1.
Mehmed VI
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Mehmed VI, who is also known as Şahbaba among his relatives, was the 36th and last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1918 to 1922. The brother of Mehmed V, he succeeded to the throne as the eldest male member of the House of Osman after the 1916 suicide of Abdülazizs son Yusuf Izzettin Efendi and he was girded with the Sword of Osman on 4 July 1918, as the thirty-sixth padishah. His father was Sultan Abdülmecid I and mother was Gülüstü Hanım, Mehmed was removed from the throne when the Ottoman sultanate was abolished in 1922. He was born in the Dolmabahçe Palace, in Istanbul, the First World War was a disaster for the Ottoman Empire. British and allied forces had conquered Baghdad, Damascus, and Jerusalem during the war, at the San Remo conference of April 1920, the French were granted a mandate over Syria and the British were granted one over Palestine and Mesopotamia. On 10 August 1920, Mehmeds representatives signed the Treaty of Sèvres, Turkish nationalists rejected the settlement by the Sultans four signatories. A new government, the Turkish Grand National Assembly, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal was formed on 23 April 1920, in Ankara. The new government denounced the rule of Mehmed VI and the command of Süleyman Şefik Pasha who was in charge of the Kuvâ-i İnzibâtiyye, the Turkish Grand National Assembly abolished the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, and Mehmed was expelled from Istanbul. Leaving aboard the British warship Malaya on 17 November, he went into exile in Malta, Mehmed died on 16 May 1926 in Sanremo, Italy, and was buried at the Tekkiye Mosque of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in Damascus. Circassian HIH Princess Inşirah Hanım, married at Istanbul, Üsküdar, Çengelköy, Çengelköy Palace on 8 July 1905 and divorced on 7 November 1909, daughter of Zekeriya Aziz Bey Voçibe, without issue. Abkhazian HIM Empress Nevvare Hanım, married at Istanbul, Dolmabahçe Palace on 20 June 1918, daughter of Mustafa Bey Çıhcı by his wife Hafize Hanım Kap, without issue. Albanian HIM Empress Nevzad Hanım, married at Istanbul, Yıldız Palace on 1 September 1921, daughter of Şaban Efendi Bargu by his wife Hatice Hanım, without issue
2.
Hassan II of Morocco
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King Hassan II,9 July 1929 –23 July 1999) was King of Morocco from 1961 until his death in 1999. He was the eldest son of Mohammed V, Sultan, then King of Morocco, there were several controversies during his lifetime. King Hassan was educated at the Imperial College at Rabat, and he was exiled to Corsica by French authorities on 20 August 1953, together with his father Sultan Mohammed V. They were transferred to Madagascar in January 1954, Prince Moulay Hassan acted as his fathers political advisor during the exile. Mohammed V and his family returned from exile on 16 November 1955, in the unrest of the same year, he led army contingents battling rebels in the mountains of the Rif. Mohammed V changed the title of the Moroccan sovereign from Sultan to King in 1957, Hassan was proclaimed Crown Prince on 19 July 1957, and became King on 26 February 1961, after his fathers death. Hassans conservative rule, one characterized by a human rights record. In Moroccos first constitution of 1963, Hassan II reaffirmed Moroccos choice of a multi-party political system, in 1965, Hassan dissolved Parliament and ruled directly, although he did not abolish the mechanisms of parliamentary democracy. When elections were held, they were mostly rigged in favor of loyal parties. This caused severe discontent among the opposition, and protest demonstrations, a US report observed that Hassan appears obsessed with the preservation of his power rather than with its application toward the resolution of Moroccos multiplying domestic problems. In the early 1970s, King Hassan survived two assassination attempts, important guests, including the Belgian Ambassador Marcel Dupert, were placed under house arrest, and the King himself was taken to a small pavilion. Rabats main radio station was taken over by the rebels and broadcast propaganda stating that the King had been murdered, the coup ended the same day when royalist troops took over the palace in combat against the rebels. It was subsequently claimed by the Moroccan authorities that the cadets had been misled by senior officers into thinking that they were acting to protect the king. Allegedly, the King himself hurried to the cockpit, took control of the radio and shouted, Stop firing you fools, eight people were killed when the jets strafed the awaiting reception dignitaries. General Mohamed Oufkir, Moroccos defense minister, was the man behind the coup and was declared to have committed suicide after the attack. His body, however, was found with bullet wounds. In the Cold War era, Hassan II allied Morocco with the West generally, there were close and continuing ties between Hassan IIs government and the CIA, who helped to reorganize Moroccos security forces in 1960. Hassan served as a channel between the Arab world and Israel, facilitating early negotiations between them
3.
Moulay Hassan, Crown Prince of Morocco
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Prince Moulay Hassan is the heir apparent to the Moroccan throne. He is the oldest child of King Mohammed VI of Morocco and he has a younger sister, Princess Lalla Khadija. He is named after his grandfather Hassan II, if he ascends the throne, in 2015 Hassan began appearing in public with his father at official engagements. Tunisia, Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the Republic
4.
Driss Jettou
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Driss Jettou was the Prime Minister of Morocco from 2002 to 2007. Jettou was born in the town of El Jadida on 24 May 1945, after secondary studies at El Khawarizmi college in Casablanca, he obtained a technical Baccalauréat in mathematics in 1964. He then joined the Faculty of Sciences of Rabat University where he graduated in physics and he also received a diploma of adjustment and management of company of Cordwainers Colleges of London in 1968. Between 1968 and 1993, Jettou occupied many positions of several Moroccan companies. Jettou started his career in 1993 when King Hassan II appointed him to be Minister of Trade and Industry. Then he served as Minister of Interior from 2001 in the cabinet of Abderrahmane Youssoufi until he was appointed as Prime Minister by King Mohammed VI on 6 October 2002. His appointment was controversial as he was not then a member of any party, the Socialist Union of Forces for Progress and Istiqlal Party were the major parties of this coalition. In late 2004, he successfully led Morocco into a free trade agreement with the United States. Following the September 2007 parliamentary election, Mohammed VI named Istiqlal leader Abbas El Fassi as Jettous successor as Prime Minister on 19 September 2007. Jettou was appointed as President of the Audits Court on 9 August 2012, a move interpreted as meaning that King Mohammed would take full control of managing corruption cases
5.
Abbas El Fassi
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Abbas El Fassi pronunciation ah-BASS ehl FASS-ee was Prime Minister of Morocco from 19 September 2007 to 29 November 2011. El Fassi, a member of the Istiqlal Party, replaced independent Driss Jettou, El Fassi was born in Berkane, Morocco on 18 September 1940. He then took up the post of Minister of State in the Jettou government from 2002 to 2007, king Mohammed VI appointed El Fassi as Prime Minister on September 19,2007 following Istiqlals victory in the parliamentary elections on September 7. His government was appointed by Mohammed VI on 15 October 2007 with 33 members, abbas el Fassi was Moroccan Ambassador to France when Gilles Perraults political pamphlet Notre ami, le roi, about human rights abuses in Morocco, was published in France. Ties between Morocco and France deteriorated with the publication of the book
6.
Abdelilah Benkirane
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Abdelilah Benkirane is a Moroccan politician who was Prime Minister of Morocco from November 2011 to March 2017. During the 1970s, Benkirane was a leftist political activist and he has represented Salé in the Moroccan parliament since 14 November 1997. He was elected leader of the Justice and Development Party in July 2008, Benkiranes politics are democratic and Islamist. In a 2011 interview he said, If I get into government and it is not possible, in any case, for anyone to threaten the cause of civil liberties in Morocco. Benkirane became Prime Minister on 29 November 2011, Benkiranes government also actively pursued Moroccos ties with the European Union, its chief trade partner, as well as becoming increasingly engaged with the six-member Gulf Co-operation Council. The king made the decision after Benkirane was unable to form a government due to ongoing political negotiations. On 17 March 2017 the king chose Saadeddine Othmani to replace Benkirane as Prime Minister, born in Rabat, Benkiranes family are originally from Fes. His father was interested in Sufism and Islamic fundamentalism, while his mother attended meetings of the branch of Istiqlal. Benkirane enjoys chess and music, although he says he is not in favour of indecent music and his role model is his father, who died at the age of 90, when Benkirane was 16. He is married to a party activist and has six children, Justice and Development Party Official website
7.
Saadeddine Othmani
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Saadeddine Othmani is a Berber Moroccan politician and psychiatrist who was appointed as Prime Minister of Morocco on 17 March 2017 and took office on 5 April 2017. Previously he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 2012 to 2013 and he was born in 1956 in Inezgane, near Agadir, in the Souss region. He obtained a Doctorate in Medicine from Hassan II University of Casablanca in 1986 and he also earned Master and DEA degrees in Islamic studies in 1983,1987 and 1999. He has written books on psychology and Islamic law, and worked as the editor-in-chief of many magazines. In 2004, after the withdrawal from politics of Abdelkrim Alkhatib, Saadeddine Othmani became the head of the Justice and he is also a parliamentary deputy of Inezgane. Saadeddine Othmani was Minister of Foreign Affairs from 3 January 2012 to 10 October 2013 in the government headed by his party and he was succeeded as Minister of Foreign Affairs by Salaheddine Mezouar. Subsequently he headed the group of the PJD. On 17 March 2017, Saadeddine Othmani was appointed as Prime Minister by King Mohammed VI
8.
Rabat
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Rabat is the capital of Morocco and its seventh largest city centre with an urban population of approximately 580,000 and a metropolitan population of over 1.2 million. It is also the capital of the Rabat-Salé-Kénitra administrative region, the city is located on the Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the river Bou Regreg. On the facing shore of the river lies Salé, the main commuter town. Rabat, Temara, and Salé form a conurbation of over 1.8 million people, silt-related problems have diminished Rabats role as a port, however, Rabat and Salé still maintain important textile, food processing and construction industries. In addition, tourism and the presence of all foreign embassies in Morocco serve to make Rabat one of the most important cities in the country. Once a reputed corsair haven, Rabat served as one of the ports in North Africa for the Barbary pirates. Rabat is accessible by train through the ONCF system and by plane through the nearby Rabat–Salé Airport, the Moroccan capital was ranked at second place by CNN in its Top Travel Destinations of 2013. It is one of four Imperial cities of Morocco, and the medina of Rabat is listed as a World Heritage Site, Rabat has a relatively modern history compared to the nearby ancient city of Salé. In 1146, the Almohad ruler Abd al-Mumin turned Rabats ribat into a fortress to use as a launching point for attacks on Iberia. In 1170, due to its importance, Rabat acquired the title Ribatu l-Fath, meaning stronghold of victory. Yaqub al-Mansur, another Almohad Caliph, moved the capital of his empire to Rabat and he built Rabats city walls, the Kasbah of the Udayas and began construction on what would have been the worlds largest mosque. However, Yaqub died and construction stopped, the ruins of the unfinished mosque, along with the Hassan Tower, still stand today. Yaqubs death initiated a period of decline, the Almohad empire lost control of its possessions in Spain and much of its African territory, eventually leading to its total collapse. In the 13th century, much of Rabats economic power shifted to Fez, in 1515 a Moorish explorer, El Wassan, reported that Rabat had declined so much that only 100 inhabited houses remained. An influx of Moriscos, who had expelled from Spain, in the early 17th century helped boost Rabats growth. Rabat and neighboring Salé united to form the Republic of Bou Regreg in 1627, the republic was run by Barbary pirates who used the two cities as base ports for launching attacks on shipping. The pirates did not have to contend with any central authority until the Alaouite Dynasty united Morocco in 1666, the latter attempted to establish control over the pirates, but failed. European and Muslim authorities continued to attempt to control the pirates over many years, but the Republic of Bou Regreg did not collapse until 1818
9.
Princess Salma Bennani
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Princess Lalla Salma born Salma Bennani, is the princess consort of Morocco. She is the wife of King Mohammed VI and the first wife of a Moroccan ruler to have publicly acknowledged. She was born Salma Bennani in Fes to a middle class family and she lived in Rabat, with her half cousin Saira, and the two are commonly seen together in public. She was educated in Rabat, where she attended a school, Lycée Hassan II, Lycée Moulay Youssef. She met her husband during a party in 1999. After completing her studies, she worked for a few months as an information services engineer at ONA Group. Salma married King Mohammed VI on 12 October 2001 and on 21 March 2002, at the Dar al-Makhzin, Rabat, the royal couple have two children, Moulay Hassan, Crown Prince of Morocco. Salma has kept quite a low profile as Princess of Morocco and she supports cancer associations and the Fez Sacred Music Festival. On 29 April, the day after the 2011 Marrakech bombing, she attended the wedding of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, Salma has represented the King and Morocco in meetings and gatherings in Thailand, Japan, Israel and France. She founded a cancer prevention association in Morocco and has involved in HIV/AIDS prevention in Africa work. Recently, she visited Tunisia and Saudi Arabia and she attended the wedding of Guillaume, Hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and Countess Stéphanie de Lannoy in 2012. In April 2013, Salma attended the inauguration of the new Dutch King Willem-Alexander in Amsterdam, Lalla Salma is styled as Her Royal Highness Princess Lalla Salma. Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II of Belgium, dame Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic of Spain. Dame Grand Cross of the National Order of Merit of Senegal
10.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
11.
Berber languages
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Berber or the Berber languages or the Amazigh language are a family of similar and closely related languages and dialects indigenous to North Africa. Large Berber-speaking migrant communities, numbering today about 4 million, have been living in Western Europe, about half of this population was born in Europe. Berber constitutes a branch of the Afroasiatic language family, and has been attested since ancient times, the number of Berbers is much higher than the number of Berber speakers. The bulk of the populations of the Maghreb countries are considered to have Berber ancestors, in Algeria, for example, a majority of the population consists of Arabized Berbers. There is a cultural and political movement among speakers of the closely related varieties of Northern Berber to promote and unify them under a standard language, called. The name Tamaziɣt is the current native name of the Berber language in the Moroccan Middle-Atlas region, the Rif regions, in other Berber-speaking area this name was lost. There is historical evidence, from medieval Berber manusctipts, that all native North Africans from Libya to Morocco have called their language, Tamaziɣt. The name Tamaziɣt is currently being used by educated Berbers to refer to the written Berber language. Around 90 percent of the Berber-speaking population speak one of six major varieties of Berber and they are, in the order of demographic weight, Tashelhit, Kabyle, Atlas Tamazight, Riffian, Shawi and Tuareg. The Berber languages and dialects have had a tradition, on and off, for about 2,500 years, although the tradition has been frequently disrupted by cultural shifts. They were first written in the Libyco-Berber and Tifinagh abjad, still used by the Tuareg, the oldest dated inscription is from about 200 BCE. The Berber Latin alphabet was used by most European and Berber linguists during the 19th and 20th centuries. In the 19th and 20th century European and native Berber linguists, a modernized form of the Tifinagh alphabet, called Neo-Tifinagh, was adopted in Morocco in 2003 for writing Berber, but many Moroccan Berber publications still use the Berber Latin alphabet. Algerians mostly use the Berber Latin alphabet in Berber language education at public schools, Mali and Niger recognize a Tuareg-Berber Latin alphabet customized to the Tuareg phonological system. However, traditional Tifinagh is still used in those countries, the term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century, and is still used today. It was borrowed from Latin Barbari, the Latin word is also found in the Arabic designation for these populations, البربر, al-Barbar, see names of the Berber people. Etymologically, the Berber root Mazigh means free man, noble man, the feminine Tamazight traditionally referred specifically to the Riffian and Central Atlas Tamazight languages. European languages distinguish between the words Berber and barbaric, while Arabic has the same word al-barbari for both meanings, some other Berber writers, especially in Morocco, prefer to refer to Berber with Amazigh when writing about it in French or English
12.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
13.
Alaouite dynasty
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The Alaouite dynasty, or Alawite dynasty, is the current Moroccan royal family. The name Alaouite comes from the ‘Alī of ‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib and his son Mulay Al-Rashid was able to unite and pacify the country. The Alaouite family claim descent from Muhammad through his daughter Fāṭimah az-Zahrah and they were hoping that, as he was a descendant of Muhammad, his presence would help to improve their date palm crops thanks to his barakah blessing, an Arabic term meaning a sense of charisma. His descendants began to increase their power in southern Morocco after the death of the Saʻdī ruler Ahmad al-Mansur, in 1669, the last Saʻdī sultan was overthrown in the conquest of Marrakesh by Mulay al-Rashid. After the victory over the zāwiya of Dila, who controlled northern Morocco, he was able to unite, the organization of the sultanate developed under Ismail Ibn Sharif, who, against the opposition of local tribes began to create a unified state. Because the Alaouites had difficult relations with many of the countrys Berber and Bedouin-Arab tribes, Ismaīl formed a new army of black slaves, however, the unity of Morocco did not survive his death—in the ensuing power struggles the tribes became a political and military force once again. Only with Muhammad III could the kingdom be pacified again and the administration reorganized, a renewed attempt at centralization was abandoned, and the tribes were allowed to preserve their autonomy. Under Abderrahmane Morocco fell under the influence of the European powers, when Morocco supported the Algerian independence movement of Emir Abd al-Qadir, it was defeated by the French in 1844 at the Battle of Isly and made to abandon its support. During the reigns of Muhammad IV and Hassan I, the Alaouites tried to foster trading links, above all with European countries, the army and administration were also modernised to improve control over the Berber and Bedouin tribes. With the war against Spain came direct involvement in European affairs, although the independence of Morocco was guaranteed at the Conference of Madrid, the French gained ever greater influence. German attempts to counter growing influence led to the First Moroccan Crisis of 1905–1906. Eventually the Moroccans were forced to recognise the French Protectorate through the Treaty of Fez, at the same time the Rif area of northern Morocco was raised under Spanish control. Under the protectorate, infrastructure was invested in heavily in order to link the Atlantic coastal cities to the hinterland, the Protectorate regime faced opposition from the tribes. In 1930, the Berbers were placed under the jurisdiction of French courts, in 1944, the Istiqlāl was founded and was supported by Sultan Muhammad V. From 1631 to 1666 as princes of Tafilalt, proclaimed at Taza, on the death of his elder half-brother as Sultan of Tafilalt,2 August 1664. Proclaimed as Sultan of Morocco, etc. at Fez,1666, commander of the Faithful Royal Ark Morocco Alaoui dynasty
14.
Sunni Islam
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Sunni Islam is the largest group of Islam. Its name comes from the word Sunnah, referring to the behavior of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. According to Sunni tradition, Muhammad did not clearly designate a successor and this contrasts with the Shia view, which holds that Muhammad intended his son-in-law and cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib to succeed him. Political tensions between Sunnis and Shias continued with varying intensity throughout Islamic history and they have been exacerbated in recent times by ethnic conflicts, as of 2009, Sunni Muslims constituted between 87–90% of the worlds Muslim population. Sunni Islam is the worlds largest religious denomination, followed by Catholicism and its adherents are referred to in Arabic as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah or ahl as-sunnah for short. In English, its doctrines and practices are sometimes called Sunnism, while adherents are known as Sunni Muslims, Sunnis, Sunnites, Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as orthodox Islam. The Quran, together with hadith and binding juristic consensus form the basis of all traditional jurisprudence within Sunni Islam, sunnī, also commonly referred to as Sunnīism, is a term derived from sunnah meaning habit, usual practice, custom, tradition. The Muslim use of this term refers to the sayings and living habits of the prophet Muhammad, in Arabic, this branch of Islam is referred to as ahl as-sunnah wa l-jamāʻah, the people of the sunnah and the community, which is commonly shortened to ahl as-sunnah. One common mistake is to assume that Sunni Islam represents a normative Islam that emerged during the period after Muhammads death, and that Sufism and Shiism developed out of Sunni Islam. This perception is due to the reliance on highly ideological sources that have been accepted as reliable historical works. Both Sunnism and Shiaism are the end products of centuries of competition between ideologies. Both sects used each other to further cement their own identities and doctrines, the first four caliphs are known among Sunnis as the Rashidun or Rightly-Guided Ones. Sunni recognition includes the aforementioned Abu Bakr as the first, Umar who established the Islamic calendar as the second, Uthman as the third, Sunnis believe that the companions of Muhammad were the best of Muslims. Support for this view is found in the Quran, according to Sunnis. Sunnis also believe that the companions were true believers since it was the companions who were given the task of compiling the Quran, furthermore, narrations that were narrated by the companions are considered by Sunnis to be a second source of knowledge of the Muslim faith. A study conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2010 and released January 2011 found that there are 1.62 billion Muslims around the world, Islam does not have a formal hierarchy or clergy. Leaders are informal, and gain influence through study to become a scholar of Islamic law, according to the Islamic Center of Columbia, South Carolina, anyone with the intelligence and the will can become an Islamic scholar. During Midday Mosque services on Fridays, the congregation will choose a person to lead the service
15.
Bachelor's degree
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A bachelors degree or baccalaureate is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to seven years. In some institutions and educational systems, some bachelors degrees can only be taken as graduate or postgraduate degrees after a first degree has been completed. The term bachelor in the 12th century referred to a knight bachelor, by the end of the 13th century, it was also used by junior members of guilds or universities. By folk etymology or wordplay, the word came to be associated with bacca lauri in reference to laurels being awarded for academic success or honours. An honours degree generally requires an academic standard than a pass degree. In most African countries, the university systems follow the model of their former colonizing power, for example, the Nigerian university system is similar to the British system, while the Ivorian system is akin to the French. The degree is typically identical to the program of Frances universities, bachelors degree programs cover most of the fields in Algerian universities, except some fields, such as Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science. Bachelors degrees at the University of Botswana normally take four years, the system draws on both British and American models. Degrees are classified as First Class, Second Class Division One, Second Class Division Two and Third as in English degrees, but without being described as honours. The main degrees are named by British tradition, but in recent years there have been a numbers of degrees named after specific subjects, such as Bachelor of Library, in Morocco, a bachelors degree is referred to as al-ʾijāzah. The course of study takes three years, which are divided into two cycles. The first cycle comprises the first, or propaedeutic, year, after successfully completing their first two years, students can pursue either theoretical specialization or professional specialization. The second cycle is one long, after whose completion students receive the licence détudes fondamentales or the licence professionnelle. This academic degree system was introduced in September 2003, University admission is extremely competitive, with attendant advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, it takes four to five years to complete a bachelors degree, in cases of poor performance, the time limit is double the standard amount of time. For example, one may not study for more than 10 years for a five-year course, students are normally asked to leave if they must take longer. B. Arch. and other specialized undergraduate degrees, such as B. Eng, Science undergraduate degrees may require six months or a semester dedicated to SIWES but it is usually mandatory for all engineering degrees. A semester for project work/thesis is required, not excluding course work, the classifications of degrees, first-class, second-class, third-class and a pass
16.
Pan Arab Games
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The Arab Games also called the Pan Arab Games are a regional multi-sport event held between nations from the Arab world. They are organized by the Union of Arab National Olympic Committees, the first Games took place in 1953 in Alexandria, Egypt. Intended to be held four years since, political turmoil as well as financial difficulties have made the event an unstable one. Women were first allowed to compete in 1985, the Arab Games were the brainchild of Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam, the first General Secretary of the Arab League. In 1947, Azzam submitted a memorandum to the League, advocating a multi-sport tournament which involved the participation of all Arab countries. According to Azzam, sport serves as the best way to connect the youth of Arab countries, as a common favorite of young individuals, sports tournaments encourage them to reach out across boundaries, bond with fellow Arabs, and eliminate differences among them. In the same vein, Azzam announced that the youth of the larger Arab nation is eager to gather all the dispersed Arab sports in a tournament which will be held in one of the Arab cities. Eight Arab nations and Indonesia competed in the first Arab Games tournament, the 2011 Games started in Doha on December 9 with the Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani inaugurating the event at the Khalifa International Stadium. Initially Lebanon was set to host the 2015 XIII Pan Arab Games, following Beiruts withdrawal Morocco was then chosen to host the games, but faced financial complications and also withdrew. Mohamed Ouzzine, Moroccos Minister of Youth and Sports the Union of Arab National Olympic Committees telling them that they would be withdrawing, the same year, Egypt volunteered to host the event. Because of the current events in the Middle East there is no telling when the next Arab Games will take place or what country may host the games, * United Arab Republic with Egypt and Syria. ** United Arab Republic with Egypt only,36 sports were presented in the Pan Arab Games history. Below is the table of the Arab Games tournaments, up until the 12th tournament 2011. * The United Arab Republic contains 2 countries Egypt & Syria, ** Yemen including North Yemen and South Yemen. Egypt at the Pan Arab Games 2011 Pan Arab Games Bell, athletics medalists http, //www. egolympic. org. eg/olymusfram. html Arab Games 2011 official website Arab Games 2011 Exhibition and Timeline
17.
Officer (armed forces)
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An officer is a member of an armed force or uniformed service who holds a position of authority. In this sense, officers are not enlisted, but hold appointments from their government that typically remain in force indefinitely unless resigned, the proportion of officers varies greatly. Officers typically make up between an eighth and a fifth of modern armed forces personnel, in 2013, officers were the senior 17% of the British armed forces, and the senior 13. 7% of the French armed forces. In 2012, officers made up about 18% of the German armed forces, historically, however, armed forces have generally had much lower proportions of officers. During the First World War, fewer than 5% of British soldiers were officers, in the early twentieth century, the Spanish army had the highest proportion of officers of any European army, at 12. 5%. Within a nations armed forces, armies tend to have a proportion of officers. For example,13. 9% of British army personnel and 22. 2% of the RAF personnel were officers in 2013, having officers is one requirement for combatant status under the laws of war, though these officers need not have obtained an official commission or warrant. Commissioned officers are typically the only persons, in an armed forces environment, a superior officer is an officer with a higher rank than another officer, who is a subordinate officer relative to the superior. Non-commissioned officers in positions of authority can be said to have control or charge rather than command per se, many advanced militaries require university degrees as a prerequisite for commissioning, even from the enlisted ranks. In the Israel Defense Forces, a university degree is a requirement for an officer to advance to the rank of lieutenant colonel, the IDF often sponsors the studies for its majors, while aircrew and naval officers obtain academic degrees as a part of their training programmes. In the United Kingdom, there are three routes of entry for British Armed Forces officers, the first, and primary route are those who receive their commission directly into the officer grades following completion at their relevant military academy. The third route is similar to the second, in that they convert from an enlisted to a commission, but these are taken from the highest ranks of SNCOs. LE officers, whilst holding the same Queens Commission, generally work in different roles from the DE officers, in the infantry, a number of Warrant Officer Class 1s are commissioned as LE officers. For Royal Navy and Royal Air Force officer candidates, a 30-week period at Britannia Royal Naval College or a 30-week period at RAF College Cranwell, Royal Marines officers receive their training in the Command Wing of the Commando Training Centre Royal Marines during a grueling 15-month course. The courses consist of not only tactical and combat training, but also leadership, management, etiquette, until the Cardwell Reforms of 1871, commissions in the British Army were purchased by officers. The Royal Navy, however, operated on a more meritocratic, or at least socially mobile, AOCS also also included the embedded Aviation Reserve Officer Candidate and Naval Aviation Cadet programs. NAVCADs were personnel who held associates degrees, but lacked bachelors degrees, nAVCADs would complete the entire AOCS program, but would not be commissioned until completion of flight training and receiving their wings. After their initial tour, they would be assigned to a college or university full-time for no more than two years in order to complete their bachelors degree
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Royal Moroccan Army
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The Royal Moroccan Army is the branch of the Royal Moroccan Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. Army forces from Morocco have taken part in different wars and battles during the century, from World War I. The Moroccan army has existed continuously since the rising of Almoravid Empire in the 11th-century, during Colonisation and the protectorates period, large numbers of Moroccans were recruited for service in the Spahi and Tirailleur regiments of the French Army of Africa. Many served during World War I, during World War II more than 300,000 Moroccan troops served with the Free French forces in North Africa, Italy, France and Austria. The two world conflicts saw Moroccan units earning the nickname of Todesschwalben by German soldiers as they showed particular toughness on the battlefield. After the end of World War II, Moroccan troops formed part of the French Far East Expeditionary Corps engaged in the First Indochina War from 1946 to 1954. The Spanish Army also made use of Moroccan troops recruited in the Spanish Protectorate. Moroccan Regulares, together with the Spanish Legion, made up Spains elite Spanish Army of Africa, a para-military gendarmerie, known as the Mehal-la Jalifianas and modelled on the French goumieres, was employed within the Spanish Zone. The Royal Armed Forces were created on 14 May 1956, after French Morocco, fourteen thousand Moroccan personnel from the French Army and ten thousand from the Spanish Armed Forces transferred into the newly formed armed forces. This number was augmented by approximately 5,000 former guerrillas from the Army of Liberation, the first wars that Moroccan troops have taken part in the 20th century as an independent country were the Ifni War and Sand War. In the early 1960s, Moroccan troops were sent to the Congo as part of the first multifunctional UN peacekeeping operation, ONUC. The Royal Moroccan Army fought during the Six-Day War and on the Golan front during the Yom Kippur War of 1973, after Shaba II, Morocco was part of the Inter-African Force deployed on the Zaire border, contributing about 1,500 troops. The Armed Forces also took part in the Gulf War with a Mechanized Battalion, in the 1990s, Moroccan troops went to Angola with the three UN Angola Versification Missions, UNAVEM I, UNAVEM II, and UNAVEM III. They were also in Somalia, with UNOSOM I, the U. S. -led Unified Task Force, sometimes known by its U. S. codename of Restore Hope, and the follow-on UNOSOM II. They saw fighting during the 3–4 October 1993 confrontation in Mogadishu to rescue a U. S. anti-militia assault force. Other peace support involvement during the 1990s included United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia in Cambodia, and the missions in the former Yugoslavia, IFOR, SFOR, the Army of Liberation was a force fighting for the independence of Morocco. In 1956, units of the Army began infiltrating Ifni and other enclaves of Spanish Morocco, initially, they received important backing from the Moroccan government. In the Spanish Sahara, the Army rallied Sahrawi tribes along the way, in early 1958, the Moroccan king reorganized the Army of Liberation units fighting in the Spanish Sahara as the Saharan Liberation Army
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Master of Advanced Studies
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A master of advanced studies or master of advanced study is a postgraduate degree awarded in various countries. With the exception of the UK, advanced studies programs tend to be interdisciplinary, the University of Cambridge began offering the master of advanced study in 2010 as a one-year masters degree in Mathematics as a replacement for the Part III exam in Mathematics. Cambridge currently offers master of advanced degrees in four fields of study. The University of Warwick has approved the introduction of a master of advanced degree in Mathematics for the 2013/2014 year. The Diplôme détudes approfondies or DEA was a degree in France from 1964 to 2005 and it was a postgraduate degree, aimed to prepare for advanced doctoral studies. In addition to the research, thesis, and its defense, higher-ranking institutions often required one-year of classroom study, an internship, an exam. Although only credited with one-year, it took these students two to three years to receive the diploma. Entrance in DEA programs was permitted only to holders of the maîtrise universitaire, the Bologna Process was implemented in France in 2002. In 2005, the DEA and the maîtrise were fused into a degree called Master. At first, the first year of the Master was in fact a one-year stand-alone research program and this was gradually overturned by more Bologna-compliant programs, where the M1 introduces to research methods and M2 culminates in actual research. One can say that the old DEA idea is now extinct in France and it generally consisted of a number of courses, with examinations and grades, followed by research in a scientific laboratory. The students would write a substantial thesis about the scientific work they did. The master of advanced studies remains a common post-graduate degree in Switzerland, in Europe, the DEA degrees are progressively subsumed into the Bologna process masters degrees and research-oriented master of advanced studies degrees. The degree of master of advanced studies is awarded in Switzerland, Austria, in Switzerland, the degree is recognized by federal law. Generally, a university degree is required for admission, but also work experience, a MAS requires 60-120 ECTS. and usually consists of course work, independent study and a masters thesis. This degree also exists in Spain under the name Diploma de Estudios Avanzados or DEA and it confers a higher qualification credential than a master of philosophy or master of studies but lower than doctorate. The so-called DEA was achieved in two years, one year of coursework, which included research methods and theoretical approaches of the discipline at stake, all the work of the first and second years was defended before a panel. The DEA was a prerequisite for the preparation of the PhD proposal and the commencement of PhD research in Spain
20.
Brussels
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Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels which is the capital of Belgium. The Brussels-Capital Region is a part of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community, but is separate from the region of Flanders or Wallonia. The region has a population of 1.2 million and an area with a population of over 1.8 million. Brussels is the de facto capital of the European Union as it hosts a number of principal EU institutions, the secretariat of the Benelux and the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization are also located in Brussels. Today, it is considered an Alpha global city, historically a Dutch-speaking city, Brussels has seen a language shift to French from the late 19th century onwards. Today, the majority language is French, and the Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. All road signs, street names, and many advertisements and services are shown in both languages, Brussels is increasingly becoming multilingual with increasing numbers of migrants, expatriates and minority groups speaking their own languages. The most common theory of the origin of Brussels name is that it derives from the Old Dutch Broekzele or Broeksel, meaning marsh, Saint Vindicianus, the bishop of Cambrai made the first recorded reference to the place Brosella in 695 when it was still a hamlet. The origin of the settlement that was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580. The official founding of Brussels is usually situated around 979, when Duke Charles of Lower Lotharingia transferred the relics of Saint Gudula from Moorsel to the Saint Gaugericus chapel, Charles would construct the first permanent fortification in the city, doing so on that same island. Lambert I of Leuven, Count of Leuven gained the County of Brussels around 1000 by marrying Charles daughter, as it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. The Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant at about this time, in the 13th century, the city got its first walls. After the construction of the city walls in the early 13th century, to let the city expand, a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Today, traces of it can still be seen, mostly because the small ring, Brabant had lost its independence, but Brussels became the Princely Capital of the prosperous Low Countries, and flourished. In 1516 Charles V, who had been heir of the Low Countries since 1506, was declared King of Spain in St. Michael and St. Gudula Cathedral in Brussels. Upon the death of his grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1519 and it was in the Palace complex at Coudenberg that Charles V abdicated in 1555. This impressive palace, famous all over Europe, had expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant. In 1695, during the Nine Years War, King Louis XIV of France sent troops to bombard Brussels with artillery, together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels
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Jacques Delors
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Jacques Lucien Jean Delors is a French economist and politician, previously the eighth President of the European Commission and the first person to serve three terms in that office. He is the father of Martine Aubry, the former first secretary of the Socialist Party of France. Born in Paris in a family originating from Corrèze, Delors first held in the 1940s through the 1960s a series of posts in French banking and state planning with the Banque de France. As a member of the French Confederation of Christian Workers, he participated in its secularization, in 1974 Delors joined the French Socialist Party, with other left-wing Christians. He was one of the members of the party to be openly religious, thus challenging its long-standing secular tradition of Laïcité. He served in the European Parliament from 1979 to 1981, becoming chairman of its Committee on Economic, under President François Mitterrand, Delors served as Economics and Finance Minister from 1981 to 1983, and Economics, Finance, and Budget Minister from 1983 to 1984. He advocated a pause in the policies, a clear acceptance of the market economy. Critically, he held the line on Frances membership of the European Monetary System, Mitterrand flirted with the idea of naming him Prime Minister, but never made the appointment. Delors became the President of the European Commission in January 1985, during his presidency, he oversaw important budgetary reforms and laid the groundwork for the introduction of a single market within the European Community, which came into effect on 1 January 1993. In the autumn of 1988 Delors addressed the British Trade Union Congress, after 1988 it was to be the Conservatives who were divided, with Thatcher and her supporters opposed to further European integration. The article called Delors the Froggie Common Market chief, Delors has a longstanding interest in education. In 1994, members of the French Socialist Party attempted to persuade Delors to run for President of France, polls showed that he would have a very good chance of defeating either of the main conservative contenders – Prime Minister Édouard Balladur and Mayor of Paris Jacques Chirac. However Delors declined to run and the eventual Socialist nominee, Lionel Jospin, was defeated in the 1995 presidential election by Chirac. In 1995 he won the Charles V Prize, awarded by the Fundación Academia Europea de Yuste Delors founded the Paris-based, centre-left think tank Notre Europe in 1996 and remains one of its presidents. He is president of the Conseil de lemploi, des revenus et de la cohésion sociale, on 15 September 2010 Delors supported the new initiative Spinelli Group, which was founded to reinvigorate the strive for federalisation of the European Union. Other prominent supporters include Daniel Cohn-Bendit, Guy Verhofstadt, Sylvie Goulard, Andrew Duff, in 2010, Delors was the first to be honored with the Leonardo European Corporate Learning Award. In 1990 he received the Freedom medal, Delors is the father of Socialist politician Martine Aubry. In 2012, Delors stated in the Handelsblatt newspaper that If the British cannot support the trend towards integration in Europe, we can nevertheless remain friends
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European Commission
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Commissioners swear an oath at the European Court of Justice in Luxembourg, pledging to respect the treaties and to be completely independent in carrying out their duties during their mandate. The Commission operates as a government, with 28 members of the Commission. There is one member per state, but members are bound by their oath of office to represent the general interest of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the Commission President proposed by the European Council, the current Commission is the Juncker Commission, which took office in late 2014. The procedural languages of the Commission are English, French and German, the Members of the Commission and their cabinets are based in the Berlaymont building in Brussels. The first Commission originated in 1951 as the nine-member High Authority under President Jean Monnet, the High Authority was the supranational administrative executive of the new European Coal and Steel Community. It took office first on 10 August 1952 in Luxembourg, in 1958 the Treaties of Rome had established two new communities alongside the ECSC, the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. However their executives were called Commissions rather than High Authorities, the reason for the change in name was the new relationship between the executives and the Council. Some states such as France expressed reservations over the power of the High Authority, louis Armand led the first Commission of Euratom. Walter Hallstein led the first Commission of the EEC, holding the first formal meeting on 16 January 1958 at the Château of Val-Duchesse, Hallstein notably began the consolidation of European law and started to have a notable impact on national legislation. The three bodies, collectively named the European Executives, co-existed until 1 July 1967 when, under the Merger Treaty, the Rey Commission completed the Communitys customs union in 1968 and campaigned for a more powerful, elected, European Parliament. Despite Rey being the first President of the communities, Hallstein is seen as the first President of the modern Commission. The Malfatti and Mansholt Commissions followed with work on monetary co-operation, with that enlargement the Commissions membership increased to thirteen under the Ortoli Commission, which dealt with the enlarged community during economic and international instability at that time. Following the Jenkins Commission, Gaston Thorns Commission oversaw the Communitys enlargement to the south, the Commission headed by Jacques Delors was seen as giving the Community a sense of direction and dynamism. Delors and his team are considered as the founding fathers of the euro. The International Herald Tribune noted the work of Delors at the end of his term in 1992. He arrived when Europessimism was at its worst, although he was a little-known former French finance minister, he breathed life and hope into the EC and into the dispirited Brussels Commission. The successor to Delors was Jacques Santer, the entire Santer Commission was forced to resign in 1999 by the Parliament as result of a fraud and corruption scandal, with a central role played by Édith Cresson
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Doctor of Philosophy
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A Doctor of Philosophy is a type of doctoral degree awarded by universities in many countries. Ph. D. s are awarded for a range of programs in the sciences, engineering. The Ph. D. is a degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph. D. is often a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of Doctor with their name and use the post-nominal letters Ph. D. The requirements to earn a Ph. D. degree vary considerably according to the country, institution, a person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. A student attaining this level may be granted a Candidate of Philosophy degree at some institutions. A Ph. D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of academic research. In many countries, a candidate must defend this work before a panel of examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph. D. such as the Doctor of Musical Arts, a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education, in 2016, ELIA launched The Florence Principles on the Doctorate in the Arts. The Florence Principles have been endorsed are supported also by AEC, CILECT, CUMULUS, the degree is abbreviated PhD, from the Latin Philosophiae Doctor, pronounced as three separate letters. In the universities of Medieval Europe, study was organized in four faculties, the faculty of arts. All of these faculties awarded intermediate degrees and final degrees, the doctorates in the higher faculties were quite different from the current Ph. D. degree in that they were awarded for advanced scholarship, not original research. No dissertation or original work was required, only lengthy residency requirements, besides these degrees, there was the licentiate. According to Keith Allan Noble, the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150, the doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany as the terminal Teachers credential in the 17th century. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, starting in 2016, in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy is the highest education level and the first science degree. PhD is awarded in recognition of a contribution to scientific knowledge. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine, upon completion of a PhD, a PhD holder can elect to continue his studies and get a post-doctoral degree called Doctor of Sciences, which is the second and the highest science degree in Ukraine. Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a known as a doctorate of philosophy
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University of Nice Sophia Antipolis
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The Nice Sophia Antipolis University is a university located in Nice, France and neighboring areas. It was founded in 1965 and is organized in eight faculties and it also hosts the first WWW Interactive Multipurpose Server. At the heart of the Mediterranean Basin, the Université Nice Sophia Antipolis has developed a vivid cosmopolitan spirit, the University of Nice was officially established by decree dated October 23,1965. However, its roots go back to the 17th century. It was composed of an important body of jurisconsuls and its fame lasted until Nice was incorporated into France in 1860, in the 17th century, courses, renowned throughout Europe, were taught at its College of Medicine. Following that, the Institut dEtudes Juridiques was established In 1938, the Institut dEtudes Littéraires in 1941, la Faculté de Droit et des Sciences Economiques was created by decree on August 2,1962 and was connected to the Université dAix-Marseille. The university has four campuses, the Valrose campus, the Trotabas campus, the Saint-Jean dAngély campus. However, the university operates on several secondary locations like Sophia Antipolis or Villefranche-sur-Mer outside Nice, alphabetically by surname, Cawo Mohamed Abdi – Somali professor and writer Robert B. unice. fr University International of Nice Website
25.
EEC
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The European Economic Community was a regional organisation which aimed to bring about economic integration among its member states. It was created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957, upon the formation of the European Union in 1993, the EEC was incorporated and renamed as the European Community. In 2009 the ECs institutions were absorbed into the EUs wider framework and it gained a common set of institutions along with the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Atomic Energy Community as one of the European Communities under the 1965 Merger Treaty. In 1993, a single market was achieved, known as the internal market, which allowed for the free movement of goods, capital, services. In 1994, the market was formalised by the EEA agreement. This agreement also extended the market to include most of the member states of the European Free Trade Association. Upon the entry into force of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 and this was also when the three European Communities, including the EC, were collectively made to constitute the first of the three pillars of the European Union, which the treaty also founded. The EEC was also known as the Common Market in the English-speaking countries and sometimes referred to as the European Community even before it was renamed as such in 1993. In 1951, the Treaty of Paris was signed, creating the European Coal and this was an international community based on supranationalism and international law, designed to help the economy of Europe and prevent future war by integrating its members. In the aim of creating a federal Europe two further communities were proposed, a European Defence Community and a European Political Community. While the treaty for the latter was being drawn up by the Common Assembly, the ECSC parliamentary chamber, after the Messina Conference in 1955, Paul Henri Spaak was given the task to prepare a report on the idea of a customs union. The so-called Spaak Report of the Spaak Committee formed the cornerstone of the negotiations at Val Duchesse castle in 1956. Together with the Ohlin Report the Spaak Report would provide the basis for the Treaty of Rome, in 1956, Paul Henri Spaak led the Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom at the Val Duchesse castle, which prepared for the Treaty of Rome in 1957. The conference led to the signature, on 25 March 1957, the resulting communities were the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. These were markedly less supranational than the communities, due to protests from some countries that their sovereignty was being infringed. The first formal meeting of the Hallstein Commission, was held on 16 January 1958 at the Chateau de Val-Duchesse, the EEC was to create a customs union while Euratom would promote co-operation in the nuclear power sphere. The EEC rapidly became the most important of these and expanded its activities, one of the first important accomplishments of the EEC was the establishment of common price levels for agricultural products. In 1968, internal tariffs were removed on certain products, another crisis was triggered in regard to proposals for the financing of the Common Agricultural Policy, which came into force in 1962
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Maghreb
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The Maghreb, or the Greater Maghreb, is usually defined as much or most of the region of western North Africa or Northwest Africa, west of Egypt. Historical terms for the region or various portions of the Maghreb include Mauretania, Numidia, Libya, the term maghrib is Arabic for west, from the verb gharaba. In the strict sense, the definite form al-maghrib denotes the country of Morocco in particular and it identified the westernmost territories that fell to the Islamic conquests of the 7th century. Today, it is a noun for the present region of the Maghreb. The Berber languages alternative term for the region, Tamazgha, has been popularized by Berber activists since the second half of the 20th century. As recently as the late 19th century it was used to refer to the Western Mediterranean region of coastal North Africa in general, and to Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia in particular. The region was unified as an independent political entity during the rule of the Berber kingdom of Numidia. The most enduring rule was that of the local Berber empires of the Almoravids, Almohads, Hammadids, Zirids, Marinids, Saadi, the Ottoman Turks ruled the region as well. Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, and Libya established the Maghreb Union in 1989 to promote cooperation and it was envisioned initially by Muammar Gaddafi as a superstate. The union included Western Sahara implicitly under Moroccos membership, putting Moroccos long cold war with Algeria to a rest, however, this progress was short-lived, and the union is now frozen. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco over Western Sahara re-emerged strongly, reinforced by the unsolved borderline issue between the two countries and these two main conflicts have hindered progress on the unions joint goals and practically made it inactive as a whole. Around 3,500 BC a tilt in the Earths orbit created a rapid desertification of the Sahara, the Maghreb or western North Africa is believed to have been inhabited by Berbers since from at least 10,000 BC. Maghreb coast ports were predominantly occupied or constructed by the Phoenicians, the main Phoenician settlements centered in the Gulf of Tunis along the North African littoral between the Pillars of Hercules and the Libyan coast east of ancient Cyrenaica. They dominated the trade and intercourse of the Western Mediterranean for centuries, Rome was greatly helped by the defection of King Massinissa and Carthaginians eastern Numidian Massylii client-allies. A century later, the Byzantine emperor Justinian I sent a force under General Belisarius that succeeded in destroying the Vandal kingdom, the Berbers contested outside-the-area control although after the 640s-700 AD period the Arabs controlled the entire region. The Arabs reached the Maghreb in early Umayyad times, Arab expansion and the spread of Islam pushed the development of trans-Saharan trade. While restricted due to the cost and dangers, the trade was highly profitable, commodities traded included such goods as salt, gold, ivory, and slaves. Arab control over the Maghreb was quite weak, various Islamic variations, such as the Ibadis and the Shia, were adopted by some Berbers, often leading to scorning of Caliphal control in favour of their own interpretation of Islam
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Major general
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Major general is a military rank used in many countries. It is derived from the rank of sergeant major general. In the Commonwealth, major general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral. In some countries, including much of Eastern Europe, major general is the lowest of the officer ranks. In the old Austro-Hungarian Army, the general was called a Generalmajor. Todays Austrian Federal Army still uses the same term, see also Rank insignias of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces General de Brigade is the lowest rank amongst general officers in the Brazilian Army. AGeneral de Brigada wears two-stars as this is the level for general officers in the Brazilian Army. In tha Brazilian Air Force, the two-star, three-star and four-star rank are known as Brigadeiro, Major-Brigadeiro, see Military ranks of Brazil and Brigadier for more information. In the Canadian Armed Forces, the rank of major-general is both a Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force rank equivalent to the Royal Canadian Navys rank of rear-admiral, a major-general is a general officer, the equivalent of a naval flag officer. The major-general rank is senior to the ranks of brigadier-general and commodore, prior to 1968, the Air Force used the rank of air vice-marshal, instead. In the Canadian Army, the insignia is a wide braid on the cuff. It is worn on the straps of the service dress tunic. On the visor of the cap are two rows of gold oak leaves. Major-generals are initially addressed as general and name, as are all general officers, major-generals are normally entitled to staff cars. In the Estonian military, the general rank is called kindralmajor. The Finnish military equivalent is kenraalimajuri in Finnish, and generalmajor in Swedish and Danish, the French equivalent to the rank of major general is général de division. In the French military, major général is not a rank but an appointment conferred on some generals, usually of général de corps darmée rank, the position of major général can be considered the equivalent of a deputy chief of staff. In the French Army, Major General is a position and the general is normally of the rank of corps general
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Commander-in-chief
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A commander-in-chief is the person or body that exercises supreme operational command and control of a nations military forces or significant elements of those forces. In the latter case, the element is those forces within a particular region. Often, a given countrys commander-in-chief need not be or have been an officer or even a veteran. This follows the principle of civilian control of the military, the role of commander-in-chief derives from the Latin, imperator. Imperatores of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire possessed imperium powers, in its modern use, the term first applied to King Charles I of England in 1639. It continued to be used during the English Civil War, a nations head of state usually holds the nominal position of commander-in-chief, even if effective executive power is held by a separate head of government. Governors-general and colonial governors are also often appointed commander-in-chief of the forces within their territory. A commander-in-chief is sometimes referred to as commander, which is sometimes used as a specific term. The term is used for military officers who hold such power and authority, not always through dictatorship. The term is used for officers who hold authority over an individual military branch. According to the Constitution of Albania, The President of the Republic of Albania is the Commander-in-chief of Albanian Armed Forces, the incumbent Commander-in-chief is President Bujar Nishani. The Ministry of Defense is the government department that assists and serves the President in the management of the armed forces, the Minister for Defence and several subordinate ministers exercise this control through the Australian Defence Organisation. The Constitution states, in Article 80, that the President is the Commander-in-Chief of the Federal Armed Forces. e, the cabinet under the chairmanship of the Federal Chancellor, as defined in Article 69. The commander-in-chief is the president, although executive power and responsibility for national defense resides with the prime minister and he retired on 7 April 1972 and relinquished all authority and duties to the President of Bangladesh. Article 142 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1988 states that the Brazilian Armed Forces is under the command of the President of the Republic. The Sultan of Brunei is the Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Brunei Armed Forces, the powers of command-in-chief over the Canadian Armed Forces are vested in the Canadian monarch, and are delegated to the Governor General of Canada, who also uses the title Commander-in-Chief. In this capacity, the general is entitled to the uniform of a general/flag officer, with the crest of the office. According to the National Defence Act, the Minister of National Defence is responsible and accountable to parliament for all related to national defence
29.
Princess Lalla Meryem of Morocco
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Princess Lalla Meryem of Morocco is the first daughter and eldest child of the late King Hassan II of Morocco and his second wife, Lalla Latifa Hammou. After she obtained her Baccalaureat in 1981, Princess Lalla Meryem was appointed by her father as the President of Social Works of the Royal Army Forces, on 15 September 1984, she married Fuad Filali, the son of former Prime Minister and Foreign Affairs Minister Abdellatif Filali. They had two children, a daughter and a son, Sharifa Lalla Soukaïna Filali, on 11 October 2013 married Mohammed El Mehdi Regragui. On 27 September 2015, she gave birth to twins, Lalla Meryem divorced from Fuad Filali in 1999. Princess Meryem has two brothers King Mohammed VI and Prince Moulay Rachid, and two sisters Lalla Asma and Lalla Hasna, holder of numerous prestigious official functions, Princess Meryem has focused much of her activities on the social and cultural realm. In July 2001, she was nominated UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador with focus her Ambassadorship on UNESCO projects for women and children, also Member of the Honorary Committee of the International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children. Since 2003 she is President of the National Union of Moroccan Women, using her Royal status, she continues her work on behalf of women and children and advocate their rights on an international level. Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of the Throne, dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order. Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry, dame Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Isabella the Catholic. Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of Merit
30.
Princess Lalla Asma of Morocco
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Princess Lalla Asma of Morocco is the second daughter and third eldest child of Hassan II of Morocco and his second wife, Lalla Latifa Hammou. She was educated at the Royal College and she married Khalid Bouchentouf on 5 November 1986. He is a son of Hajj Belyout Bouchentouf, of Casablanca and they have two children, a son and a daughter, Moulay Yazid Bouchentouf. She is Honorary President in Morocco of, SPANA, Lalla Asma Foundation for Deaf Children. Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of the Throne, dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order. Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II, dame Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Isabella the Catholic. Lalla Asma by Fernando Orgamides, El País, retrieved 6 November 2010
31.
Princess Lalla Hasna of Morocco
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Princess Lalla Hasna of Morocco is the youngest daughter of King Hassan II and his second wife, Lalla Latifa Hammou. She is sister to the current king, Mohammed VI and Prince Moulay Rachid and she was educated at the Royal College. Since her childhood, Princess Hasna has been interested in social and cultural activities, in 1999 she launched the national campaign for the protection of the environment and gave the prize for the most beautiful and cleanest beach in Morocco. To shore up her work, the Mohammed VI Foundation for the protection of the environment was created in 2001 and she presides over the governing board of the foundation and regularly pays on the terrain visits to sensitize the population about environmental issues. In 2002, Princess Lalla Hasna set up the prize of young reporters for the environment and she is Honorary President of the Hassanate Association for Human Development. Princess Lalla Hasna and Dr. Khalil Benharbit, a cardiologist, married in Rabat on 13 December 1991 and she is Honorary President in Morocco of, National League of Female Civil and Semi-Civil Servants. Moroccan Association for the Aid of Sick Children and she is President in Morocco of, Muhammad VI Foundation for Environmental Protection. Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the Throne, knight Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Isabella the Catholic. Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II, Grand Cross of the Order of the Aztec Eagle
32.
Prince Moulay Rachid of Morocco
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He holds a doctorate in international politics and serves Morocco as a diplomat. He is currently second in the line of succession to the Moroccan throne, after primary and secondary studies at the Royal College in Rabat and obtaining the Baccalauréat in June 1989, he entered Mohammed V University in Rabat to start his higher studies in Law. In May 1993, Prince Moulay Rachid obtained his Bachelor of Law majoring in economic, the same year the Prince received his License to Practice Law – Public Law with the mention “very good”. On 29 June 1995, the Prince completed his studies and received a Master of Law in Political Science. The Bosnia question was the subject of his research and the thesis that the Prince presented and supported publicly, in order to complete his training for his postgraduate education, in November 1993, the Prince started an internship with the United Nations in New York. On 21 June 1996, the Prince successfully completed the written and oral tests for his education and received a postgraduate Degree in International Relations. In addition to his native language Arabic, the Prince speaks English, French, in July 1994, Prince Moulay Rachid was promoted to the rank of Colonel in the Royal Moroccan Navy. In July 2000, Prince Moulay Rachid was promoted to the rank of brigadier general, since April 1997, Prince Moulay Rachid has been president of the National Federation of Moroccan Scouting. Prince Moulay Rachid an amateur of golf and has represented Morocco professionally, in 2000, he founded the Hassan II Golf Trophy Association, which is hosting the Hassan II Golf Trophy. In 2001 Prince Moulay Rachid initiated the Marrakech International Film Festival Foundation and he is the president of the Royal Moroccan Federation for Hunting Shotgun Shooting. Prince Moulay Rachid has one brother, King Mohammed VI. In 1999, after the death of his father and the enthronement of his brother King Mohammed VI, the prince became crown prince, but in 2002, the Prince is now a second in line to the throne. In 1999, a few analysts like Nicolas Beau and Catherine Graciet argued that Prince Moulay Rachid might be better suited for the job of the king than his brother Mohammed VI and they expressed their concern that Mohammed VI might not have adequate expertise to deal with the Islamists. On 5 February 2008, Fouad Mourtada was arrested on suspicion of stealing the identity of Prince Moulay Rachid by creating a profile on Facebook as a joke. Although Prince Moulay Rachid did not seek to press charges, on 23 February, after local protests and international criticism, Fouad Mourtada was granted a royal pardon on 19 March 2008 just days before an appeal hearing. On 15 June 2014, he married Oum Kalthum Boufarès and she is daughter of Moulay El Mamoun Boufarès, former Minister of Interior, and maternal granddaughter of Lalla Khadija. On 23 June 2016 their first child, a son, Moulay Ahmed was born, Prince Moulay Ahmed Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the Throne Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order. Knight Grand Collar of the Order of Civil Merit, Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
33.
Prince Moulay Hicham of Morocco
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Prince Moulay Hicham of Morocco is the first cousin of the current King Mohammed VI and Prince Moulay Rachid. He is the son of Prince Moulay Abdallah of Morocco, the brother of former King Hassan II, and Princess Lalla Lamia Solh, daughter of Riad Al Solh. He is also the cousin of Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal of Saudi Arabia, under the Moroccan constitution, Moulay Hicham stands fourth in the line of succession to the Alaouite throne. In his youth, Prince Moulay Hicham garnered the nickname Red Prince because of his political positions. More recently, he has become an advocate for greater democracy in Morocco. He regularly speaks on issues at public forums around the world, among them la Universidad de Málaga, HEC-Paris, the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He has also published essays on political reform and democracy in English, French. He is currently a professor at the Center for Democracy, Development. Founder and President of the Moulay Hicham Foundation, a private foundation that has supported social science research on the Arab world at leading universities. Co-founder, along with John Waterbury and Abdellah Hammoudi, of the Institute for the Transregional Study of the Contemporary Middle East, North Africa, managing director of Al-Tayyar, a renewable energy firm, based in Abu Dhabi. Member of the Advisory Board of Human Rights Watch for the Middle East, producer of the 2012 award-winning documentary on democratization and dictatorship, A Whisper to a Roar, in collaboration with director Ben Moses. As a member of the Moroccan royal family, Prince Moulay Hicham was raised in the quarter of Rabat alongside his brother and cousins. He attended the Rabat American School and graduated from Princeton University in 1985 and he later attended Stanford University for graduate study in political science. In 2002, Prince Moulay Hicham relocated to Princeton, New Jersey with his family and he is married since 1995 to Malika Benabdelali, a cousin of the Moroccan businessman and current minister of Agriculture Aziz Akhannouch. He has two daughters, Sharifa Lalla Faizah Alaoui who currently attends Yale University, and Sharifa Lalla Haajar Alaoui, many of these events are outlined in his memoirs, Journal dun Prince Banni, published in April 2014 to considerable controversy. Moulay Hicham Selected Writings Moulay Hicham Foundation for Social Research on North Africa and the Middle East
34.
Prince Moulay Ismail of Morocco
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Prince Moulay Ismail of Morocco is the son of Prince Moulay Abdallah and Lalla Lamia Solh. His mother is daughter of Riad Al Solh, the first Prime minister of Lebanon, the Prince has one older brother, Prince Moulay Hicham. On 25 September 2009, he married Anissa Lehmkuhl, the daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel Omar Lehmkuhl and his wife and they had issue, one son and two daughters, Sharif Moulay Abdallah, Sharifa Lalla Aisha, Sharifa Lalla Hala. Prince Ismail owns Theora holding, which has a 35% stake in the now-defunct KIA Maroc, honorary President of the Hand in Hand Association
35.
Princess Lalla Malika of Morocco
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Princess Lalla Malika is a sister of the late King Hassan II of Morocco, and daughter of King Mohammed V of Morocco and his second wife, Lalla Abla bint Tahar. She has been the chairwoman of the Moroccan Red Crescent since 1967 and they had the following children, Sharif Moulay Sulaiman Cherkaoui. Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of the Throne
36.
Princess Lalla Joumala Alaoui
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Sharifa Lalla Joumala Alaoui is a Moroccan diplomat and the former Ambassador of Morocco to the United Kingdom. Sharifa Lalla Joumala Alaoui was educated at the Mission laïque française of Rabat then at the Oriental Institute, Oxford, back to Morocco, she settled in Casablanca where she became active in some of the citys NGOs. For a brief period in 1999-2000, she was diplomatic Attaché at the Moroccan Embassy to United Nations and she is married to Iranian businessman Muhammad Reza Nouri Esfandiari and mother of two children. Princess Lalla Aicha of Morocco, also Ambassador to the United Kingdom in the 1960s, Embassy of Morocco to The Court of Saint James’s
37.
Moulay Abdallah ben Ali Alaoui
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Sharif Moulay Abdallah Alaoui is a Moroccan businessman and advisor of king Mohammed VI, of whom he is the maternal first cousin and the paternal second cousin and a close friend. Sharif Moulay Abdallah Alaoui is the son of Prince Moulay Ali and his wife Princess Lalla Fatima Zohra and he is a full-brother of Sharifa Lalla Joumala Alaoui and Sharif Moulay Youssef Alaoui. He is a graduate of the University of Texas, in his 2014 book, Prince Moulay Hicham stated that Moulay Abdallah Alaoui was sent to him by Mohammed VI in 1999 in order to ask him not come to the palace again. He is the CEO of Mediholding, a company which rose to prominence in 1999 with the false discovery of oil in Talsint. He participated in a joint-venture with John Paul DeJoria in Lonestar Energy, Sharif Moulay Abdallah Alaoui is an advisor to Mohammed VI and is often seen alongside him in official and unofficial activities. He is the president of the Moroccan royal equestrian federation, having replaced Princess Lalla Amina upon her death in 2012, knight Grand Cross of the Order of Civil Merit
38.
President of the United States
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The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
39.
George W. Bush
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George Walker Bush is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009. He was also the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 and he is the eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush. After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, Bush married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election and he is the second president to assume the nations highest office after his father, following the lead of John Quincy Adams. He is also a brother of Jeb Bush, a former Governor of Florida who was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election, the September 11 terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bushs first term as president. Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine, launching a War on Terror, a military campaign that included the war in Afghanistan in 2001. He also promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, Social Security reform and his tenure included national debates on immigration, Social Security, electronic surveillance, and torture. In the 2004 Presidential race, Bush defeated Democratic Senator John Kerry in another close election. After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War, Hurricane Katrina. Amid this criticism, the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections, Bush left office in 2009, returning to Texas where he purchased a home in Crawford. He wrote a memoir, Decision Points and his presidential library was opened in 2013. His presidency has been ranked among the worst in historians polls published in the late 2000s and 2010s. George Walker Bush was born on July 6,1946, at Grace-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut, as the first child of George Herbert Walker Bush and his wife, the former Barbara Pierce. He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin, another younger sister, Robin, died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953. His grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U. S and his father, George H. W. Bush, was Ronald Reagans Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and the 41st U. S. President from 1989 to 1993. Bush has English and some German ancestry, along with more distant Dutch, Welsh, Irish, French, Bush attended public schools in Midland, Texas, until the family moved to Houston after he had completed seventh grade. He then spent two years at The Kinkaid School, a school in Houston. Bush attended high school at Phillips Academy, a school in Andover, Massachusetts
40.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
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Grand Master of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite, (23 July 1999)
Grand Master of the Order of Fidelity, (23 July 1999)
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Grand Officer of the Order of the Equatorial Star of Gabon (7 July 1977)[citation needed]
Collar of the Order of Civil Merit of Spain (2 June 1979)[44]
Honorary Knight of the Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (27 October 1980)[citation needed]
Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III of Spain (23 June 1986)[45]
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Republic of Tunisia (August 1987)[46]
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic of Italy (18 March 1997)[47]
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour of France (19 March 2000)[citation needed]
Collar of the Order of al-Hussein bin Ali of Jordan (1 March 2000)[46]
Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic of Italy (11 April 2000)[48]
Grand Cordon of the Order of National Merit of Mauritania (26 April 2000)[46]
Grand Collar of the Order of the Seventh of November of Tunisia (31 May 2014, previously Grand Cross on 24 May 2000)[citation needed]
Grand Cordon of the National Order of Mali of Mali with Collar (14 June 2000)[46]
Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic of Spain (16 September 2000)[49]
Wissam of the Order of Oumayid of Syria (9 April 2001)[46]
Wissam of the Order of Merit of Lebanon Special Class (13 June 2001)[46]
Grand Collar of the Order of al-Khalifa of Bahrain (28 July 2001)[46]
Collar of the Order of Mubarak the Great of Kuwait (22 October 2002)[46]
Cordon of the Order of the Independence of Qatar (25 October 2002)[46]
Grand Cordon of the Order of the Nile of Egypt (28 October 2002)[46]
Grand Cross of the Order of Pakistan First Class (Nishan-e-Pakistan) of Pakistan (19 July 2003)[citation needed]
Grand Cross of the Order of Valour of Cameroon (17 June 2004)[46]
Grand Cross of the Order of the Equatorial Star of Gabon (21 June 2004)[46]
Grand Cross of the National Order of the Niger of the Niger (24 June 2004)[46]
Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold of Belgium (5 October 2004)[citation needed]
Collar of the Order of the Southern Cross of Brazil (26 November 2004)[46]
Medal of Honour of the Congress of Peru (1 December 2004)[46]
Collar of the Order of Bernardo O'Higgins of Chile (3 December 2004)[46]
Grand Collar of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin of Argentina (7 December 2004)[citation needed]
Collar of the Order of Charles III of Spain (14 January 2005)[50]
Grand Collar of the Order of the Aztec Eagle of Mexico (11 February 2005)[46]
Grand Cross of the Order of Burkinabé of Burkina Faso (1 March 2005)[46]
Supreme Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum of Japan (28 November 2005)[46]
Grand Commander of the Order of the Republic of the Gambia (20 February 2006)[46]
Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Congo of the Republic of Congo (22 February 2006)[46]
Grand Cross of the Order of the National Hero of the Democratic Republic of the Congo of Congo-Kinshasa (28 February 2006)[46]
Commander Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of the Three Stars of Latvia (14 May 2007)[46]
Collar of the Order of Abdulaziz Al Saud of Saudi Arabia (18 May 2007)[46]
Grand Collar of the Order of Independence of Equatorial Guinea (17 April 2009)[46]
Collar of the Order of Zayed (4 May 2015)[51]
Grand Cross of the Order of La Pléiade (24 May 2017)[52]
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