1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
Arizona
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Arizona is a state in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the Western United States and the Mountain West states and it is the sixth largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix, Arizona is one of the Four Corners states. It has borders with New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, California, and Mexico, Arizonas border with Mexico is 389 miles long, on the northern border of the Mexican states of Sonora and Baja California. Arizona is the 48th state and last of the states to be admitted to the Union. Historically part of the territory of Alta California in New Spain, after being defeated in the Mexican–American War, Mexico ceded much of this territory to the United States in 1848. The southernmost portion of the state was acquired in 1853 through the Gadsden Purchase, Southern Arizona is known for its desert climate, with very hot summers and mild winters. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff, Alpine, in addition to the Grand Canyon National Park, there are several national forests, national parks, and national monuments. To the European settlers, their pronunciation sounded like Arissona, the area is still known as alĭ ṣonak in the Oodham language. Another possible origin is the Basque phrase haritz ona, as there were numerous Basque sheepherders in the area, There is a misconception that the states name originated from the Spanish term Árida Zona. See also lists of counties, islands, rivers, lakes, state parks, national parks, Arizona is in the Southwestern United States as one of the Four Corners states. Arizona is the sixth largest state by area, ranked after New Mexico, of the states 113,998 square miles, approximately 15% is privately owned. The remaining area is public forest and park land, state trust land, Arizona is well known for its desert Basin and Range region in the states southern portions, which is rich in a landscape of xerophyte plants such as the cactus. This regions topography was shaped by volcanism, followed by the cooling-off. Its climate has hot summers and mild winters. The state is well known for its pine-covered north-central portion of the high country of the Colorado Plateau. Like other states of the Southwest United States, Arizona has an abundance of mountains, despite the states aridity, 27% of Arizona is forest, a percentage comparable to modern-day France or Germany. The worlds largest stand of pine trees is in Arizona
3.
Maricopa people
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The Maricopa are a River Yuman group, formerly living along the banks of the Colorado River. The neighboring Akimel Oodham and future allies, called them Kokmalikop, and they call themselves Piipaa, Piipaash or Pee-Posh. They formerly consisted of groups of people situated on the banks of the Colorado River for centuries. In the 16th century, they migrated to the area around the Gila River, to attacks by the Quechan. During the 1840s, epidemics took a toll on the tribe, in the 19th century, the Maricopa formed a confederation with the Pima, and in 1857 they successfully defeated the Quechan and Mojave at the Battle of Pima Butte near Maricopa Wells. They became successful farmers, and in 1870, they produced three million pounds of wheat, however, drought and water diversion by non-Indians brought widespread crop failures, in 1914, the US federal government broke tribal landholdings into individual allotments. The Pima Advisory Council was formed by the BIA in 1926 to speak on behalf of the Pima, in 1936 the Pimas and Maricopas agreed on a constitution to restore some measure of self-governance. Through the 1930s, surface flow on the Gila River was reduced to nothing, and the tribe suffered greatly due to the loss of their river, however, the BIA ignored water issues. The tribe resorted to using well water, incapable of growing edible crops. Their heritage language is Maricopa language, which belongs to the Yuman language family, the Maricopa are known for their basket weaving and textiles, but in particular, they are known for their highly burnished red-on-redware pottery. Their traditional pottery practices enjoyed a revival from 1937 to 1940, a US Home Extension Agent, Elizabeth Hart works with a leading Maricopa pottery, Ida Redbird, formed the Maricopa Pottery Cooperative. Redbird served as president of the cooperative, which had 17 to 19 master potters as members, Hart encouraged members to sign their work. Swastikas were a traditional motif that was abandoned in the 1940s. The paddle and anvil method of construction is used, and, while utilitarian cookware is tempered and he is also an enrolled member of the Hunkpapa tribe. Halchidhoma, a band joined the Maricopa Pritzker, Barry. Traders and Raiders, The Indigenous World of the Colorado Basin, chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Press,2014. Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community page on the Maricopa people
4.
Hualapai
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The Hualapai is a federally recognized Indian tribe in Arizona with over 2300 enrolled members. Approximately 1353 enrolled members reside on the Hualapai Indian reservation, which spans three counties in Northern Arizona. The name, meaning people of the trees, is derived from hwa, l. Their traditional territory is a 108-mile stretch along the southern side of the Grand Canyon. The Hualapai tribe is a nation and governed by an executive and judicial branch. The tribe provides a variety of social, cultural, educational, the Hualapai language is a Pai branch of the Yuman–Cochimí languages, also spoken by the closely related Havasupai, and more distantly to Yavapai people. It is still spoken by most people over 30 on the Reservation as well as young people. The Peach Springs School District runs a bilingual program for all local students. The Hualapai Indian Reservation, covering 1,142 square miles, was created by the Presidential Executive order of Chester A. Arthur on January 4,1883, major traditional ceremonies of the Hualapai include the Maturity ceremony and the Mourning ceremony. Nowadays the modern Sobriety Festival is also celebrated in June, the souls of the dead are believed to go northwestward to a beautiful land where plentiful harvest grow. This land is believed to be only by Hualapai spirits. Traditional Hualapai dress consists of full suits of deerskin and rabbit skin robes, conical houses formed from cedar boughs using the single slope form called a Wikiup. The Hualapai Reservation was created by order in 1883 on lands that just four regional bands considered as part of their home range. The other Hualapai regional bands lived far away from the current reservation land, the war broke out in May 1865, when the Hualapai leader Anasa was killed by a man named Hundertinark in the area of Camp Willow Grove and in March 1866. In response, a man named Clower was killed by the Hualapai, the most important and principal Hualapai leaders at that time were, Wauba Yuba, Sherum, Hitchi Hitchi and Susquatama. It was not until William Hardy and the Hualapai leaders negotiated an agreement at Beale Springs that the raids. However, the agreement lasted only nine months when it was broken with the murder of Chief Wauba Yuba near present-day Kingman during a dispute with the Walker party over the treaty, after the chiefs murder, raids by the Hualapai began in full force on mining camps and settlers. The cavalry from Fort Mojave responded, with the assistance of the Mohave, by attacking Hualapai rancherias, the pivotal engagement took place in January 1868, when Captain S. B. M
5.
Havasupai
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The Havasupai people are an American Indian tribe who have lived in the Grand Canyon for at least the past 800 years. Havasu means “blue-green water” and pai “people”, located primarily in an area known as Cataract Canyon, this Yuman-speaking population once laid claim to an area the size of Delaware. In 1882, however, the tribe was forced by the government to abandon all but 518 acres of its land. A silver rush and the Santa Fe Railroad in effect destroyed the fertile land, furthermore, the inception of the Grand Canyon as a national park in 1919 pushed the Havasupai to the brink, as their land was consistently being used by the National Park Service. Throughout the 20th century, the tribe used the US judicial system to fight for the restoration of the land, in 1975, the tribe succeeded in regaining approximately 185,000 acres of their ancestral land with the passage of the Grand Canyon National Park Enlargement Act. As a means of survival, the tribe has turned to tourism, attracting thousands of people annually to its streams, ethnically, the Havasupai and the Hualapai are one people, although today, they are politically separate groups as the result of U. S. government policy. The Hualapai had three subtribes, the Plateau People, Middle Mountain People and Yavapai Fighter, the subtribes were divided into seven bands, which themselves were broken up into thirteen regional bands or local groups. The local groups were composed of extended family groups, living in small villages. The tribe had traditionally relied heavily on agriculture, hunting and gathering as their means of survival, although living primarily above and inside the Grand Canyon, which consists mostly of harsh terrain, the tribe’s reservation was also home to some lush vegetation and beautiful waters. Their name, meaning “the People of the Blue-Green Waters, ” reflects this, the Havasupai are said to have existed within and around the Grand Canyon for over eight centuries. Little is known about the prior to their first recorded European encounter in 1776 with Spanish priest Francisco Garces. Even as interaction with settlers slowly increased, day-to-day life did not change much for the tribe until silver was discovered in 1870 by Cataract Creek, the migration of prospectors to the area was unwelcome. The Havasupai sought protection from the intrusion of western pioneers on their land and sought out assistance, an executive order by President Rutherford Hayes in 1880 established a small federally protected reservation for the tribe, yet it did not include the mining areas along the Creek. During this era, Havasupai relations with other Native American tribes were generally mixed, bonds and interactions with the Hopi tribe, whose reservation was in close proximity, were strong, as the two peoples did a great deal of trading with each other. The Hopi introduced crops such as the gourd and sunflower that would become a staple of the Havasupai diet. Still, the Havasupai were not without enemies as they were consistently at odds with the Yavapai and the Southern Paiute, the order in effect relegated the Havasupai to a 518-acre plot of land in Cataract Canyon, taking almost all of their aboriginal land for American public use. According to reports, the Havasupai were completely unaware of the act for several years, furthermore, interaction with the settlers sparked deadly disease outbreaks amongst tribe members, who were ravaged by smallpox, influenza, and measles. By 1906 only 166 tribal members remained – half the number Garces saw when he first came across the tribe in 1776, in the 1800s the continental railway system was greatly expanded
6.
Yavapai
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Yavapai are a Native American tribe in Arizona. Another Yavapai band, which no longer exists, was the Mađqwadabaya or Desert People and its people are believed to have mixed with the Mojave and Quechan peoples. The Yavapai have much in common with their relatives to the north, the Havasupai. Often the Yavapai were mistaken as Apache by American settlers, who referred to them as Mohave-Apache, Yuma-Apache, some tribes supplemented this diet with small-scale cultivation of the three sisters – maize, squash, and beans – in fertile streambeds. In particular, the Ɖo, lkabaya, who lived in lands that were supportive of food gathering. They had to work to cultivate crops, as their land was less supportive of agriculture. In turn, Ɖo, lkabaya often traded items such as skins, baskets. Agave was the most crucial harvest, as it was the plant food available from late fall through early spring. The hearts of the plant were roasted in stone-lined pits, primary animals hunted were deer, rabbit, jackrabbit, quail, and woodrat. Fish and water-borne birds were eschewed by most Yavapai groups, some groups of Tolkepaya began eating fish after contact with their Quechan neighbors. The early Yavapai practiced traditional dances such as the Mountain Spirit Dance, War Dances, Victory Dances, the Mountain Spirit dance was a masked dance, which was used for guidance or healing of a sick person. The Yavapai also believe that the Mountain Spirits dwelled in the caves of Montezumas Castle, the modern Yavapai take part in several dances and singing, such as the Apache Sunrise Dance and the Bird Singing and Dancing of the Mojave people. The Sunrise Dance Ceremony is not an ancient Yavapai ceremony, Apache and Yavapai often intermarried and adopted elements of each others cultures, these two tribes reside together on the Camp Verde and Fort McDowell reservations. The Sunrise Dance is a four-day rite-of-transition for young Apache girls, the sunrise dance is an ancient practice, unique to the Apache. It is related to the myth of the Changing Woman, a figure in Apache culture who is believed to grant longevity. The power of Changing Woman is transferred to the pubescent girl through songs sung by the Medicine Man, a medicine man is joined by other tribal members in singing a series of songs, up to 32 which are believed to have first been sung by Changing Woman. Bird Singing and Dancing Originally part of the culture of the Mojave people of the Colorado River region, Bird singing and dancing does not belong to the Yavapai people as a whole but this practice has been picked up by different tribes of the Yuman family. According to Mohave elders, the songs tell a story
7.
Native Americans in the United States
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In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
8.
Colorado River
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The Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico. The 1, 450-mile-long Colorado River drains an expansive, arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U. S. starting in the central Rocky Mountains in the U. S. After entering Mexico, the Colorado approaches the mostly dry Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora. Known for its dramatic canyons, whitewater rapids, and eleven U. S. National Parks, the Colorados large flow and steep gradient are used for generating hydroelectric power, and its major dams regulate peaking power demands in much of the Intermountain West. Intensive water consumption has dried up the lower 100 miles of the river, beginning with small bands of nomadic hunter-gatherers, Native Americans have inhabited the Colorado River basin for at least 8,000 years. Most native peoples that inhabit the basin today are descended from groups that settled in the region beginning about 1,000 years ago. Europeans first entered the Colorado Basin in the 16th century, when explorers from Spain began mapping and claiming the area, early contact between Europeans and Native Americans was generally limited to the fur trade in the headwaters and sporadic trade interactions along the lower river. After most of the Colorado River basin became part of the U. S. in 1846, several expeditions charted the Colorado in the mid-19th century – one of which, led by John Wesley Powell, was the first to run the rapids of the Grand Canyon. American explorers collected valuable information that would later be used to develop the river for navigation, lesser numbers settled in the upper basin, which was the scene of major gold strikes in the 1860s and 1870s. Large engineering works began around the start of the 20th century, with guidelines established in a series of international. The U. S. federal government was the driving force behind the construction of dams and aqueducts in the river system, although many state. Most of the dams in the river basin were built between 1910 and 1970, the system keystone, Hoover Dam, was completed in 1935. The Colorado is now considered among the most controlled and litigated rivers in the world, as demands for Colorado River water continue to rise, the level of human development and control of the river continues to generate controversy. The Colorado begins at La Poudre Pass in the Southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado, after a short run south, the river turns west below Grand Lake, the largest natural lake in the state. As it flows southwest, it gains strength from many tributaries, as well as larger ones including the Blue, Eagle. In a few areas, such as the marshy Kawuneeche Valley near the headwaters, arcing northwest, the Colorado begins to cut across the eponymous Colorado Plateau, a vast area of high desert centered at the Four Corners of the southwestern United States. In Utah, the Colorado flows primarily through the slickrock country and this is one of the most inaccessible regions of the continental United States. Here, the San Juan River, carrying runoff from the slope of Colorados San Juan Mountains, joins the Colorado from the east. S
9.
Mojave Desert
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The Mojave Desert is an arid rain-shadow desert and the driest desert in North America. It is located in the southwestern United States, primarily within southeastern California and southern Nevada, very small areas also extend into Utah and Arizona. The central part of the desert is sparsely populated, while its peripheries support large communities such as Las Vegas, Lancaster, Palmdale, Victorville, the Mojave Desert is bordered by the Great Basin Desert to its north and the Sonoran Desert to its south and east. Topographical boundaries include the Tehachapi Mountains to the west, and the San Gabriel Mountains, the mountain boundaries are distinct because they are outlined by the two largest faults in California – the San Andreas and Garlock faults. The Mojave Desert displays typical basin and range topography and it occupies less than 50,000 sq mi, making it the smallest of the North American deserts. The Mojave Desert is often referred to as the desert, in contrast to the low desert. However, the Mojave Desert is generally lower than the Great Basin Desert to the north, the spelling Mojave originates from the Spanish language while the spelling Mohave comes from modern English. The Mojave Desert receives less than 13 in of rain a year and is generally between 2,000 and 5,000 feet in elevation, zion National Park in Utah lies at the junction of the Mojave, the Great Basin Desert, and the Colorado Plateau. Despite its aridity, the Mojave has long been a center of production, fed by irrigation coming from groundwater. The Mojave is a desert of temperature extremes and two distinct seasons, winter months bring comfortable daytime temperatures, which dip precipitously to around 20 °F on valley floors, and below 0 °F at higher elevations. Storms moving from the Pacific Northwest can bring rain and in places even snow. More often, the shadow created by the Sierra Nevada as well as mountain ranges within the desert such as the Spring Mountains, bring only clouds. By early June, it is rare for another Pacific storm to have a significant impact on the regions weather, summer weather is dominated by heat. Temperatures on valley floors can soar above 120 °F and above 130 °F at the lowest elevations, low humidity, high temperatures, and low pressure, draw in moisture from the Gulf of Mexico creating thunderstorms across the desert southwest known as the North American monsoon. Autumn is generally pleasant, with one to two Pacific storm systems creating regional rain events, october is one of the driest and sunniest months in the Mojave, and temperatures usually remain between 70 °F and 90 °F on the valley floors. After temperature, wind is the most significant weather phenomenon in the Mojave, during the June Gloom, cooler air can be pushed out into the desert from Southern California. In Santa Ana wind events, hot air from the desert blows out into the Los Angeles basin, wind farms in these areas generate power from these winds. The other major factor in the region is elevation
10.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
11.
Nevada
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Nevada is a state in the Western, Mountain West, and Southwestern regions of the United States of America. Nevada is the 7th most extensive, the 34th most populous, nearly three-quarters of Nevadas people live in Clark County, which contains the Las Vegas–Paradise metropolitan area where three of the states four largest incorporated cities are located. Nevada is officially known as the Silver State because of the importance of silver to its history and economy. It is also known as the Battle Born State, because it achieved statehood during the Civil War, as the Sage-brush State, for the plant of the same name. Nevada borders Oregon to the northwest, Idaho to the northeast, California to the west, Arizona to the southeast, Nevada is largely desert and semi-arid, much of it located within the Great Basin. Areas south of the Great Basin are located within the Mojave Desert, while Lake Tahoe, about 86% of the states land is managed by various jurisdictions of the U. S. federal government, both civilian and military. Before European contact, Native Americans of the Paiute, Shoshone, the first Europeans to explore the region were Spanish. They called the region Nevada because of the snow covered the mountains in winter. The area formed part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, the United States annexed the area in 1848 after its victory in the Mexican–American War, and it was incorporated as part of Utah Territory in 1850. The discovery of silver at the Comstock Lode in 1859 led to a boom that became an impetus to the creation of Nevada Territory out of western Utah Territory in 1861. Nevada became the 36th state on October 31,1864, as the second of two added to the Union during the Civil War. Nevada has a reputation for its libertarian laws, in 1940, with a population of just over 110,000 people, Nevada was by far the least-populated state, with less than half the population of the next least-populated state. However, legalized gambling and lenient marriage and divorce laws transformed Nevada into a major tourist destination in the 20th century, Nevada is the only U. S. state where prostitution is legal, though it is illegal in Clark County, Washoe County and Carson City. The tourism industry remains Nevadas largest employer, with mining continuing as a sector of the economy. The name Nevada comes from the Spanish nevada, meaning snow-covered, most Nevadans pronounce the second syllable of their state name using the vowel of trap. Many from outside the Western United States pronounce it with the vowel of father, although the latter pronunciation is closer to the Spanish pronunciation, it is not the pronunciation preferred by most Nevadans. State Assemblyman Harry Mortenson proposed a bill to recognize the alternate pronunciation of Nevada, though the bill was not supported by most legislators, the Nevadan pronunciation is the de facto official one, since it is the one used by the state legislature. Nevada is almost entirely within the Basin and Range Province, and is broken up by many mountain ranges
12.
Colorado River Indian Tribes
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The tribe has about 4,277 enrolled members. The reservation was established on March 3,1865 for Indians of said river, initially, these were the Mohave and Chemehuevi, but Hopi and Navajo people were relocated to the reservation in 1945. The tribal seal was created by John Scott in 1966, the tribal flag was designed by Margie McCabe and formally adopted in 1979. The Colorado River Indian Reservation is a Native American reservation in the southwest United States and its territory is primarily in western La Paz County, Arizona, with smaller portions in southeastern San Bernardino, and northeastern Riverside counties, California. It has a land area of 1,119.4445 km2. It borders the Palo Verde Valley in the southwest boundaries, tribal headquarters are in Parker, Arizona. Tribal members mainly lived communities in and around Parker, the largest community, the 2000 census reported a population of 9,201 persons residing on the reservation. The tribe and its territory is governed by an elected council of nine members and overseen by a tribal Chairman, Secretary. These officers are elected from among the council members, the four tribes continue to maintain and observe their traditional ways and religious and culturally unique identities. Laffoon Council Member, Johnson “J. D. ” Fisher Council Member, the economy for the tribe is based on light industry, government, recreation, and agricultural, specifically growing commodity crops of alfalfa, cotton, lettuce, and sorghum. The Colorado River Indian Tribes has senior water rights to 717,000 acre feet of the Colorado River, the tribe opened BlueWater Resort and Casino, located about two miles from downtown Parker, as a tourist destination on the Colorado River. The casino is 30,000 square feet and has more than 500 slot machines, the resort features a 200-room hotel, a 10,000 square feet bingo hall, an indoor water park, movie theater, video arcade, marina, and concert facilities. The Colorado River Indian Tribe Museum and Gift Shop is in Parker, Arizona, and has displays of historical and contemporary artworks, especially ceramics, made by tribal members
13.
Chemehuevi
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The Chemehuevi are an indigenous people of the Great Basin. They are the southernmost branch of Paiute and it is considered to either be a Mojave term meaning those who play with fish, or a Quechan word meaning nose-in-the-air-like-a-roadrunner. The Chemehuevi call themselves Nüwüwü or Tantáwats, meaning Southern Men, the language, Chemehuevi, is a Colorado River Numic language, in the Numic language branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. First transcribed by John P. Harrington and Carobeth Laird in the early 20th century, whose field notes and extensive sound recordings remain available. In 2015, the Siwavaats Junior College in Havasu Lake, California has been established to teach children the language, a Chemehuevi dictionary with 2,500 words is expected to become available in 2016. The Chemehuevi were originally a desert tribe among the Nüwü or Paiute-Shoshone nations, post-contact, they lived primarily in the eastern Mojave Desert and later Cottonwood Island in Nevada and the Chemehuevi Valley along the Colorado River in California. They were a people living in small groups given the sparse resources available in the desert environment. They are most closely identified as among the Great Basin Indians, among others they are cousins of the Kawaiisu. Estimates for the populations of most native groups in California have varied substantially. Alfred L. Kroeber estimated the combined 1770 population of the Chemehuevi, Koso, the combined estimate in 1910 dropped to 500. An Indian agent reported the Chemehuevi population in 1875 to be 350, Kroeber estimated U. S. census data put the Chemehuevi population in 1910 as 355. Population as of 2016 is in the 1000s, Chemehuevi traditional narratives Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas Clemmer, Richard O. and Omer C. In Great Basin, edited by Warren L. dAzevedo, pp. 525–557, handbook of North American Indians, William C. Concise Encyclopedia of the American Indian, 3rd ed. Wings Books, New York. Handbook of the Indians of California, bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No.78. In Great Basin, edited by Warren L. dAzevedo, pp. 608–619, handbook of North American Indians, William C. A Native American Encyclopedia, History, Culture, and Peoples, Official Colorado River Indian Tribes website Official Chemehuevi Indian Tribe of the Chemehuevi Reservation website — in San Bernardino County, California. Chemehuevi Language Archive, 1970s Fieldwork and Analysis by Margaret L
14.
Hopi
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The Hopi are a Native American tribe, who primarily live on the Hopi Reservation in northeastern Arizona. According to the 2010 census, there were 19,327 Hopi in the United States, the Hopi language is one of 30 in the Uto-Aztecan language family. The majority of Hopi people are enrolled in the Hopi Tribe of Arizona, the Hopi Reservation covers a land area of 2,531.773 sq mi. When first encountered by the Spanish in the 16th century, the Hopi, the Hopi are descended from the Ancient Pueblo Peoples who constructed large apartment-house complexes in northeastern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and southwestern Colorado. They lived along the Mogollon Rim, especially from the 12th–14th century, the name Hopi is a shortened form of their autonym, Hopituh Shi-nu-mu. The Hopi Dictionary gives the meaning of the word Hopi as, behaving one, one who is mannered, civilized, peaceable, polite. In the past, Hopi sometimes used the term Hopi and its cognates to refer to the Pueblo peoples in general, in contrast to other, Hopi is a concept deeply rooted in the cultures religion, spirituality, and its view of morality and ethics. The Hopi observe their traditional ceremonies for the benefit of the entire world, traditionally, Hopi are organized into matrilineal clans. When a man marries, the children from the relationship are members of his wifes clan and these clan organizations extend across all villages. Children are named by the women of the fathers clan, on the twentieth day of a babys life, the women of the paternal clan gather, each woman bringing a name and a gift for the child. In some cases where many relatives would attend, a child could be given over forty names, the childs parents generally decide the name to be used from these names. Current practice is to use a non-Hopi or English name or the parents chosen Hopi name. A person may change the name upon initiation into one of the religious societies, such as the Kachina society. The Hopi have always viewed their land as sacred, agriculture is a very important part of their culture, and their villages are spread out across the northern part of Arizona. The Hopi and the Navajo did not have a conception of land being bounded and divided and they lived on the land that their ancestors did. On December 16,1882 President Arthur passed an order creating a reservation for the Hopi. It was much smaller than the Navajo reservation, which was the largest in the country, on October 24,1936 the Hopi people ratified a Constitution. That Constitution created a government where all powers are vested in a Tribal Council
15.
Navajo
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The Navajo are a Native American people of the Southwestern United States. After the Cherokee, they are the second-largest federally recognized tribe in the United States, the Navajo language is spoken throughout the region, with most Navajos speaking English, as well. The states with the largest Navajo populations are Arizona and New Mexico, over three-quarters of the Navajo population reside in these two states. The Navajos are speakers of a Na-Dené Southern Athabaskan language known within the language as Diné bizaad, the language comprises two geographic, mutually intelligible dialects. It is closely related to the Apache language, as the Navajos and Apaches are believed to have migrated from northwestern Canada and eastern Alaska, speakers of various other Athabaskan languages located in Canada may still comprehend the Navajo language despite the geographic and linguistic deviation of the languages. Additionally, some Navajos speak Navajo Sign Language, which is either a dialect or daughter of Plains Sign Talk, archaeological and historical evidence suggests the Athabaskan ancestors of the Navajos and Apaches entered the Southwest around 1400 CE. The Navajo oral tradition is said to retain references of this migration, until contact with Pueblos and the Spanish, the Navajos were largely hunters and gatherers. The tribe adopted crop-farming techniques from the Pueblo peoples, growing corn, beans. When the Spanish arrived, the Navajos began herding sheep and goats as a source of trade and food. Sheep also became a form of currency and status symbols among the Navajos based on the quantity of herds a family maintained. In addition, the practice of spinning and weaving wool into blankets and clothing became common, in the 18th century, the Spanish reported the Navajos maintaining large herds of livestock and cultivating large crop areas. Navahu comes from the Tewa, meaning area of cultivated lands. By the 1640s, the Spanish began using the term Navajo to refer to the Diné, during the 1670s, the Spanish wrote that the Diné lived in a region known as Dinétah, about 60 miles west of the Rio Chama valley region. In the 1780s, the Spanish sent military expeditions against the Navajos in the Mount Taylor, the Navajos came into contact with the United States Army in 1846, when General Stephen W. Kearny invaded Santa Fe with 1,600 men during the Mexican–American War. The treaty was not honored by many young Navajo raiders, who continued to steal livestock from New Mexican villages, New Mexicans, on their part, together with Utes, continued to raid Navajo country, stealing livestock and taking women and children for sale as slaves. In 1849, the governor of New Mexico, Colonel John MacRae Washington—accompanied by John S. The treaty acknowledged the jurisdiction of the United States and allowed forts, the United States, on its part, promised such donations such other liberal and humane measures, as may deem meet and proper. While en route to this treaty signing, Narbona, a prominent Navajo peace leader, was killed, during the next 10 years, the U. S. established forts on traditional Navajo territory
16.
Water law
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Water resources law is the field of law dealing with the ownership, control, and use of water as a resource. It is most closely related to property law, and is older than, Water is ubiquitous and does not respect political boundaries. Water resources laws may apply to any portion of the hydrosphere over which claims may be made to appropriate or maintain the water to some purpose. The history of peoples relation to water illustrates varied approaches to the management of water resources, lipit Ishtar and Ur Nammu both contain water provisions, pre-date Hammurabi by at least 250 years, and clearly provide the normative underpinnings on which the Hammurabi Code was constructed. The Code of Hammurabi was one of the earliest written laws to deal with issues. The Code was developed about 3,800 years ago by King Hammurabi of Babylonia, Water has unique features that make it difficult to regulate using laws designed mainly for land. Water is mobile, its supply varies by year and season as well as location, as with property law, water rights can be described as a bundle of sticks containing multiple, separable activities that can have varying levels of regulation. For instance, some uses of water divert it from its course but return most or all of it, while others consume much of what they take. Each type of activity has its own needs and can in theory be regulated separately, such a hydraulic empire creates the potential for despotism, and serves as a cautionary tale for designing water regulations. Water law involves controversy in some parts of the world where a growing population faces increasing competition over a natural supply. Disputes over rivers, lakes and underground aquifers cross national borders, the legal right to use a designated water supply is known as a water right. There are two models used for water rights. The first is riparian rights, where the owner of the adjacent land has the right to the water in the stream. The other major model is the prior model, the first party to make use of a water supply has the first rights to it. Riparian systems are more common in areas where water is plentiful. As water resource law is complex, many areas have some combination of the two approaches, the right to water to satisfy basic human needs for personal and domestic uses has been protected under international human rights law. When incorporated in national legal frameworks, this right is articulated to other rights within the broader body of water law. The human right to water has been recognized in law through a wide range of international documents, including international human rights treaties, declarations
17.
Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology
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The Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology is a museum affiliated with Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1866, the Peabody Museum is one of the oldest and largest museums focusing on material, with particular focus on the ethnography. The Museum is caretaker to over 1.2 million objects, some 900 linear feet of documents,2,000 maps and site plans, the Museum is located at Divinity Avenue on the Harvard University campus. The Museum is one of the four Harvard Museums of Science & Culture open to the public, the Museum was established as a gift from George Peabody, a native of South Danvers, a wealthy American financier and philanthropist on October 8,1866. The Museum opened its first exhibition consisting of a number of prehistoric artifacts from the Merrimack Valley in Harvard Universitys Boylston Hall in 1867. In 1877, the museum building was completed and ready for occupancy. The building that houses the Peabody was expanded in 1888 and again in 1913, the Museum’s Central American collection focuses on archaeological materials from eastern Honduras, Nicaragua, lower Central America, the Caribbean islands and Central Mexico. Some of the Peabody’s earliest accessions, collected by Louis Agassiz and his son Alexander Emanuel Agassiz, important archaeological collections include Chimú, Nazca, and Moche pottery, Inca and Chimú metalwork, and a collection of prehistoric-period textiles. Archaeological materials dominate the Asia collections with a collection of excavated artifacts from Tepe Yahya. The Museum’s holdings include over 20,000 items in four significant collections, the three principal collections, gathered from Liberia, southern Cameroon and Uganda during the first half of the twentieth century, include a diverse range of objects used in daily or ritual life. The fourth collection contains more than 200 musical instruments including drums, archaeological collections are represented by George Andrew Reisners excavations in Egypt and Nubia. Numbering nearly 200 paintings and 950 works on paper, the collection of artwork is an addition to the object collections. About half, representing the David I, there are also painted portraits of Native Americans by Elbridge Ayer Burbank, some being the only extant representation of the subject. The holdings of both the records and photographic archives present another dimension to the work of the anthropologists and archaeologists whose collected artifacts reside in the Peabody. The osteological collections of the Peabody Museum derive from more than eighty countries on six continents and include human and non-human primate remains, fossils and these are collected mainly from the Americas, Eurasia, and Africa. Approximately 40 percent of the more than 18,500 human and non-human individuals currently represented in the collections are from the United States, the Museum also has anatomical teaching and hominid cast collections. The Changes and Continuity exhibit considers historic interactions between native peoples and Europeans during a period of social change. Day of the Dead/Día de los Muertos includes of a Day of the Dead altar or offrenda in the Encounters with the Americas gallery and it represents the original Aztec origins of the holiday and the Roman Catholic symbols incorporated into the tradition
18.
River Yuman
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The Yuman–Cochimí languages are a family of languages spoken in Baja California, northern Sonora, southern California, and western Arizona. There are approximately a dozen Yuman languages, the extinct Cochimí, attested from the 18th century, was identified after the rest of the family had been established, and was found to be more divergent. The resulting family was therefore called Yuman–Cochimí, with Yuman being the extra-Cochimí languages, delta–California Yuman Ipai Kumeyaay Tipai Cocopah River Yuman Quechan Maricopa Mojave Pai Yavapai Upland Yuman Hualapai dialect Havasupai dialect Paipai Cochimí is now extinct. Cucapá is the Spanish name for the Cocopa, diegueño is the Spanish name for Ipai–Kumeyaay–Tipai, now often referred to collectively as Kumeyaay. Upland Yuman consists of mutually intelligible dialects spoken by the politically distinct Yavapai, Hualapai. American Indian Languages, The Historical Linguistics of Native America, in Languages, edited by Ives Goddard, pp. 1–16. Handbook of North American Indians, William C, in Southwest, edited by Alfonso Ortiz, pp. 4–12. Handbook of North American Indians, William C, in Proceedings of the 1990 Hokan–Penutian Language Workshop, edited by James E. Redden, pp. 184–190. Occasional Papers in Linguistics No.15, the Languages of Native North America. In The Prehistory of Baja California, Advances in the Archaeology of the Forgotten Peninsula, edited by Don Laylander and Jerry D. Moore, pp. 24–41
19.
Yuman languages
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The Yuman–Cochimí languages are a family of languages spoken in Baja California, northern Sonora, southern California, and western Arizona. There are approximately a dozen Yuman languages, the extinct Cochimí, attested from the 18th century, was identified after the rest of the family had been established, and was found to be more divergent. The resulting family was therefore called Yuman–Cochimí, with Yuman being the extra-Cochimí languages, delta–California Yuman Ipai Kumeyaay Tipai Cocopah River Yuman Quechan Maricopa Mojave Pai Yavapai Upland Yuman Hualapai dialect Havasupai dialect Paipai Cochimí is now extinct. Cucapá is the Spanish name for the Cocopa, diegueño is the Spanish name for Ipai–Kumeyaay–Tipai, now often referred to collectively as Kumeyaay. Upland Yuman consists of mutually intelligible dialects spoken by the politically distinct Yavapai, Hualapai. American Indian Languages, The Historical Linguistics of Native America, in Languages, edited by Ives Goddard, pp. 1–16. Handbook of North American Indians, William C, in Southwest, edited by Alfonso Ortiz, pp. 4–12. Handbook of North American Indians, William C, in Proceedings of the 1990 Hokan–Penutian Language Workshop, edited by James E. Redden, pp. 184–190. Occasional Papers in Linguistics No.15, the Languages of Native North America. In The Prehistory of Baja California, Advances in the Archaeology of the Forgotten Peninsula, edited by Don Laylander and Jerry D. Moore, pp. 24–41
20.
Leanne Hinton
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Leanne Hinton is an emerita professor of linguistics at the University of California at Berkeley. She specializes in American Indian languages, sociolinguistics, and language revitalization and she first worked with Native American groups on bilingual education, orthographic design and literature development. After joining the Berkeley faculty in 1978, Hinton began working with California languages, in collaboration with Andrew Garrett, Hinton has also directed a project to digitize many of the SCOIL records, which are now available through the California Language Archive. Bringing Our Languages Home, Language Revitalization for Families, how to Keep Your Language Alive. The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice, a Dictionary of the Havasupai Language. Tucson, Sun Tracks and the University of Arizona Press
21.
Datura
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Datura is a genus of nine species of poisonous vespertine flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae. They are commonly known as daturas, but also known as devils trumpets and they are also sometimes called moonflowers, jimsonweed, devils weed, hells bells, thorn-apple, and many more. Its precise and natural distribution is uncertain, owing to its cultivation and naturalization throughout the temperate. All species of Datura are poisonous, especially their seeds and flowers, some South American plants formerly thought of as Datura are now treated as belonging to the distinct genus Brugmansia. Other related taxa include Hyosyamus niger, Atropa belladonna, Mandragora officinarum, the name Datura is taken from Hindi धतूरा dhatūra thorn-apple, ultimately from Sanskrit धत्तूर dhattūra white thorn-apple. In the Ayurvedic text Sushruta different species of Datura are also referred to as kanaka, record of this name in English dates back to 1662. Nathaniel Hawthorne refers to one type in The Scarlet Letter as apple-Peru, in Mexico, its common name is toloache. Datura species are herbaceous, leafy annuals and short-lived perennials which can reach up to 2 m in height, the leaves are alternate, 10–20 cm long and 5–18 cm broad, with a lobed or toothed margin. The flowers are erect or spreading, trumpet-shaped, 5–20 cm long and 4–12 cm broad at the mouth, colors vary from white to yellow, pink, and pale purple. The fruit is a spiny capsule 4–10 cm long and 2–6 cm broad, the seeds disperse freely over pastures, fields and even wasteland locations. Datura belongs to the classic witches weeds, along with deadly nightshade, henbane, most parts of the plants are toxic, and datura has a long history of use for causing delirious states and death. It was well known as an ingredient of potions and witches brews. In India it has referred to as Poisonous and as an aphrodisiac. In little measures it was used in Ayurveda as a medicine from the ancient times and it is used in rituals and prayers to Shiva. It is also used in Ganesh Chaturthi, the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including Hypercompe indecisa, eat some Datura species. It is difficult to classify Datura as to its species, later, these new species are found to be simply varieties that have evolved due to conditions at a specific location. They usually disappear in a few years, contributing to the confusion is the fact that various species, such as D. wrightii and D. inoxia, are very similar in appearance, and the variation within a species can be extreme. For example, Datura species can change size of plant, leaf, today, experts classify only nine species of Datura, D. ceratocaula Jacq. – torna loco D. discolor Bernh
22.
Consciousness
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Consciousness is the state or quality of awareness, or, of being aware of an external object or something within oneself. Despite the difficulty in definition, many believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is. Western philosophers, since the time of Descartes and Locke, have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness, the majority of experimental studies assess consciousness in humans by asking subjects for a verbal report of their experiences. The origin of the concept of consciousness is often attributed to John Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Locke defined consciousness as the perception of what passes in a mans own mind and his essay influenced the 18th-century view of consciousness, and his definition appeared in Samuel Johnsons celebrated Dictionary. Consciousness is also defined in the 1753 volume of Diderot and dAlemberts Encyclopédie, the earliest English language uses of conscious and consciousness date back, however, to the 1500s. This phrase had the meaning of knowing that one knows. In its earliest uses in the 1500s, the English word conscious retained the meaning of the Latin conscius. For example, Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan wrote, Where two, or more men, know of one and the fact, they are said to be Conscious of it one to another. The Latin phrase conscius sibi, whose meaning was more related to the current concept of consciousness, was rendered in English as conscious to oneself or conscious unto oneself. For example, Archbishop Ussher wrote in 1613 of being so conscious unto myself of my great weakness, Lockes definition from 1690 illustrates that a gradual shift in meaning had taken place. A related word was conscientia, which primarily means moral conscience, in the literal sense, conscientia means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridical texts by such as Cicero. Here, conscientia is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else, rené Descartes is generally taken to be the first philosopher to use conscientia in a way that does not fit this traditional meaning. Descartes used conscientia the way modern speakers would use conscience, in Search after Truth he says conscience or internal testimony. The dictionary meaning of the word consciousness extends through several centuries, B. inward awareness of an external object, state, or fact. The philosophy of mind has given rise to many stances regarding consciousness, something within ones mind is introspectively conscious just in case one introspects it. Introspection is often thought to deliver ones primary knowledge of ones mental life, an experience or other mental entity is phenomenally conscious just in case there is something it is like for one to have it
23.
Irataba
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Irataba was a leader of the Mohave Nation, known for his role as a mediator between his people and the United States. He was born near the Colorado River in present-day Arizona, Irataba was a renowned orator and one of the first Mohave to speak English, a skill he used to develop relations with the United States. Early records mention his physical size and gentle demeanor. Irataba first encountered European Americans in 1851, when he assisted the Sitgreaves Expedition, in 1854, he met Amiel Whipple, then leading an expedition crossing the Colorado. Several Mohave aided the group, and Irataba agreed to them through the territory of the Paiute to the Old Spanish Trail. He later helped and protected other expeditions, earning him a reputation among whites as the most important native leader in the region, against Iratabas advice, in 1858 Mohave warriors attacked the first emigrant wagon train to use Beales Wagon Road through Mohave country. War Department sent a detachment under Colonel William Hoffman to pacify the tribe, following a series of confrontations known as the Mohave War, Hoffman succeeded in dominating the natives, and demanded that they allow the passage of settlers through their territory. To ensure compliance, Fort Mohave was constructed near the site of the battle in April 1859, Hoffman also imprisoned several Mohave leaders. Having been an advocate for friendly relations with the whites, Irataba became the nations Aha macave yaltanack, in doing so, he became the first Native American from the Southwest to meet an American president. He received considerable attention during his tours of the U. S. capital, and of New York City and Philadelphia, Some consider Irataba a great leader who championed peace, but others feel he should have done more to defend the Mohave way of life. The Irataba Society, a charity run by the Colorado River Indian Tribes, was established in 1970 in Parker, Arizona. In 2002, the US Bureau of Land Management designated 32,745 acres in the Eldorado Mountains as Ireteba Peaks Wilderness, in March 2015, Mohave Tribal chairman Dennis Patch credited Irataba with ensuring that the Mohaves stayed on land they had lived on since time immemorial. Iratabas name, also rendered as Ireteba, Yara tav, Arateve, Yarate, va, and Yiratewa, derives from the Mohave language phrase eecheeyara tav and he was born into the Neolge, or Sun Fire clan of the Mohave Nation c. 1814. He lived near a rock formation that gave its name to Needles, south of where the Grand Canyon empties into the Mohave Canyon in present-day Arizona, near the Nevada, Mohave government consisted of a loose system of hereditary clan leaders with a head of the entire nation. They were often involved in conflicts with the Chemehuevi, Paiute, Irataba was a member of the Mohave warrior society called kwanami, who led groups of warriors in battle and were dedicated to defending their lands and people. Little is known of Iratabas family relations, except for the name of his son Tekse thume, and his nephews Qolho qorau and Aspamekelyeho. Olive Oatman, who lived with the Mohave for five years, later stated that Irataba was the brother of the chief, presumably Cairook. One anecdotal description states that Irataba had several wives, among them a Hualapai woman who had taken as a captive
24.
Cairook
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Cairook, also known as Avi Havasuts was a Mohave leader born sometime before 1814. In 1858, he and the Mohave attacked the Rose-Baley Party, after the Second Mohave Expedition reached the Mohave in April 1859, they reluctantly agreed to a peace. That peace included the surrender of Chief Cairook with eight others that were taken down the Colorado River to Fort Yuma and his role in the attack on the Rose-Baley Party led to his incarceration by the United States Department of War in May 1859. On June 21, Cairook was killed while aiding his eight fellow Mohave prisoners in their attempt to escape from Fort Yuma and he was shot and bayoneted, after holding a sentry while his fellows escaped. According to Fulsom Charles Scrivner, author of Mohave People, Cairook was born to an influential family, and grew to a height of nearly 6 feet 6 inches
25.
Frederick Webb Hodge
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Frederick W. Hodge was an editor, anthropologist, archaeologist, and historian. He was born in Plymouth, England to Edwin and Emily Hodge and his parents moved to Washington, D. C. United States when Frederick was seven years old, in Washington, he attended Cambridge College. He was awarded the degree of Sc. D. by Pomona College in 1933, LL. D. by the University of New Mexico in 1934. He was associated with Columbia University and the U. S. Geological Survey and he was the director of the Southwest Museum of the American Indian in Los Angeles. He served as officer at the Smithsonian Institution, chairman of the Committee of Editorial Management. Hodge was the editor for Edward S. Curtiss monumental series, after leaving the Bureau, he moved to New York City and became editor and assistant director at the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. In 1915, accompanied by the museum’s director George Gustav Heye and staff member George H. Pepper, Hodge undertook excavations at the Nacoochee Mound near Helen, Hodge then directed the excavations of the ruins of Hawikuh, near Zuni Pueblo, during the period 1917-23. He researched and reported on the interactions of these aborigines with the Spanish conquerors, travelers and priests since 1540. Handbook on American Indians,1906, http, //www. snowwowl. com/swolfAIHhandbook. html Judd, Neil M. with M. R. Harrington, S. K. Lothrop, and Gene Meany. Works by Frederick W. Hodge at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Frederick Webb Hodge at Internet Archive Guide to the Frederick Webb Hodge Papers, division of Rare and Manuscript Collections
26.
Needles, California
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Needles is a city in San Bernardino County, California, United States. It lies on the banks of the Colorado River in the Mohave Valley subregion of the Mojave Desert, near the borders of Arizona and Nevada. It is also the easternmost city of the Greater Los Angeles area, the city is accessible via Interstate 40 and U. S. Route 95. The population was 4,844 at the 2010 census, up from 4,830 at the 2000 census. Needles was named after The Needles, a group of pinnacles, the large Mohave Native American community shares the nearby Fort Mojave Indian Reservation and the town. Needles is a gateway to the Mojave National Preserve, in the Mohave language, they call themselves the ʼAha Makhav. Their name comes from two words, ʼaha, meaning river, and makhav, meaning along or beside, the historic Mojave Road now goes through the Mojave National Preserve. Along it, in 1859, Fort Mojave was built to protect new pioneer immigrants to California, the city was founded in May 1883 as a result of the construction of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway which originally crossed the Colorado River at this point. The name was derived from the Needles, pointed mountain peaks where the holes in them. This point on the Colorado River was a site for such a bridge, lacking firm banks. Additionally, the bridge was not of the best quality, which led to criticism that it was a flimsy looking structure, the flooding and meandering of the Colorado River destroyed the bridge in 1884,1886 and 1888. Finally the railroad surrendered to nature and built a high cantilever bridge at a much narrower point with solid rock footings, ten miles downstream near modern Topock, completing it in May 1890. Originally a tent town for construction crews, the railroad company built a hotel, car sheds, shops. Within a month the town boasted a Chinese washhouse, a newsstand, a restaurant, a couple of general stores. The town became the largest port on the river above Yuma, the landmark building is on the National Register of Historic Places and is being restored. Needles was a stop on the historic U. S. Route 66 highway from the 1920s through the 1960s. For immigrants from the Midwest Dust Bowl in the 1930s it was the first town that marked their arrival in California, the city is lined with motels and other shops from that era. The Cartys Camp which appears briefly in The Grapes of Wrath as the Joad family enters California from Arizona is now a ghost tourist court, Needles is a tourism and recreation center, a tradition going back for decades
27.
Black Canyon of the Colorado
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The Black Canyon of the Colorado is the canyon on the Colorado River where Hoover Dam was built. The canyon is located on the Colorado River at the line between Nevada and Arizona. The western wall of the gorge is in the El Dorado Mountains, the canyon formed about 15 million years ago during the Miocene Basin and Range uplift. Black Canyon gets its name from the volcanic rocks that are found throughout the area. Just south of the Hoover Dam on the Nevada side of the canyon is the Sauna Cave and this cave was drilled by miners working on Hoover Dam while it was being constructed. It is a cave with calcium carbonate crystals on the walls. At the end of the cave is a hot spring, which causes temperatures in the cave to reach 120 °F, one prominent canyon that splits from this canyon south of the Hoover Dam is Boy Scout Canyon. Boy Scout Canyon has water running through it that is warmed from a geothermal source. On the Arizona side of the river, there are large hot springs that can be found by taking a trail north from a larger bay about 4 to 5 miles south of the Hoover Dam
28.
Spirit Mountain (Nevada)
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Spirit Mountain, also known as Newberry Peak, is a mountain in the Laughlin, Nevada area that is listed on the United States National Register of Historic Places. It is part of the Newberry Mountains in Nevada and the summit is the highest point in the Spirit Mountain Wilderness, Spirit Mountain is the center of creation for all Yuman speakers. The mountain, listed as a Traditional Cultural Property, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 8,1999, lake Mead National Recreation Area Spirit Mountain
29.
Hoover Dam
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Hoover Dam, once known as Boulder Dam, is a concrete arch-gravity dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River, on the border between the U. S. states of Nevada and Arizona. It was constructed between 1931 and 1936 during the Great Depression and was dedicated on September 30,1935 and its construction was the result of a massive effort involving thousands of workers, and cost over one hundred lives. The dam was named after President Herbert Hoover. In 1928, Congress authorized the project, the winning bid to build the dam was submitted by a consortium called Six Companies, Inc. which began construction on the dam in early 1931. Such a large concrete structure had never built before. The torrid summer weather and lack of facilities near the site also presented difficulties, nevertheless, Six Companies turned over the dam to the federal government on March 1,1936, more than two years ahead of schedule. Hoover Dam impounds Lake Mead, the largest reservoir in the United States by volume, the dam is located near Boulder City, Nevada, a municipality originally constructed for workers on the construction project, about 30 mi southeast of Las Vegas, Nevada. The dams generators provide power for public and private utilities in Nevada, Arizona, Hoover Dam is a major tourist attraction, nearly a million people tour the dam each year. The heavily-traveled U. S. Route 93 ran along the dams crest until October 2010, as the United States developed the Southwest, the Colorado River was seen as a potential source of irrigation water. Though water from the Imperial Canal allowed for the settlement of the valley. Even after the waterway was stabilized, it proved unsatisfactory because of constant disputes with landowners on the Mexican side of the border, as the technology of electric power transmission improved, the Lower Colorado was considered for its hydroelectric-power potential. In 1902, the Edison Electric Company of Los Angeles surveyed the river in the hope of building a 40-foot rock dam which could generate 10,000 horsepower. However, at the time, the limit of transmission of power was 80 miles. Edison allowed land options it held on the river to lapse—including an option for what became the site of Hoover Dam. In the following years, the Bureau of Reclamation, known as the Reclamation Service at the time, Service chief Arthur Powell Davis proposed using dynamite to collapse the walls of Boulder Canyon,20 miles north of the eventual dam site, into the river. The river would carry off the pieces of debris. In 1922, the Reclamation Service presented a report calling for the development of a dam on the Colorado River for flood control, the report was principally authored by Davis, and was called the Fall-Davis report after Interior Secretary Albert Fall. The Fall-Davis report cited use of the Colorado River as a concern, because the rivers basin covered several states
30.
Parker Dam
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Parker Dam is a concrete arch-gravity dam that crosses the Colorado River 155 miles downstream of Hoover Dam. Built between 1934 and 1938 by the Bureau of Reclamation, it is 320 feet high,235 feet of which are below the riverbed, the dams primary functions are to create a reservoir, and to generate hydroelectric power. The reservoir behind the dam is called Lake Havasu and can store 647,000 acre·ft or over 210 billion US gallons, the dam straddles the state border at the narrows the river passes through between the Whipple Mountains of California and the Buckskin Mountains of Arizona. The power plant has four Francis turbines with a capacity of 120 MW. It produces electricity at 97% efficiency, Lake Havasu is the water source for the Colorado River Aqueduct. The aqueduct is operated by the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, which supplies water to almost all cities in the greater Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and San Diego areas. The district paid for nearly the entire cost of the dam, Lake Havasu is also the water source for the Central Arizona Project Aqueduct. The project is designed to provide water for irrigated agricultural areas, as well as water for several Arizona communities, including the metropolitan areas of Phoenix. Construction of the dam was an issue for Arizona. Even then Arizona continued to dispute its water allotments until a 1963 Supreme Court decision settled the issue, the court has had to adjust the agreement several times since, most recently in 2000. As recently as 2008 Arizona Senator John McCain has called for a renegotiation of the plan, the troops were recalled when Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes halted construction until the issue had been settled. The Department of the Interior took Arizona to court over the issue hoping to end the states interference, to the Department of the Interiors shock, the Supreme Court sided with Arizona and dismissed the injunction. The court concluded that the dam had never been approved by Congress. Arizona eventually agreed to allow the dam in exchange for approval of the Gila River irrigation project. com Historic American Engineering Record No, aZ-54, Parker Dam, Spanning Colorado River between AZ & CA, Parker, La Paz County, AZ
31.
Edward S. Curtis
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Edward Sheriff Curtis was an American photographer and ethnologist whose work focused on the American West and on Native American peoples. Curtis was born on February 16,1868, on a farm near Whitewater and his father, the Reverend Asahel Johnson Curtis, was a minister, farmer, and American Civil War veteran born in Ohio. His mother, Ellen Sheriff, was born in Pennsylvania, Curtiss siblings were Raphael, also called Ray, Edward, called Eddy, Eva, and Asahel Curtis. Weakened by his experiences in the Civil War, Johnson Curtis had difficulty in managing his farm, resulting in hardship and poverty for his family. Around 1874, the family moved from Wisconsin to Minnesota to join Johnson Curtiss father, Asahel Curtis, Curtis left school in the sixth grade and soon built his own camera. In 1885, at the age of 17, Curtis became a photographer in St. Paul. In 1887 the family moved to Seattle, Washington, where he purchased a new camera, Curtis paid $150 for his 50% share in the studio. After about six months, he left Rothi and formed a new partnership with Thomas Guptill and they established a new studio, Curtis and Guptill, Photographers and Photoengravers. In 1895, Curtis met and photographed Princess Angeline, also known as Kickisomlo and this was his first portrait of a Native American. In 1898, three of Curtiss images were chosen for an exhibition sponsored by the National Photographic Society, two were images of Princess Angeline, The Mussel Gatherer and The Clam Digger. The other was of Puget Sound, entitled Homeward, which was awarded the grand prize. In that same year, while photographing Mt. Rainier, Curtis came upon a group of scientists. One of them was George Bird Grinnell, considered an expert on Native Americans by his peers, Curtis was appointed the official photographer of the Harriman Alaska Expedition of 1899, probably as a result of his friendship with Grinnell. Having very little formal education Curtis learned much during the lectures that were aboard the ship each evening of the voyage. Grinnell became interested in Curtiss photography and invited him to join an expedition to photograph people of the Blackfoot Confederacy in Montana in 1900, in 1906, J. P. Morgan provided Curtis with $75,000 to produce a series on Native Americans. This work was to be in 20 volumes with 1,500 photographs, morgans funds were to be disbursed over five years and were earmarked to support only fieldwork for the books, not for writing, editing, or production of the volumes. Curtis received no salary for the project, which was to last more than 20 years, under the terms of the arrangement, Morgan was to receive 25 sets and 500 original prints as repayment. Once Curtis had secured funding for the project, he was able to hire employees to help him
32.
William Hoffman (United States Army)
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William Hoffman was a 19th-century officer in the United States Army. The West Point graduate was involved in the Black Hawk War, Seminole Wars, Mexican-American War, during the Civil War he served as the Commissary-General of Prisoners and set policy for the treatment and release of prisoners. William Hoffman, Jr. was born in New York and he was the son of Lieutenant Colonel William Hoffman, Sr. who fought in the War of 1812. He graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point and he was a classmate of Robert E. Lee. Hoffmans early military career was on the frontier, between 1829 and 1836 he was stationed at either Jefferson Barracks in Missouri or Fort Leavenworth in Kansas. In 1832 he fought in the Black Hawk War, on November 16,1836 he was promoted to 1st Lieutenant, 6th U. S. Infantry. Hoffman then moved south to Fort Jesup and Camp Sabine in Louisiana before fighting in the Second Seminole War from 1837-1842, on February 1,1838 he was promoted to captain, 6th U. S. Infantry. In 1842 he served in the Recruiting Service before being posted at Fort Smith in Arkansas, in 1846 he mustered volunteers into the military before his engagement in the Mexican-American War. On August 20,1847 Hoffman was brevetted to major for gallant and meritorious conduct in the Battles of Contreras and he was also involved in the Battle of Molino del Rey, the Battle of Chapultepec, and the Assault and Capture of Mexico City. He was brevetted a lieutenant colonel on September 8,1847 for his gallant, between the war with Mexico and the Civil War Hoffman served on recruiting duty for two years before returning to the frontier. There he was garrisoned again at Fort Leavenworth and was promoted to major, 5th U. S. Infantry and he returned to Jefferson Barracks in 1852 and was transferred back to the 6th U. S. From 1852-1854 he was garrisoned at Newport Barracks in Kentucky and he returned to the frontier in 1854 with his posting at Fort Laramie in the Dakota Territory. He was involved in the Sioux Expedition of 1855, the Utah Expedition of 1858, Hoffman relocated to California for frontier duty in the Mojave Country and Benicia, California. On October 17,1860 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel, 8th U. S. Infantry, Hoffman was in San Antonio at the start of the American Civil War. He was taken as a prisoner of war by the Confederates when Brigadier General David E. Twiggs surrendered the Union command on February 18,1861. On April 25,1862 he was promoted to colonel, 3rd U. S. Infantry, while still a prisoner of war and he was reassigned to Washington, D. C. where that year he became Commissary-General of Prisoners. The Office of the Commissary-General of Prisoners had been organized on October 7,1861 under the Quartermaster General’s Department. It was made responsible to the Secretary of War on June 17,1862, so when Hoffman took the position, he had access to the top of the military
33.
Totem
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A totem is a spirit being, sacred object, or symbol that serves as an emblem of a group of people, such as a family, clan, lineage, or tribe. However, the people of those cultures have words for their guardian spirits in their own languages. Totem poles of the Pacific Northwest of North America are monumental poles of heraldry and they feature many different designs that function as crests of families or chiefs. They recount stories owned by families or chiefs, or commemorate special occasions. Totemism is a associated with animistic religions. The totem is usually an animal or other natural figure that represents a group of related people such as a clan. Scottish ethnologist John Ferguson McLennan, following the vogue of 19th-century research, addressed totemism in a perspective in his study The Worship of Animals. McLennan did not seek to explain the origin of the totemistic phenomenon. If the origin of the name was forgotten, Lang argued, through nature myths animals and natural objects were considered as the relatives, patrons, or ancestors of the respective social units. In 1910, Russian American ethnologist Alexander Goldenweiser, subjected totemistic phenomena to sharp criticism, the leading representative of British social anthropology, A. R. As a chief representative of modern structuralism, French ethnologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, poets, and to a lesser extent fiction writers, often use anthropological concepts, including the anthropological understanding of totemism. For this reason literary criticism often resorts to psychoanalytic, anthropological analyses
34.
Bureau of Indian Affairs
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The Bureau of Indian Affairs is an agency of the federal government of the United States within the U. S. Department of the Interior. The BIA’s responsibilities include providing health care to American Indians and Alaska Natives, located at 1849 C Street, NW, in Washington, D. C. the BIA is headed by a bureau director who reports to the Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs. The current director is Michael S. Black, the current assistant secretary is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin. On January 1,2016, Roberts succeeded Kevin K. Washburn, a member of the Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma. The Office of Justice Services, directly operates or funds law enforcement, tribal courts, OJS funded 208 law enforcement agencies, consisting of 43 BIA-operated police agencies, and 165 tribally operated agencies under contract, or compact with the OJS. The OJS also provides oversight and technical assistance to law enforcement programs when. It operates four divisions, Corrections, Drug Enforcement, the Indian Police Academy, the Office of Trust Services, works with tribes and individual American Indians and Alaska Natives in the management of their trust lands, assets, and resources. Agencies to relate to Native Americans had existed in the U. S. government since 1775, benjamin Franklin and Patrick Henry were appointed among the early commissioners to negotiate treaties with Native Americans to obtain their neutrality during the American Revolutionary War. In 1789, the U. S. Congress placed Native American relations within the newly formed War Department. By 1806 the Congress had created a Superintendent of Indian Trade, or Office of Indian Trade within the War Department, the post was held by Thomas L. McKenney from 1816 until the abolition of the factory system in 1822. The government licensed traders to have control in Indian territories. The abolition of the system left a vacuum within the U. S. government regarding Native American relations. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was formed on March 11,1824, Calhoun, who created the agency as a division within his department, without authorization from the United States Congress. He appointed McKenney as the first head of the office, which went by several names, McKenney preferred to call it the Indian Office, whereas the current name was preferred by Calhoun. In 1832 Congress established the position of Commissioner of Indian Affairs, in 1849 Indian Affairs was transferred to the U. S. Department of the Interior. In 1869, Ely Samuel Parker was the first Native American to be appointed as commissioner of Indian affairs and it emphasized being educated to European-American culture. Some were beaten for praying to their own creator god, the bureau was renamed from Office of Indian Affairs to Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1947. The rise of activist groups such as the American Indian Movement worried the U. S. government and they intended to bring attention to American Indian issues, including their demands for renewed negotiation of treaties, enforcement of treaty rights and improvement in living standards
35.
United States Department of the Interior
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The United States Department of the Interior is the United States federal executive department of the U. S. About 75% of federal land is managed by the department. The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior, the current Secretary is Ryan Zinke. The Inspector General position is vacant, with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General. Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the ministries of other nations. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily, the Department of the Interior has often been humorously called The Department of Everything Else because of its broad range of responsibilities. A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, the idea of a separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by Presidents from James Madison to James Polk. The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the new steam as the responsibilities of federal government grew. Polks Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, became a champion of creating the new department. In 1849, Walker stated in his report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be together in a new Department of the Interior. A bill authorizing its creation of the Department passed the House of Representatives on February 15,1849, the Department was established on March 3,1849, the eve of President Zachary Taylors inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the Department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill, the first Secretary of the Interior was Thomas Ewing. Many of the concerns the Department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other Departments. Other agencies became separate Departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture, however, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain the responsibilities of the Department of the Interior. As of mid-2004, the Department managed 507 million acres of surface land, energy projects on federally managed lands and offshore areas supply about 28% of the nations energy production. Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with Native Americans, the current acting Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin. Several cases have sought accounting of such funds from the departments of Interior, in addition, some Native American nations have sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US
36.
American Indian Wars
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These conflicts occurred in the current boundaries of the United States from the time of earliest colonial settlements until 1924. In many cases, wars resulted from competition for resources and land ownership as Europeans, Warfare and raiding also took place as a result of conflicts between European governments and later the United States. These governments enlisted Native Americans tribes to help them conduct warfare against each others settlements, after 1776, many conflicts were local, involving disputes over land use, and some entailed cycles of reprisal. In the 1800s, conflicts were spurred by ideologies such as Manifest Destiny, in the years leading up to the Indian Removal Act of 1830 there were many armed conflicts between settlers and Native Americans. Prior to the Act of 1830, some conflicts were resolved through sale or exchange of territory through treaties between the government and specific tribes. The 1830 act authorized the removal of indigenous peoples who lived East of the Mississippi River to the West. As United States citizens continued to settle areas towards the Pacific, the policy of removal was refined to move some indigenous peoples to very specific reservations. The 2010 census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being Native American, no consensus exists on how many native people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Columbus, but extensive research has been and continues to be conducted. Estimates on the population of pre-Colombus North America range from a low of 2.1 million to 7 million people to 18 million, scholars believe that the overwhelming main causes were new infectious diseases carried by European explorers and traders. Native Americans had no acquired immunity to diseases, which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for over five centuries. For instance, some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 80–98% in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, the actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given. Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate, from about 1600 onwards, the process of European colonization of North America by the English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Swedish was contested by various indigenous tribes. Similarly, in the American Revolution and the War of 1812, the British planned to set up an Indian nation in what is now the Ohio-Wisconsin area to block further American expansion. The U. S. protested and finally, in 1812, most Indian tribes, especially those allied with Tecumseh, supported the British and were ultimately defeated by General William Henry Harrison. The latter were defeated by General Andrew Jackson, during and after such warfare, many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada, those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control. During the early 19th century, the government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Native Americans from their areas. Some resisted fiercely, most notably the Seminoles in a series of wars in Florida and they were never finally defeated, although some Seminole did remove to Indian Territory
37.
American Indian boarding schools
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The government paid religious societies to provide education to Native American children on reservations. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Bureau of Indian Affairs founded additional boarding schools based on the model of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School. The experience of the schools was often harsh, especially for the children who were separated from their families. In numerous ways, they were encouraged or forced to abandon their Native American identities and cultures, investigations of the later twentieth century have revealed many documented cases of sexual, manual, physical and mental abuse occurring at such schools. Historian Brenda Child reports that boarding schools cultivated pan-Indian-ism and made possible cross-tribal coalitions that have helped many different tribes collaborate in the 20th century and she argues, People formerly separated by language, culture, and geography lived and worked together in residential schools. Students formed close bonds and enjoyed a rich cross-cultural change, graduates of government schools often married former classmates, found employment in the Indian Service, migrated to urban areas, returned to their reservations and entered tribal politics. Countless new alliances, both personal and political, were forged in government boarding schools, since those years, tribal nations have increasingly insisted on community-based schools and have also founded numerous tribal colleges and universities. Community schools have also supported by the federal government through the BIA. The largest boarding schools have closed, in some cases, reservations or tribes were too small or poor to support independent schools and they still wanted an alternative for their children, especially for high school. By 2007, most of the schools had closed down. In this same period, more Native Americans are living in urban environments, but it has been conceived to be impracticable to civilize the Indians of North America — This opinion is probably more convenient than just. The Civilization Fund Act of 1819 promoted this civilization policy by providing funding to societies who worked on Native American education, moses Tom sent his children to an Indian boarding school. I rejoice, brothers, to hear you propose to become cultivators of the earth for the maintenance of your families, be assured you will support them better and with less labor, by raising stock and bread, and by spinning and weaving clothes, than by hunting. A little land cultivated, and a little labor, will procure more provisions than the most successful hunt, compared with you, we are but as of yesterday in this land. Yet see how much more we have multiplied by industry, follow then our example, brethren, and we will aid you with great pleasure. The missions annual records report that by 1640, they had founded a community they named St. Marys, and the Indians were sending their children there to be educated among the English. This included the daughter of the Pascatoe Indian chief Tayac, which not only a school for Indians. Maryland and the established school sent two boys to St. Omer who yielded in abilities to few Europeans, when competing for the honour of being first in their class
38.
Franciscans
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The Franciscans are a group of related mendicant religious orders within the Catholic Church, founded in 1209 by Francis of Assisi. These orders include the Order of Friars Minor, the Order of Saint Clare, Francis began preaching around 1207 and traveled to Rome to seek approval from the Pope in 1209. The original Rule of Saint Francis approved by the Pope disallowed ownership of property, the austerity was meant to emulate the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. Franciscans traveled and preached in the streets, while boarding in church properties, Saint Clare, under Franciss guidance, founded the Poor Clares in 1212, which remains a Second Order of the Franciscans. The extreme poverty required of members was relaxed in final revision of the Rule in 1223, the degree of observance required of members remained a major source of conflict within the order, resulting in numerous secessions. The Order of Friars Minor, previously known as the Observant branch, is one of the three Franciscan First Orders within the Catholic Church, the others being the Capuchins and Conventuals. The Order of Friars Minor, in its current form, is the result of an amalgamation of smaller orders completed in 1897 by Pope Leo XIII. The latter two, the Capuchin and Conventual, remain distinct religious institutes within the Catholic Church, observing the Rule of Saint Francis with different emphases, Franciscans are sometimes referred to as minorites or greyfriars because of their habit. In Poland and Lithuania they are known as Bernardines, after Bernardino of Siena, the name of original order, Friars Minor, means lesser brothers, and stems from Francis of Assisis rejection of extravagance. Francis was the son of a cloth merchant, but gave up his wealth to pursue his faith more fully. Francis adopted of the tunic worn by peasants as the religious habit for his order. Those who joined him became the original Order of Friars Minor and they all live according to a body of regulations known as the Rule of St Francis. First Order The First Order or the Order of Friars Minor are commonly called simply the Franciscans and this Order is a mendicant religious order of men, some of whom trace their origin to Francis of Assisi. Their official Latin name is the Ordo Fratrum Minorum, St. Francis thus referred to his followers as Fraticelli, meaning Little Brothers. Franciscan brothers are informally called friars or the Minorites and they all live according to a body of regulations known as the Rule of St Francis. These are The Order of Friars Minor, known as the Observants, most commonly simply called Franciscan friars, official name, the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin or simply Capuchins, official name, Friars Minor Capuchin. The Conventual Franciscans or Minorites, official name, Friars Minor Conventual, Second Order The Second Order, most commonly called Poor Clares in English-speaking countries, consists of religious sisters. The order is called the Order of St. Clare, but in the century, prior to 1263, this order was referred to as The Poor Ladies, The Poor Enclosed Nuns
39.
Alfred L. Kroeber
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Alfred Louis Kroeber was an American cultural anthropologist. He received his Ph. D. under Franz Boas at Columbia University in 1901 and he was also the first professor appointed to the Department of Anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley. He played a role in the early days of its Museum of Anthropology. Kroeber provided detailed information about Ishi, the last surviving member of the Yahi people and he was the father of the acclaimed novelist, poet, and writer of short stories Ursula Kroeber Le Guin. His family moved into New York when Alfred was quite young and he attended Columbia College at the age of 16, joining the Philolexian Society and earning an A. B. in English in 1896 and an M. A. in Romantic drama in 1897. It was the first doctorate in anthropology awarded by Columbia, Kroeber spent most of his career in California, primarily at the University of California, Berkeley. He was both a Professor of Anthropology and the Director of what was then the University of California Museum of Anthropology, the anthropology departments headquarters building at the University of California is named Kroeber Hall in his honor. He was associated with Berkeley until his retirement in 1946, Kroeber married Henrietta Rothschild in 1906. She contracted tuberculosis and died in 1913, after years of illness. In 1926 he married again, to Theodora Kracaw Brown, a widow whom he met as a student in one of his graduate seminars and they had two children, Karl Kroeber, a literary critic, and the science fiction writer Ursula Kroeber Le Guin. In addition, Alfred adopted Theodoras sons by her first marriage, Ted and Clifton Brown, in 2003, Clifton and Karl Kroeber published a book of essays on Ishis story, which they co-edited, called, Ishi in Three Centuries. This is the first scholarly book on Ishi to contain essays by Native American writers, Alfred Kroeber died in Paris on October 5,1960. He conducted excavations in New Mexico, Mexico, and Peru, in Peru he helped found the Institute for Andean Studies with the Peruvian anthropologist Julio C. Kroeber and his students did important work collecting cultural data on western tribes of Native Americans, the work done in preserving information about California tribes appeared in Handbook of the Indians of California. Kroeber is credited with developing the concepts of culture area, cultural configuration, kroebers influence was so strong that many contemporaries adopted his style of beard and mustache as well as his views as a cultural historian. During his lifetime, he was known as the Dean of American Anthropologists and he is noted for working with Ishi, who was claimed to be the last California Yahi Indian. His second wife, Theodora Kracaw Kroeber, wrote a biography of Ishi, Ishi in Two Worlds. Kroebers relationship with Ishi was the subject of a film, The Last of His Tribe, starring Jon Voight as Kroeber, kroebers textbook, Anthropology, was widely used for many years
40.
Parker, Arizona
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Parker is the county seat of La Paz County, Arizona, United States, on the Colorado River in Parker Valley. The population was 3,083 at the 2010 census, founded in 1908, the town was named after Ely Parker, the first Native American commissioner for the U. S. government. The original town site of Parker was surveyed and laid out in 1909 by a railroad location engineer by the name of Earl, H. Parker for the Arizona & California Railway. Parker is located at 34°8′41″N 114°17′23″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 22.0 square miles, of which,22.0 square miles of it is land and 0. 05% is water. The undeveloped territory consist of unpaved roads. Of the few that are paved Mohave Road is the most utilized between the town and the territory. The same road can be taken 15.5 miles south to the Town of Poston which is famous for its relocation camps for Japanese Americans during WWII, Parker has an arid climate classification, which is characterized by extremely hot summers and warm winters. Wintertime highs in Parker are generally in the upper 60s to lower 70s, lows during the winter are between 40 to 50 °F with an occasional morning dipping below 32 °F. Summers in Parker can be hot, with highs in June, July, August. April and May both average 90 to 100 °F daytime highs, even the month of October has an average high of 90.0 °F. The all-time highest recorded temperature in Parker was 127 °F, which occurred on July 7,1905 and this was, at the time, the all-time record high in Arizona history until Lake Havasu City reached 128 °F on June 29,1994. Rainfall is uniformly scanty throughout the year in Parker, with no month averaging more than three days with measurable rainfall, the monsoon storms that provide much of the rain in southern and eastern parts of Arizona seldom effect Parker. The wettest calendar year has been 1992 with 13.59 inches – though from July 1992 to June 1993 the figure was higher still at 13.74 inches –. As of the census in 2000, there were 3,140 people,1,064 households, the population density was 142.8 people per square mile. There were 1,157 housing units at a density of 52.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 62. 04% White,1. 88% Black or African American,23. 09% Native American,0. 86% Asian,0. 16% Pacific Islander,7. 45% from other races, and 4. 52% from two or more races. 29. 78% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,20. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.93 and the family size was 3.38
United States (
Arizona)
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