, Hanjin Group, the parent of Korean, opened a new cargo terminal at Navoi in Uzbekistan, which will become a cargo hub with regular Incheon-Navoi-Milan flights
33.
Asiana Airlines
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Asiana Airlines Inc. is one of South Koreas two major airlines, along with Korean Air. Asiana has its headquarters in Asiana Town building in Seoul, the airline has its domestic hub at Gimpo International Airport and its international hub at Incheon International Airport. As a member of Star Alliance, it operates 14 domestic and 90 international passenger routes, and 27 cargo routes throughout Asia, Europe, North America, as of December 2014, the company employs 10,183 people. The majority of Asianas pilots, ground staff, and flight attendants are based in Seoul, Asiana Airlines is the largest shareholder in Air Busan, a low-cost regional carrier joint venture with Busan Metropolitan City. The airline also holds 100% share of Air Seoul, a subsidiary, Asiana is also currently an official sponsor of the South Korea national football team and The Presidents Cup 2015. Korean Air, which was privatized in 1969, had a monopoly on the South Korean airline industry until the establishment of Asiana in 1988. Asianas formation did not come about as a policy initiative favoring liberalized market conditions but rather because of pressure from other chaebols and it was formed by the Kumho Asiana Group and was originally known as Seoul Air International. Asiana was established on 17 February 1988 and started operations in December 1988 with flights to Busan, as of 2007 the airline was owned by private investors, Kumho Industrial, Kumho Petrochemical, foreign investors, Korea Development Bank, and others. Asiana began operations in December 1988, using Boeing 737 Classic planes, with flights to Busan, in 1989, Asiana began regular services to Jeju City, Gwangju, and Daegu and later the same year, Asiana began international chartered flights to Sendai in Japan. In 1990, Asiana began its first scheduled service to Tokyo, Nagoya, Sendai. In the same year, Asiana had 9 Boeing 747-400s,10 Boeing 767–300s and 8 Boeing 737–400s, in early 1991, Asiana began services to Bangkok, Singapore, Hong Kong and Taipei. Transpacific flights to Los Angeles began in December 1991 with a Boeing 747-400 Combi, services to Vienna, Brussels, and Honolulu began in the mid 1990s. In 1993, Asiana began services to Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam, Asiana Airlines has rapidly expanded since its establishment in 1988 to become a mid-sized, global carrier with a current fleet of 85 aircraft. In December 1998, the airline operated the airplane for the first time. The Airline was listed in KOSDAQ In December 1999, on 28 January 2003, the airline became a full Star Alliance member, expanding its worldwide network and global brand. In 2004, the added the Airbus A330 and the Boeing 777-200ER to its fleet. Currently it provides services to 71 cities in 23 countries on 91 routes. It also provides cargo services to 29 cities in 14 countries on 28 routes by Asiana Cargo
34.
JetBlue
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JetBlue Airways Corporation, stylized as jetBlue, is an American airline, and the 6th-largest airline in the United States. The company is headquartered in the Long Island City neighborhood of the New York City borough of Queens and it also maintains a corporate office in Cottonwood Heights, Utah. As of April 2017, JetBlue serves 101 destinations in the U. S. Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America, JetBlue was incorporated in Delaware in August 1998. David Neeleman founded the company in February 1999, under the name NewAir, in Neelemans words, JetBlue looks to bring humanity back to air travel. In September 1999, the airline was awarded 75 initial take off/landing slots at John F. Kennedy International Airport and it started operations on February 11,2000, with service to Buffalo and Fort Lauderdale. JetBlues founders had set out to call the airline Taxi and therefore have a livery to associate the airline with New York. JetBlue was one of only a few U. S. airlines that made a profit during the downturn in airline travel following the September 11,2001 attacks. The airline sector responded to JetBlues market presence by starting mini-rival carriers, Delta Air Lines started Song, Song has since been disbanded and was reabsorbed by Delta Air Lines and Ted reabsorbed by United. In October 2005, JetBlues quarterly profit had plunged from US$8.1 million to $2.7 million largely due to rising fuel costs, operational issues, fuel prices, and low fares, JetBlues hallmark, were bringing its financial performance down. In addition, with higher costs related to the airlines numerous amenities, regardless, the airline continued to plan for growth. Thirty-six new aircraft were scheduled for delivery in the year 2006, for many years, analysts had predicted that JetBlues growth rate would become unsustainable. Despite this, the continued to add planes and routes to the fleet at a brisk pace. The union organizing petition was dismissed by the National Mediation Board because fewer than 35 percent of eligible employees supported an election. JetBlue experienced its first ever quarterly loss during the quarter of 2005. The loss was the airlines first since going public in 2002, JetBlue also reported a loss in the first quarter of 2006. In addition to that, JetBlue forecasted a loss for 2006, citing high fuel prices, operating inefficiency, the plan called for $50 million in annual cost cuts and a push to boost revenue by $30 million. JetBlue Airways moved out of the red during the quarter of 2006. That result was flat compared to JetBlues results from the same quarter a year before
35.
Seaborne Airlines
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Seaborne Airlines is a FAR Part 121 airline headquartered in San Juan, Puerto Rico. In late 2008, Seaborne Airlines began land based flight service between St. Thomas, St. Croix, and San Juan TJIG Isla Grande Airport under the brand name Seaborne Airshuttle, in January 2011, Seaborne Airlines began service to San Juan TJSJ Luis Munoz Marin International Airport. On December 18,2013, Seaborne announced a change from Christiansted, St. Croix to San Juan, Puerto Rico. With this, adding service to Punta Cana and St. Maarten and its previous headquarters were in Christiansted. In recent US Essential Air Service filings, Southern Airways Express has executed a letter of intent to purchase Seaborne Airlines and this includes service from San Juan to all of Seabornes destinations, excluding St. Croix and St. Thomas. Miles from Seaborne are not currently convertible to AAdvantage miles, all passenger services, including baggage and assistance, are provided by American on codeshared flights. Seaborne has also started an interline agreement with Jetblue Airways and Delta Air Lines, as of September 30,2014, Seaborne has an interline agreement with United Airlines. As of March 30,2015, Seaborne Airlines expanded American Airlines codeshare agreement to include St. Thomas and St. Croix, starting December 15,2015, Seaborne will be flying to Antigua. As of October 21,2015, Seaborne Airlines begins codesharing with Jetblue Airways As of July 18,2016, the Twin Otters, registered as C-GKBR and C-GKBV, are on lease from the Kenn Borek Aviation. Twin Otters provide near hourly service between Christiansted Harbor in St. Croix and Charlotte Amalie Harbor in St. Thomas, Saab 340 aircraft entered scheduled operations in 2013, and serve all land destinations. Of the eight Saab 340s, six were originally American Eagle aircraft, prior Seabornes acquisition of Saab 340s service, De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter Series 300 were used for land and water operations. Official website Seaborne Airlines Aircraft More Seaborne Airlines Aircraft
36.
Alaska Airlines
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Alaska Airlines is an American airline based in the Seattle metropolitan area of the state of Washington. The company was founded in 1932 as McGee Airways, offering flights from Anchorage, Alaska Airlines has flights to more than one hundred destinations in the contiguous United States, Alaska, Hawaii, Canada, Costa Rica, Cuba and Mexico. The airline is an air carrier and, along with its sister airlines Horizon Air. The airline has been ranked by J. D. Power, the airline operates its largest hub at Seattle–Tacoma International Airport. It also operates secondary hubs in Los Angeles, Portland, San Francisco, Anchorage, although most of its revenue and traffic comes from locations outside of Alaska, the airline plays a major role in air transportation in the state. It operates many flights linking small towns to major transportation hubs, Alaska Airlines is not a member of any of the three major airline alliances. Delta, which used to cooperate through codeshares with Alaska Airlines until December 19,2017, is a competitor to Alaska Air in its Sea-Tac market. The Alaska Air Group has been a part of the Dow Jones Transportation Average since 2011, the airline traces its roots to McGee Airways, which was started by Linious Mac McGee in 1932. The airline flew its inaugural service between Anchorage and Bristol Bay with a Stinson single-engined, three-passenger aircraft, at the time, there were no scheduled flights, a flight took place when there were passengers or a load of cargo or mail. It was the middle of the Great Depression and the airline was struggling financially, there were too many airlines in Anchorage at the time, and not enough demand to support them. In the next few years the airline performed many mergers and acquisitions that produced changes in the name, the first of these mergers was in 1934, when McGee sold his namesake airline for US$50,000 to Star Air Service, an airline also located in Anchorage. This allowed McGee to enter the mining industry, with a fleet of fifteen aircraft, Star Air Service was a dominant airline in Alaska. But Star continued to struggle financially because of maintenance costs for its wooden planes. In 1937, McGee came back to the airline and opened a store. That year, Star Air Service purchased Alaska Interior Airlines and was incorporated as Star Air Lines, Star was again sold later that year to a group of miners. In 1938, federal regulation began when Congress created the Civil Aeronautics Board, the CAB awarded the airline most of the routes that it wanted in Alaska, but the coveted route between Seattle and Anchorage was awarded to Pan American Airways. In 1941, Star Air Service was purchased by Raymond Marshall, in 1942, the airline purchased three other airlines in Alaska, Lavery Air Service, Mirow Air Service, and Pollack Flying Service as well as a hangar at the Anchorage airport. That year, the name was changed to Alaska Star Airlines
37.
Imperial units
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The system of imperial units or the imperial system is the system of units first defined in the British Weights and Measures Act of 1824, which was later refined and reduced. The Imperial units replaced the Winchester Standards, which were in effect from 1588 to 1825, the system came into official use across the British Empire. The imperial system developed from what were first known as English units, the Weights and Measures Act of 1824 was initially scheduled to go into effect on 1 May 1825. However, the Weights and Measures Act of 1825 pushed back the date to 1 January 1826, the 1824 Act allowed the continued use of pre-imperial units provided that they were customary, widely known, and clearly marked with imperial equivalents. Apothecaries units are mentioned neither in the act of 1824 nor 1825, at the time, apothecaries weights and measures were regulated in England, Wales, and Berwick-upon-Tweed by the London College of Physicians, and in Ireland by the Dublin College of Physicians. In Scotland, apothecaries units were unofficially regulated by the Edinburgh College of Physicians, the three colleges published, at infrequent intervals, pharmacopoeiae, the London and Dublin editions having the force of law. The Medical Act of 1858 transferred to The Crown the right to publish the official pharmacopoeia and to regulate apothecaries weights, Metric equivalents in this article usually assume the latest official definition. Before this date, the most precise measurement of the imperial Standard Yard was 0.914398416 metres, in 1824, the various different gallons in use in the British Empire were replaced by the imperial gallon, a unit close in volume to the ale gallon. It was originally defined as the volume of 10 pounds of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the standing at 30 inches of mercury at a temperature of 62 °F. The Weights and Measures Act of 1985 switched to a gallon of exactly 4.54609 l and these measurements were in use from 1826, when the new imperial gallon was defined, but were officially abolished in the United Kingdom on 1 January 1971. In the USA, though no longer recommended, the system is still used occasionally in medicine. The troy pound was made the unit of mass by the 1824 Act, however, its use was abolished in the UK on 1 January 1879, with only the troy ounce. The Weights and Measures Act 1855 made the pound the primary unit of mass. In all the systems, the unit is the pound. For the yard, the length of a pendulum beating seconds at the latitude of Greenwich at Mean Sea Level in vacuo was defined as 39.01393 inches, the imperial system is one of many systems of English units. Although most of the units are defined in more than one system, some units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes. The distinctions between these systems are not drawn precisely. One such distinction is that between these systems and older British/English units/systems or newer additions, the US customary system is historically derived from the English units that were in use at the time of settlement
38.
Metric system
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The metric system is an internationally agreed decimal system of measurement. Many sources also cite Liberia and Myanmar as the other countries not to have done so. Although the originators intended to devise a system that was accessible to all. Control of the units of measure was maintained by the French government until 1875, when it was passed to an intergovernmental organisation. From its beginning, the features of the metric system were the standard set of interrelated base units. These base units are used to larger and smaller units that could replace a huge number of other units of measure in existence. Although the system was first developed for use, the development of coherent units of measure made it particularly suitable for science. Although the metric system has changed and developed since its inception, designed for transnational use, it consisted of a basic set of units of measurement, now known as base units. At the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, most countries, the metric system was designed to be universal—in the words of the French philosopher Marquis de Condorcet it was to be for all people for all time. However, these overtures failed and the custody of the metric system remained in the hands of the French government until 1875. In languages where the distinction is made, unit names are common nouns, the concept of using consistent classical names for the prefixes was first proposed in a report by the Commission on Weights and Measures in May 1793. The prefix kilo, for example, is used to multiply the unit by 1000, thus the kilogram and kilometre are a thousand grams and metres respectively, and a milligram and millimetre are one thousandth of a gram and metre respectively. These relations can be written symbolically as,1 mg =0, however,1935 extensions to the prefix system did not follow this convention, the prefixes nano- and micro-, for example have Greek roots. During the 19th century the prefix myria-, derived from the Greek word μύριοι, was used as a multiplier for 10000, prefixes are not usually used to indicate multiples of a second greater than 1, the non-SI units of minute, hour and day are used instead. On the other hand, prefixes are used for multiples of the unit of volume. The base units used in the system must be realisable. Each of the units in SI is accompanied by a mise en pratique published by the BIPM that describes in detail at least one way in which the base unit can be measured. In practice, such realisation is done under the auspices of a mutual acceptance arrangement, in the original version of the metric system the base units could be derived from a specified length and the weight of a specified volume of pure water
39.
Frog (models)
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Frog was a well-known British brand of flying model aircraft and scale model construction kits from the 1930s to the 1970s. The companys first model, an Interceptor Mk,4, was launched in 1932 followed in 1936 by a range of 1,72 scale model aircraft kits made from cellulose acetate, which were the worlds first. Polystyrene models were introduced in 1955 that offered kits of aircraft, ships, by the 1970s, Frogs catalogue included a large number of lesser known aircraft types manufactured only by the company as well as a number of ship kits. The last Frog branded kits were produced in 1976, also in 1932, a marketing partnership with the toy company Lines Bros Ltd. was formed and other Frog brand flying models followed. In 1936, a range of 1,72 scale aircraft models in kit or pre-built form and these were the worlds first plastic model construction kits. An early release was the No. 21P Empire Flying Boat, during the Second World War, the company produced flying models for target purposes and 1,72 scale aircraft recognition models. The Penguin range was dropped in 1949 but a new range of Frog polystyrene kits was introduced in 1955. A wide variety of aircraft, ship and car subjects in various scales were issued during the 1950s and 60s,1,72 scale being standardised on from 1963 onwards for aircraft models, a lone airship model was of the R100. From 1968, Frog issued around thirty ex-Hasegawa kits, mostly 1,72 scale modern jet fighters, in 1971, IMAs parent company, now Rovex Tri-ang, entered receivership and was acquired by Dunbee-Combex-Marx the following year. During the mid-1970s, some of the Frog kit moulds were transferred to factories in the Soviet Union. Moulds of Second World War Axis Powers subjects were acquired by Revell around 1977, the last Frog-branded kits were produced in 1976. In more recent years, some kits have been re-issued by Revell. Model subjects produced by Frog over the years include, Aircraft 1,72,1,96, famous Warships various scales, mostly World War II era. On 9 December 2008 on the BBC2 programme Flog It a childs walking aid toy, on the left flank of the bear is sewn a label stating that it was manufactured by International Model Aircraft Ltd. Airfix Aurora ESCI Hasegawa Heller Italeri Matchbox Monogram Revell Tamiya Skybirds Lines, Richard and Hellström, Leif
40.
Aircraft spotting
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Aircraft spotting or plane spotting is a hobby of tracking the movement of aircraft, which is often accomplished by photography. Besides monitoring aircraft, aircraft spotting enthusiasts also record informations of airports, air traffic control communications, Aviation enthusiasts have been watching airplanes and other aircraft ever since they were invented. However, plane spotting was not considered a hobby until the second half of the 20th century. The development of technology and global resources enabled a revolution in spotting, point and shoot cameras, DSLRs & walkie talkies significantly changed the hobby. With the help of the internet, websites such as FlightAware and Flightradar24 have made it possible for spotters to track, websites specifically for aircraft, such as airliners. When spotting aircraft, observers generally notice the key attributes of an aircraft, observers assess the size of the aircraft and the number, type and position of its engines. Another distinctive attribute is the position of relative to the fuselage. The wings may be above the fuselage, below it, or fixed at midpoint, the number of wings indicate whether it is a monoplane, biplane or triplane. The position of the relative to the fin and the shape of the fin are other attributes. The configuration of the gear can be distinctive, as well. Other features include the speed, cockpit placement, colour scheme or special equipment that changes the silhouette of the aircraft, taken together these traits will enable the identification of an aircraft. This is particularly prevalent if the spotter is spotting commercial aircraft. Spotters use equipment such as ADS-B decoders to track the movements of aircraft, the two most famous devices used are the AirNav Systems RadarBox and Kinetic Avionics SBS series. Both of them read and process the data and show the movements on a computer screen. Most of the decoders also allow the exporting of logs from a route or airport. Some spotters will note and compile the markings, an insignia or airline livery or logo. Published manuals allow more information to be deduced, such as the date or the manufacturers construction number. Camouflage markings differ, depending on the surroundings in which that aircraft is expected to operate, some spotters attempt to see every airframe and are known as frame spotters
41.
Herpa
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Herpa, or Herpa Miniaturmodelle GmbH, is a German manufacturer of die-cast model aircraft under the Herpa Wings trademark and plastic car models under the Herpa Cars & Trucks trademark. The mainstay of the Herpa Wings range is in the 1/500 scale, although models are produced in the 1/400, 1/200. The Herpa Cars & Trucks range is produced in the 1/87 scale, although 1/120. Herpa also produces magazines for car & truck enthusiasts and model aircraft enthusiasts, known as Der Maßstab, the company “Hergenröther und Patente” is founded in Nuremberg by inventor and patent holder Wilhelm Hergenröther to produce accessories for model trains. The initials of the company’s name make up the form of “Herpa”. Car models in the 1/87 H0 scale are presented at the International Toy Fair in Nuremberg, Herpa continues to extend this product line. Every following car model is put on the market using snap-fit construction, in 1980, Herpa presents the first truck models. Following that, in 1981, Herpas truck models sport tipping cabins revealing an exact reproduction of an engine within, industrial customers also start to use Herpa’s car models as an advertising instrument with their own company’s imprinting. The first issue of Der Maßstab is released in 1982, in 1987, the first plastic samples of airplane models of Boeing 747–200s in the 1/500 scale are produced. These models were presented to Lufthansa at a ceremony for a Boeing 737–300 at Nuremberg Airport. Lufthansa then orders the production of the Lufthansa Model-Edition in the 1/200 scale exclusively for the airline, Herpa then launches the Lufthansa Model-Edition in 1988 with a replica of the Boeing 737–300. In 1992, the Herpa Wings series of models in the 1/500 scale are launched in Nuremberg. These models come with rolling landing gear, an industry first that has not been duplicated, tamp printing is used to create highly detailed replicas of their originals. Several airlines placed orders with Herpa for the production of models in their respective liveries. In 1993, Herpa creates the first motorcycle in the 1/87 scale, a licensing contract with plane manufacturer Boeing is also signed in 1995. The first set of accessories is produced in 1996. Herpa receives the ISO9001 certificate from the Bavarian Trade and Business Institute for the upholding of a quality management system meets the highest European norms. In 1997, Herpa Wings magazine WingsWorld was launched, alongside the first model aircraft in the 1/200 scale, the Herpa Wings Club is launched in 1999 in conjunction with Herpas 50th anniversary
42.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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