1.
Japanese sword mountings
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Japanese sword mountings are the various housings and associated fittings that hold the blade of a Japanese sword when it is being worn or stored. Fuchi, The fuchi is a hilt collar between the tsuka and the tsuba. Habaki, The habaki is a shaped metal collar used to keep the sword from falling out of the saya and to support the fittings below. Kaeshizuno - a hook shaped fitting used to lock the saya to the obi while drawing, kashira, The kashira is a butt cap on the end of the tsuka. Kōgai, The kōgai is a spike for hair arranging carried sometimes as part of Katana-Koshirae in another pocket, koiguchi, The koiguchi is the mouth of the saya or its fitting, traditionally made of buffalo horn. Kojiri, The kojiri is the end of the saya or the protective fitting at the end of the saya, kozuka, The kozuka is a decorative handle fitting for the kogatana, a small utility knife fit into a pocket on the saya. Kuri-kata, The kuri-kata is a knob on the side of the saya for attaching the sageo, mekugi, The mekugi is a small peg for securing the tsuka to the nakago. Menuki, The menuki are ornaments on the tsuka, to fit into the palm for grip, mekugi-ana, The mekugi-ana are the holes in the tsuka and nakago for the mekugi. Sageo, The sageo is the used to tie saya to the belt/obi when worn. Same-hada - literally the pattern of the ray skin, same-kawa, same-kawa is the ray or shark skin wrapping of the tsuka. Saya, The saya is a wooden scabbard for the blade, seppa, The seppa are washers above and below the tsuba to tighten the fittings. Shitodome - an accent on the kurikata for aesthetic purposes, often done in metal in modern reproductions. Tsuba, The tsuba is a hand guard, tsuka, The tsuka is the hilt or handle, made of wood and wrapped in samegawa. Tsuka-maki - the art of wrapping the tsuka, including the most common hineri maki, Tsuka-ito, Tsuka-ito the wrap of the tsuka, traditionally silk but today most often in cotton and sometimes leather. Wari-bashi - metal chop-sticks fit in a pocket on the saya and they were externally featureless save for the needed mekugi-ana to secure the nakago, though sometimes sayagaki was also present. The need for specialized storage is because prolonged koshirae mounting harmed the blade, owing to such as the lacquered wood retaining moisture. Such mountings are not intended for combat, as the lack of a tsuba and proper handle wrappings were deleterious. However, there have been loosely similar hidden mountings, such as the shikomizue, the word koshirae is derived from the verb koshiraeru, which is no longer used in current speech
2.
Walters Art Museum
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The Walters Art Museum, located in Mount Vernon-Belvedere, Baltimore, Maryland, is a public art museum founded and opened in 1934. It holds collections established during the mid-19th Century, located across the back alley, a block south of the Walters mansion on West Monument Street/Mount Vernon Place, on the northwest corner of North Charles Street at West Centre Street. The following year, The Walters reopened its original building after a dramatic three-year physical renovation and replacement of internal utilities. The Archimedes Palimpsest was on loan to the Walters Art Museum from a collector for conservation. This was one of the largest and most comprehensive such releases made by any museum, the Walters collection of ancient art includes examples from Egypt, Nubia, Greece, Rome, Etruria and the Near East. In 1911, Henry Walters purchased almost 100 gold artifacts from the Chiriqui region of western Panama in Central America, the museum owns the oldest surviving Chinese wood-and-lacquer image of the Buddha. It is exhibited in a gallery dedicated solely to this work, the Museum holds one of the largest and finest collections of Thai bronze, scrolls, and banner paintings in the world. Islamic art in all media is represented at the Walters, the Walters Museum owns an array of Islamic manuscripts. Walters Art Museum, MS W.613 contains five Mughal miniatures from a very important Khamsa of Nizami made for the Emperor Akbar, Henry Walters assembled a collection of art produced during the Middle Ages in all the major artistic media of the period. This forms the basis of the Walters medieval collection, for which the Museum is best known internationally. Considered one of the best collections of art in the United States, the Museums holdings include examples of metalwork, sculpture, stained glass, textiles, icons. Sculpted heads from the royal Abbey of St. Denis are rare surviving examples of sculptures that are directly connected with the origins of Gothic art in 12th Century France. An ivory casket covered with scenes of jousting knights is one of about a dozen such objects to survive in the world, many of these works are on display in the Museums galleries. Works in the collection are the subject of active research by the curatorial and conservation departments of the museum. The collection of European Renaissance and Baroque art features holdings of paintings, sculpture, furniture, ceramics, metal work, arms, the museum has one of ten surviving examples of the Sèvres pot-pourri vase in the shape of a ship from the 1750s and 1760s. William and Henry Walters collected works by late 19th Century French academic masters, Henry Walters was particularly interested in the courtly arts of 18th Century France. The museum’s collection of Sèvres porcelain includes a number of pieces that were made for members of the Royal Bourbon Court at Versailles Palace outside of Paris. Portrait miniatures and the examples of works, especially snuffboxes and watches, are displayed in the Treasury, along with some exceptional 19th-
3.
Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
4.
Japanese sword
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A Japanese sword is one of several types of traditionally made swords from Japan. Some of the commonly known types of Japanese swords are the katana, wakizashi. The type classifications for Japanese swords indicate the combination of a blade and its mounts as this, then, an unsigned and shortened blade that was once made and intended for use as a tachi may be alternately mounted in tachi koshirae and katana koshirae. It is properly distinguished, then, by the style of mount it currently inhabits, the following are types of Japanese swords, Chokutō, A straight single edged sword that was produced prior to the 10th century, and without differential hardening or folding. Tsurugi/Ken, A straight two edged sword that was produced prior to the 10th century, and may be without differential hardening or folding. Tachi, A sword that is longer and more curved than the later katana, with curvature centered from the middle or towards the tang. Tachi were worn suspended, with the edge downward, the tachi was in vogue before the 15th century. Kodachi, A shorter version of the tachi, but with similar mounts and intended use, Ōdachi /Nodachi, Very large tachi, some in excess of 100 cm, and usually a blade of the late 14th century. Uchigatana, A development from the tachi in the 15th century, worn with the edge upwards in the obi. Katate-uchi, A short type of uchigatana developed in the 16th century, with short tang, one of the forerunners of the wakizashi. Katana, A general term for the sword with a curved blade longer than 60 cm. Developed from the uchigatana and the sword of the class of the Edo period. Wakizashi, A general term for a sword between one and two long, predominantly made after 1600. The name refers to the style of mount as well as a type which means that a naginata blade could be mounted in a nagamaki mount. Naginata, A polearm with a curved single-edged blade, naginata mounts consist of a long wooden pole, different from a nagamaki mount, which is shorter and wrapped. Yari, A spear, or spear-like polearm, the main blade is symmetric and straight unlike a naginata, and usually smaller but can be as large or bigger than some naginata blades. Usually one-edged, but some were double-edged, though asymmetrical, ken, Usually a tanto or wakizashi length religious or ceremonial blade, with a gentle leaf shape and point, but some may be larger and can also refer to old pre-curve types of swords as above. Arrowheads for war, yajiri, were made using the same methods as Japanese swords were
5.
Akita Prefecture
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Akita Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Tōhoku region of northern Honshu, the main island of Japan. The capital is the city of Akita, the area of Akita has been created from the ancient provinces of Dewa and Mutsu. Akita was a region of hunter-gatherers and principally nomadic tribes, the first historical record of what is now Akita Prefecture dates to 658, when the Abe no Hirafu conquered the native Ezo tribes at what are now the cities of Akita and Noshiro. Hirafu, then governor of Koshi Province, established a fort on the Mogami River, in 733, a new military settlement—later renamed Akita Castle—was built in modern-day Akita city at Takashimizu, and more permanent roads and structures were developed. The region was used as a base of operations for the Japanese empire as it drove the native Ezo people from northern Honshū. During the Tokugawa shogunate it was appropriated to the Satake clan, throughout this period, it was classified as part of Dewa Province. In 1871, during the Meiji Restoration, Dewa Province was reshaped, the famous Heian period waka poet, Ono no Komachi, is said to have been born in Yuzawa City, Ogachi Town, located in the southeast of the prefecture. Akita Prefecture is rectangular in shape, roughly 181 km from north to south and 111 km from west to east, the Ōu Mountains mark the eastern border of the prefecture, and the higher Dewa Mountains run parallel through the center of the prefecture. Like much of northern Japan, the prefecture has cold winters, the Oga Peninsula is a prominent feature of the coastline. This has led many people to migrate to Tokyo and other large cities. Akita Prefecture is where declines in population are most severe in Japan and it also has the lowest number of children as a percentage of the population, at 11. 2%. As of 2010, it has a population of just over 1 million people, Akita is famous for rice farming and its sake breweries. It is well known for having the highest consumption of sake in Japan, the women of the region, referred to as Akita bijin, have also gained widespread renown for their white skin, rounded faces and high voices, all of which are considered highly desirable. Ono no Komachi is an example of an Akita bijin. Kiritanpo Nabe Gakko Rice – Akita komachi Sake Near Lake Tazawa and these are popular with tourists from all over Japan. In addition, its numerous seasonal festivals offer a glimpse of rural or traditional Japan, some famous examples are the Akita Kantō, the Omagari Fireworks, Namahage Festival, and the Yokote Kamakura Festivals. Kakunodate is a charming old town, known as the little Kyoto. The Aoyagi house is the residence of Odano Naotake, the man who illustrated Japans first modern guide to the human anatomy
6.
Lacquerware
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Lacquerware are objects decoratively covered with lacquer, the treated, dyed and dried sap of Toxicodendron vernicifluum or related trees, applied in several coats to a base that is usually wood. This dries to a hard and smooth surface layer which is durable, waterproof. Lacquer is sometimes painted with pictures, inlaid with shell and other materials, or carved, as well as dusted with gold and given other further decorative treatments. Lacquerware includes small or large containers, tableware, a variety of objects carried by people. Most East Asian countries have traditions of lacquer work, going back several thousand years in the cases of China. True lacquer is not made outside Asia, but some imitations, such as Japanning in Europe, or parallel techniques, various prehistoric lacquerwares have been unearthed in China dating back to the Neolithic period and objects with lacquer coating found in Japan dating to the late Jōmon period. The earliest known object, a red wooden bowl, was unearthed at a Hemudu culture site in Zhejiang. During the Shang dynasty of China, sophisticated lacquer process techniques developed became an artistic craft. During the Eastern Zhou period, lacquerware began appearing in large quantity and this is the earliest era from which notable quantities of lacquerware have survived. By the Han dynasty, special administrations were established to organize, elaborate incised decorations were used in lacquerware during the Han dynasty. In the Tang dynasty, Chinese lacquerware saw a new style marked by the use of sheets of gold or silver made in shapes, such as birds, animals. This was done by a known as pingtuo. Such techniques were time-consuming and costly, but these lacquerware were considered highly refined and it was also the period when the earliest practice of carving lacquerware began. The art of gold, silver, and mother-of-pearl continued from the Tang into the Song dynasty. Several existing decorative techniques gradually developed further after the 10th century, such as qiangjin, diaotian or tianqi, especially the art of inlaying lacquer with mother-of-pearl was intensively developed during the Song dynasty. However, during the Song, the craft also made use of inlaid gold in a process of which is to engrave intricate patterns in the lacquer surface. The knowledge of the Chinese methods of the process spread from China during the Han, Tang and Song dynasties, eventually it was introduced to Korea, Japan, Southeast. One of the earliest Japanese techniques for decorating the lacquer surface was, besides painting simple designs and this technique was transmitted from China during the Tang dynasty
7.
Shibuichi
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Shibuichi is an alloy which can be patinated into a range of subtle muted shades of blue or green, through the use of rokushō treatments. Its name means one-fourth in Japanese and indicates the standard formulation of one part silver to three copper, though this may be varied according to the desired effect. A 5% silver / 95% copper alloy is also marketed as shibuichi, a wide range of colours can be achieved using the whole range of alloy compositions, even above 50% silver. 90% Copper and 10% Silver for a grey and down to 70% Copper. For most of its history, shibuichi was mostly used to ornament various fittings for katana until the Meiji reforms, the material is often used in mokume-gane combinations. Kuro-Shibuichi Kuro is black in Japanese, kuro-Shibuichi is different from others in the table. Kuro-Shibuichi is mixture of Shibuichi and Shakudō with additional 1% of Gold, roughly proportion of Silver 9. 9％, Copper 87. 3％, Gold 2. 8％. Kuro-Shibuich will develop black patina which is different from the black patina of Shakudo, mokume-gane Shakudō Kuromido Katana Japanning Panchaloha Hepatizon Corinthian bronze Orichalcum Electrum Tumbaga Niello Reactive Metal Studio Inc. -- Shakudo & Shibuichi Data Sheet
8.
Diffusion
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Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. This is also referred to as the movement of a substance down a concentration gradient, a gradient is the change in the value of a quantity with the change in another variable. The word diffusion derives from the Latin word, diffundere, which means to spread out, a distinguishing feature of diffusion is that it results in mixing or mass transport, without requiring bulk motion. Thus, diffusion should not be confused with convection, or advection, an example of a situation in which bulk flow and diffusion can be differentiated is the mechanism by which oxygen enters the body during external respiration. The lungs are located in the cavity, which expands as the first step in external respiration. This expansion leads to an increase in volume of the alveoli in the lungs and this creates a pressure gradient between the air outside the body and the alveoli. The air moves down the gradient through the airways of the lungs and into the alveoli until the pressure of the air. The air arriving in the alveoli has a concentration of oxygen than the “stale” air in the alveoli. The increase in oxygen concentration creates a concentration gradient for oxygen between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries that surround the alveoli, oxygen then moves by diffusion, down the concentration gradient, into the blood. The other consequence of the air arriving in alveoli is that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the alveoli decreases and this creates a concentration gradient for carbon dioxide to diffuse from the blood into the alveoli. The pumping action of the heart then transports the blood around the body, as the left ventricle of the heart contracts, the volume decreases, which increases the pressure in the ventricle. This creates a gradient between the heart and the capillaries, and blood moves through blood vessels by bulk flow. The concept of diffusion is widely used in, physics, chemistry, biology, sociology, economics, however, in each case, the object that is undergoing diffusion is “spreading out” from a point or location at which there is a higher concentration of that object. In the phenomenological approach, diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration without bulk motion, according to Ficks laws, the diffusion flux is proportional to the negative gradient of concentrations. It goes from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration, some time later, various generalizations of Ficks laws were developed in the frame of thermodynamics and non-equilibrium thermodynamics. From the atomistic point of view, diffusion is considered as a result of the walk of the diffusing particles. In molecular diffusion, the molecules are self-propelled by thermal energy. Random walk of small particles in suspension in a fluid was discovered in 1827 by Robert Brown, the theory of the Brownian motion and the atomistic backgrounds of diffusion were developed by Albert Einstein
9.
Katana
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Historically, katana were one of the traditionally made Japanese swords that were used by the samurai of ancient and feudal Japan. The katana is characterized by its appearance, a curved, single-edged blade with a circular or squared guard. These references to uchigatana and tsubagatana seem to indicate a different style of sword, the Mongol invasions of Japan faciliated a change in the designs of Japanese swords. Thin tachi and chokuto style blades were often unable to cut through the boiled leather armour of the Mongols, the evolution of the tachi into what would become the katana seems to have continued during the early Muromachi period. Starting around the year 1400, long swords signed with the signature were made. This was in response to samurai wearing their tachi in what is now called katana style, Japanese swords are traditionally worn with the signature facing away from the wearer. When a tachi was worn in the style of a katana, with the cutting edge up, the fact that swordsmiths started signing swords with a katana signature shows that some samurai of that time period had started wearing their swords in a different manner. The rise in popularity of katana amongst samurai came about due to the nature of close-combat warfare. The quicker draw of the sword was well suited to combat where victory depended heavily on short response times, the katana further facilitated this by being worn thrust through a belt-like sash with the sharpened edge facing up. Ideally, samurai could draw the sword and strike the enemy in a single motion, previously, the curved tachi had been worn with the edge of the blade facing down and suspended from a belt. The length of the katana blade varied considerably during the course of its history, in the late 14th and early 15th centuries, katana blades tended to have lengths between 70 and 73 centimetres. During the early 16th century, the average length dropped about 10 centimetres, by the late 16th century, the average length had increased again by about 13 centimetres, returning to approximately 73 centimetres. The katana was often paired with a smaller companion sword, such as a wakizashi, or it could also be worn with the tantō. The pairing of a katana with a sword is called the daishō. Only samurai could wear the daisho, it represented the social power, during the Meiji period, the samurai class was gradually disbanded, and the special privileges granted to them were taken away including the right to carry swords in public. The Haitōrei Edict in 1876 forbade the carrying of swords in public except for individuals, such as former samurai lords, the military. Skilled swordsmiths had trouble making a living during this period as Japan modernized its military, and many swordsmiths started making other items, such as equipment, tools. Military action by Japan in China and Russia during the Meiji period helped revive interest in swords, Japanese military swords produced between 1875 and 1945 are referred to as guntō
10.
Tiffany & Co.
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Tiffany & Company is an American luxury jewelry and specialty retailer, headquartered in New York City. Tiffany sells jewelry, sterling silver, china, crystal, stationery, fragrances, water bottles, watches, personal accessories, many of these goods are sold at Tiffany stores, as well as through direct-mail and corporate merchandising. Tiffany is renowned for its goods and is particularly known for its diamond jewelry. Tiffany markets itself as an arbiter of taste and style, and was once a purveyor to the Russian imperial family, founded by Charles Lewis Tiffany and John B. The name was shortened to Tiffany & Company in 1853 when Charles Tiffany took control, Tiffany & Company has since opened stores in major cities all over the world. Unlike other stores at the time in the 1830s, Tiffany clearly marked the prices on its goods to forestall any haggling over prices, in addition, against the social norm at the time, Tiffany only accepted cash payments, and did not accept payments on credit. Such practices, fixed prices for ready money, were first introduced by Palmers of London Bridge in 1750, who employed the young Robert Owen, the later social reformer. The first Tiffanys mail order catalog, known as the Blue Book, was published in 1845 in the United States, in 1862, Tiffany & Company supplied the Union Army with swords, flags and surgical implements. In 1867, Tiffany & Co. was the first US firm to win an award for the excellence in silverware at the Exposition Universelle in Paris. In 1870, the built an new store building at 15 Union Square West, Manhattan, designed by John Kellum. It was described by The New York Times as a palace of jewels, Tiffany stayed at this site until 1906. In 1877, an insignia that would become the famous New York Yankees NY logo was struck on a medal of honor by Tiffany & Company. In 1878, Tiffany won the medal for jewelry and a grand prize for silverware at the Paris Exposition. In 1887, Tiffany bought the French Crown Jewels, which attracted publicity, the company revised the Great Seal of the United States in 1885. In 1902, after the death of Charles Lewis Tiffany, his son, Louis Comfort Tiffany, in 1919, the company made a revision to the Medal of Honor on behalf of the United States Department of the Navy. This Tiffany Cross version was rare because it was awarded only for combat, in 1942 the Navy established the Tiffany version for non-combat heroism, but in August 1942 the Navy eliminated the Tiffany Cross and the two-medal system. In 1956, legendary designer Jean Schlumberger joined Tiffany, and Andy Warhol collaborated with Tiffany to create Tiffany Holiday Cards. In 1968 Lady Bird Johnson, First Lady of the U. S. at the time, in November 1978, Tiffany & Co. was sold to Avon Products Inc. for about US$104 million in stock
11.
Titanium
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Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a transition metal with a silver color, low density. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791, and it is named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll, the most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride, a component of smoke screens and catalysts, and titanium trichloride, the two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, there are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant. Although they have the number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table. As a metal, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio and it is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile, lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal and it is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity. Commercial grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa, equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa, however, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C. Titanium is not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, it is non-magnetic, machining requires precautions, because the material might gall unless sharp tools and proper cooling methods are used. Like steel structures, those made from titanium have a limit that guarantees longevity in some applications. The metal is an allotrope of an hexagonal α form that changes into a body-centered cubic β form at 882 °C. The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls, similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal or trigonal and can be considered to be due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of planes of atoms, like aluminium and magnesium, titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C in air and it is, however, slow to react with water and air at ambient temperatures because it forms a passive oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation. When it first forms, this layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to grow slowly
12.
Platinum
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Platinum is a chemical element with symbol Pt and atomic number 78. It is a dense, malleable, ductile, highly unreactive, precious and its name is derived from the Spanish term platina, translated into little silver. Platinum is a member of the group of elements and group 10 of the periodic table of elements. It has six naturally occurring isotopes and it is one of the rarer elements in Earths crust with an average abundance of approximately 5 μg/kg. It occurs in some nickel and copper ores along with some deposits, mostly in South Africa. Because of its scarcity in Earths crust, only a few hundred tonnes are produced annually, Platinum is one of the least reactive metals. It has remarkable resistance to corrosion, even at high temperatures, consequently, platinum is often found chemically uncombined as native platinum. Because it occurs naturally in the sands of various rivers. Platinum is used in catalytic converters, laboratory equipment, electrical contacts and electrodes, platinum resistance thermometers, dentistry equipment, and jewelry. Being a heavy metal, it leads to health issues upon exposure to its salts, compounds containing platinum, such as cisplatin, oxaliplatin and carboplatin, are applied in chemotherapy against certain types of cancer. Pure platinum is a lustrous, ductile, and malleable, silver-white metal, Platinum is more ductile than gold, silver or copper, thus being the most ductile of pure metals, but it is less malleable than gold. The metal has excellent resistance to corrosion, is stable at temperatures and has stable electrical properties. Platinum reacts with oxygen slowly at high temperatures. It reacts vigorously with fluorine at 500 °C to form platinum tetrafluoride and it is also attacked by chlorine, bromine, iodine, and sulfur. Platinum is insoluble in hydrochloric and nitric acid, but dissolves in hot aqua regia to form chloroplatinic acid and its physical characteristics and chemical stability make it useful for industrial applications. Its resistance to wear and tarnish is well suited to use in fine jewelry, the most common oxidation states of platinum are +2 and +4. The +1 and +3 oxidation states are common, and are often stabilized by metal bonding in bimetallic species. As is expected, tetracoordinate platinum compounds tend to adopt 16-electron square planar geometries, Platinum has six naturally occurring isotopes, 190Pt, 192Pt, 194Pt, 195Pt, 196Pt, and 198Pt
13.
Iron
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Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series and it is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earths outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earths crust, like the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +6, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen, fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off, Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys, which have lower melting temperatures, were used even earlier in human history. Pure iron is soft, but is unobtainable by smelting because it is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon. A certain proportion of carbon steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron, further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and iron alloys formed with metals are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties. Iron chemical compounds have many uses, Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding and purifying ores. Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens, among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene, the first sandwich compound discovered. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is also the metal at the site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants. A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body and this iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma. The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests, including the Brinell test, Rockwell test, the data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. An increase in the content will cause a significant increase in the hardness. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0. 6% carbon content, because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. Because of its significance for planetary cores, the properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively
14.
Bronze
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These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as stiffness, ductility, or machinability. The archeological period where bronze was the hardest metal in use is known as the Bronze Age. In the ancient Near East this began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC, with India and China starting to use bronze around the same time, everywhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting from about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, the discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the process could be more easily controlled. Also, unlike arsenic, metallic tin and fumes from tin refining are not toxic, the earliest tin-alloy bronze dates to 4500 BCE in a Vinča culture site in Pločnik. Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Africa, Susa and some ancient sites in China, Luristan, ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together, so serious bronze work has always involved trade. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall. In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artefacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value, in Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes, are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources and these were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. Pure iron is soft, and the process of beating and folding sponge iron to wrought iron removes from the metal carbon. Careful control of the alloying and tempering eventually allowed for wrought iron with properties comparable to modern steel, Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. Among other advantages, it does not rust, the weaker wrought iron was found to be sufficiently strong for many uses. Archaeologists suspect that a disruption of the tin trade precipitated the transition. The population migrations around 1200–1100 BC reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean, limiting supplies, there are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin
15.
Brass
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Brass is a metal alloy made of copper and zinc, the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties. It is an alloy, atoms of the two constituents may replace each other within the same crystal structure. By comparison, bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin, however, bronze and brass may also include small proportions of a range of other elements including arsenic, phosphorus, aluminium, manganese, and silicon. The term is applied to a variety of brasses. Modern practice in museums and archaeology increasingly avoids both terms for objects in favour of the all-embracing copper alloy. It is also used in zippers, Brass is often used in situations in which it is important that sparks not be struck, such as in fittings and tools used near flammable or explosive materials. Brass has higher malleability than bronze or zinc, the relatively low melting point of brass and its flow characteristics make it a relatively easy material to cast. By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the properties of the brass can be changed, allowing hard, the density of brass is 8.4 to 8.73 grams per cubic centimetre. Today, almost 90% of all alloys are recycled. Because brass is not ferromagnetic, it can be separated from ferrous scrap by passing the scrap near a powerful magnet, Brass scrap is collected and transported to the foundry where it is melted and recast into billets. Billets are heated and extruded into the form and size. The general softness of brass means that it can often be machined without the use of cutting fluid, aluminium makes brass stronger and more corrosion-resistant. Aluminium also causes a highly beneficial hard layer of oxide to be formed on the surface that is thin, transparent. Tin has an effect and finds its use especially in seawater applications. Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon and manganese make brass wear and tear resistant, to enhance the machinability of brass, lead is often added in concentrations of around 2%. Since lead has a melting point than the other constituents of the brass. The pattern the globules form on the surface of the brass increases the available surface area which in turn affects the degree of leaching. In addition, cutting operations can smear the lead globules over the surface and these effects can lead to significant lead leaching from brasses of comparatively low lead content
16.
Nickel silver
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Nickel silver, Mailechort, German silver, Argentan, new silver, nickel brass, albata, alpacca, or electrum is a copper alloy with nickel and often zinc. The usual formulation is 60% copper, 20% nickel and 20% zinc, Nickel silver is named for its silvery appearance, but it contains no elemental silver unless plated. The name German silver refers to its development by 19th-century German metalworkers in imitation of the Chinese alloy known as paktong, all modern, commercially important nickel silvers contain significant amounts of zinc, and are sometimes considered a subset of brass. Nickel silver was first known and used in China, during the Qing dynasty, it was smuggled into various parts of the East Indies, despite a government ban on the export of nickel silver. It became known in the west from imported wares called bai-tong or paktong, according to Berthold Laufer, it was identical with khar sini, one of the seven metals recognized by Jābir ibn Hayyān. In Europe, consequently, it was at first called paktong, the earliest European mention of paktong occurs in the year 1597. From then until the end of the century there are references to it as having been exported from Canton to Europe. German imitations of paktong, however, began to appear from about 1750 onward, in 1770 the Suhl metalworks were able to produce a similar alloy. In 1823 a German competition was held to perfect the production process, the brothers Henniger in Berlin and Ernst August Geitner in Schneeberg independently achieved this goal. The manufacturer Berndorf named the trademark brand Alpacca, which became known in northern Europe for nickel silver. In 1830 the German process of manufacture was introduced into England and that is why today the alloy has lost its original name and is generally known as German silver. In 1832, a form of German silver was also developed in Birmingham, after 1840, the development of electroplating caused nickel silver to become widely used. It formed an ideal, strong and bright substrate for the plating process and it was also used unplated in applications such as cheaper grades of cutlery. Nickel silver first became popular as a metal for silver-plated cutlery and other silverware. It is widely used in the production of coins and its industrial and technical uses include marine fittings and plumbing fixtures for its corrosion resistance, and heating coils for its high electrical resistance. In the 19th century, particularly after 1868, Plains Indian jewelers were able to easily acquire sheets of German silver and they used them to cut, stamp, and cold hammer a wide range of accessories and also horse gear. Nickel silver is the metal of choice among contemporary Kiowa and Pawnee metalsmiths in Oklahoma, many of the metal fittings on modern higher-end equine harness and tack are of nickel silver. Early in the century, German silver was used by automobile manufacturers before the advent of steel sheet metal, for example
17.
Gold
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Gold is a chemical element with symbol Au and atomic number 79. In its purest form, it is a bright, slightly yellow, dense, soft, malleable. Chemically, gold is a metal and a group 11 element. It is one of the least reactive chemical elements and is solid under standard conditions, Gold often occurs in free elemental form, as nuggets or grains, in rocks, in veins, and in alluvial deposits. It occurs in a solid solution series with the element silver and also naturally alloyed with copper. Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as gold compounds, often with tellurium, golds atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher numbered, naturally occurring elements. It is thought to have produced in supernova nucleosynthesis, from the collision of neutron stars. Because the Earth was molten when it was formed, almost all of the present in the early Earth probably sank into the planetary core. Gold is resistant to most acids, though it does dissolve in aqua regia, a mixture of acid and hydrochloric acid. Gold also dissolves in solutions of cyanide, which are used in mining and electroplating. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but this is not a chemical reaction, as a precious metal, gold has been used for coinage, jewelry, and other arts throughout recorded history. A total of 186,700 tonnes of gold is in existence above ground, the world consumption of new gold produced is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry. Gold is also used in infrared shielding, colored-glass production, gold leafing, certain gold salts are still used as anti-inflammatories in medicine. As of 2014, the worlds largest gold producer by far was China with 450 tonnes, Gold is cognate with similar words in many Germanic languages, deriving via Proto-Germanic *gulþą from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰelh₃-. The symbol Au is from the Latin, aurum, the Latin word for gold, the Proto-Indo-European ancestor of aurum was *h₂é-h₂us-o-, meaning glow. This word is derived from the root as *h₂éu̯sōs, the ancestor of the Latin word Aurora. This etymological relationship is presumably behind the frequent claim in scientific publications that aurum meant shining dawn, Gold is the most malleable of all metals, a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of 1 square meter, and an avoirdupois ounce into 300 square feet. Gold leaf can be thin enough to become semi-transparent
18.
Semi-finished casting products
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Semi-finished casting products are intermediate castings produced in a foundry that need further processing before being a finished good. There are four types, ingots, blooms, billets, ingots are large rough castings designed for storage and transportation. The shape usually resembles a rectangle or square with generous fillets and they are tapered, usually with the big-end-down. In the era of commercial wrought iron, blooms were slag-riddled iron castings poured in a bloomery before being worked into wrought iron, blooms are usually further processed via rotary piercing, structural shape rolling and profile rolling. Common final products include structural shapes, rails, rods, a billet is a length of metal that has a round or square cross-section, with an area less than 36 in2. Billets are created directly via continuous casting or extrusion or indirectly via hot rolling an ingot or bloom, billets are further processed via profile rolling and drawing. Final products include bar stock and wire, centrifugal casting is also used to produce short circular tubes as billets, usually to achieve a precise metallurgical structure. They are commonly used as cylinder sleeves where the inner and outer diameters are ground, because their size is not modified significantly, they are not always classified as semi-finished casting products. In copper production, a billet is a 30 long, about 8 diameter, a slab is a length of metal that is rectangular in cross-section. It is created directly by casting or indirectly by rolling an ingot on a slabbing mill. Slabs are usually further processed via flat rolling, skelping, common final products include sheet metal, plates, strip metal, pipes, and tubes
19.
Patina
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Patina is a thin layer that variously forms on the surface of stone, on copper, bronze and similar metals, on wooden furniture, or any such acquired change of a surface through age and exposure. Patinas can provide a covering to materials that would otherwise be damaged by corrosion or weathering. They may also be aesthetically appealing, Patina also refers to accumulated changes in surface texture and colour that result from normal use of an object such as a coin or a piece of furniture over time. Archaeologists also use the term patina to refer to a layer that develops over time that is due to a range of complex factors on flint tools. This has led stone tool analysts in recent times to generally prefer the term cortification as a term to describe the process than patination. It also refers to development as the result of weathering of a layer, called cortex by geologists. The word patina comes from the Latin for shallow dish, figuratively, patina can refer to any fading, darkening or other signs of age, which are felt to be natural or unavoidable. The chemical process by which a patina forms is called patination, in clean air rural environments, the patina is created by the slow chemical reaction of copper with carbon dioxide and water, producing a basic copper carbonate. In industrial and urban air environments containing sulfurous acid rain from coal-fired power plants or industrial processes, a patina layer takes many years to develop under natural weathering. Buildings in damp coastal/marine environments will develop patina layers faster than ones in dry inland areas, facade cladding with alloys of copper, e. g. brass or bronze, will weather differently from pure copper cladding. Even a lasting gold colour is possible with copper-alloy cladding, for example Colston Hall in Bristol, or the Novotel at Paddington Central, often, antique and well-used firearms will develop a patina on the steel after the bluing, parkerizing, or other finish has worn. Firearms in this state are considered more valuable than ones that have been re-blued or parkerized. The patina protects the firearm from the more damaging rust that would occur were the patina to be polished off, the process is often called distressing. A wide range of chemicals, both household and commercial, can give a variety of patinas and they are often used by artists as surface embellishments either for color, texture, or both. Patination composition varies with the elements and these will determine the color of the patina. For copper alloys, such as bronze, exposure to chlorides leads to green, the basic palette for patinas on copper alloys includes chemicals like ammonium sulfide, liver of sulfur, cupric nitrate and ferric nitrate. For artworks, patination is often accelerated by applying chemicals with heat. Colors range from matte sandstone yellow to deep blues, greens, whites, reds, some patina colors are achieved by the mixing of colors from the reaction with the metal surface with pigments added to the chemicals
20.
Verdigris
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It is usually a basic copper carbonate, but near the sea will be a basic copper chloride. If acetic acid is present at the time of weathering, it may consist of copper acetate, the name verdigris comes from the Middle English vertegrez, from the Old French verte grez, an alteration of vert-de-Grèce. The modern French spelling of this word is vert-de-gris and it was used as a pigment in paintings and other art objects. It was originally made by hanging copper plates over hot vinegar in a pot until a green crust formed on the copper. Another method of obtaining verdigris pigment, used in the Middle Ages, was to attach copper strips to a block with acetic acid. A few weeks later the pot was dug up and the verdigris scraped off, in eighteenth-century Montpellier, France, it was manufactured in household cellars, where copper plates were stacked in clay pots filled with distilled wine. The verdigris was scraped off weekly by the women of the household, the chemical reaction exhibited between wine and copper to produce verdigris may be related to wines own oxidization process. Another method, used in the nineteenth century, had to do with reacting copper sulfate solution with solutions of lead, barium. Their sulfates are insoluble, forming precipitates and leaving the copper acetate in solution, natural or artificially created coatings of verdigris is commonly used as a patina to protect copper or bronze objects, especially in architecture. It is also used industrially as a fungicide, a catalyst for organic reactions, Verdigris has also been used in medicine. The vivid green color of copper acetate made this form of verdigris a much used pigment, until the 19th century, verdigris was the most vibrant green pigment available and was frequently used in painting. Verdigris is lightfast in oil paint, as examples of 15th-century paintings show. However, its lightfastness and air resistance are very low in other media, Copper resinate, made from verdigris by boiling it in a resin, is not lightfast, even in oil paint. In the presence of light and air, green copper resinate becomes stable brown copper oxide, in addition, verdigris is a fickle pigment requiring special preparation of paint, careful layered application and immediate sealing with varnish to avoid rapid discoloration. Verdigris has the property in oil painting that it is initially bluish-green. Verdigris fell out of use by artists as more stable green pigments became available, Copper acetate is soluble in alcohol and water and slightly soluble in ether and glycerol. It melts at 115 °C and decomposes at 240 °C and it can be prepared by reacting copper oxide, CuO, or copper carbonate, CuCO3, with acetic acid, CH3COOH. Verdigris is a chemical mixture of compounds, complexes and water
21.
Daikon
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Daikon, also known by many other names depending on context, is a mild-flavored winter radish usually characterized by fast-growing leaves and a long, white, napiform root. Originally native to Southeast or continental East Asia, daikon is harvested and consumed throughout the region, in culinary contexts, daikon or daikon radish is the most common in all forms of English, although historical ties to South Asia permit mooli as a general synonym in British English. The generic terms white radish, winter radish, Oriental radish, long white radish, other synonyms usually vary by region or describe regional varieties of the vegetable. When it is necessary to distinguish the usual Japanese form from others, in the cuisines of Hokkien-speaking areas such as Singapore, it is also known as chai tow or chai tau, and in South Asia as mooli. In any of these, it may simply be referred to as radish. In English-speaking countries, it is sometimes marketed as icicle radish. In mainland China and Singapore, the calque white carrot or misnomer carrot is sometimes used, owing to the similarity of the names in Mandarin. This variant gave the title to a guidebook on Singaporean street food, Theres No Carrot in Carrot Cake, which refers to chai tow kway. In North America, it is primarily not for food, but as a fallow crop, with the roots left unharvested to prevent soil compaction. The official general name used by the United States Department of Agriculture is oilseed radish, other English terms employed when daikon is being used as animal feed or as a soil ripper are forage radish, fodder radish, and tillage radish. A number of nonwhite varieties occur, the Cantonese lobak, lo pak, etc. sometimes refer to the usual Chinese form, but is also applied to a form of daikon with light green coloration of the top area of the root around the leaves. The Korean radish, also called mu, has pale green shade halfway down from the top, and are generally shorter, stouter. Both are often spicier than the long white radishes, the heirloom watermelon radish is another Chinese variety of daikon with a dull green exterior, but a bright rose or fuchsia-colored center. Its Chinese name is sometimes romanized as the shinrimei radish and sometimes translated as the beauty heart, beautiful heart inside. Tillage radish leaves behind a cavity in the soil when the tap root decays, making it easier for the following years crops, such as potatoes. Nutrient retention is another important feature of tillage radish, the large tap root is designed to retain macro- and micro-nutrients, that would otherwise have the potential to be lost to leaching during the time when the field would otherwise be left empty. The nutrients from the root become readily available for the years crop upon the decay of the radish, which can boost yields. This makes it easier for potatoes to grow to their full potential
22.
Titanium ring
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Titanium rings are jewelry rings or bands which have been primarily constructed from titanium. Even with these variations in composition and materials, titanium rings are referred to as such if they contain any amount of titanium. Rings crafted from titanium are a phenomenon, becoming widely available on the market around the 1990s. Titanium rings offer several unique properties, they are biocompatible, lightweight, corrosion-resistant, Titanium was discovered in Cornwall, England, in 1791 by William Gregor. However, it was not until after 1932 that commercial use for titanium became possible, Kroll devised ways of reducing titanium tetrachloride into its metal form. His process is used today for commercially-produced titanium. The cost of titanium rings can be very high and this is ostensibly because the process of extracting titanium from its various ores is laborious and costly. Although it is indeed expensive as a material, it is far less expensive than the jewelers usual precious metals. At the start of 2014, no prices for pure titanium or its common commercial alloys exceeded US $10 per pound. The process of machining titanium rings is expensive and necessary since the metal is nearly impossible to craft by rolling or soldering in the way silver, gold and it is unknown who first crafted titanium into a ring or other jewelry piece. A titanium wedding-ring is used as a minor plot-point in the 1989 science fiction film, Titanium started appearing on the open market in approximately the 1990s. Since 2000, availability of titanium rings has become large-scale, with most online, many outlets now specialize exclusively in the design and sale of titanium rings. Titanium rings are constructed using solid bars, tubes or sheets of titanium, the metal can be machined using the same equipment and via the same engineering processes as stainless steel. The usual jewelry-making techniques of rolling and soldering are not practical for titanium, although they can be fabricated by welding in an inert atmosphere using, for example, Titanium has become popular as a jewelry material due to its various unique properties. Titanium is biocompatible, or non-toxic to the human body, similarly, titanium rings will not react with wearers who suffer allergies to other jewelry materials. It is highly resistant to most causes of corrosion, including sea water, aqua regia, chlorine and it is soluble in concentrated acids, however. Titanium rings are therefore practical for those who swim in the ocean or chlorinated pools. This is in contrast to some traditional jewelry materials, such as silver, brass and bronze, Titanium rings, depending on composition, have varying degrees of fatigue resistance and tensile strength
23.
Pattern welding
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Often called Damascus steel, blades forged in this manner often display bands of slightly different patterning along their entire length. These bands can be highlighted for cosmetic purposes by proper polishing or acid etching, pattern welding was an outgrowth of laminated or piled steel, a similar technique used to combine steels of different carbon contents, providing a desired mix of hardness and toughness. Although modern steelmaking processes negate the need to blend different steels, pattern welding developed out of the necessarily complex process of making blades that were both hard and tough from the erratic and unsuitable output from early iron smelting in bloomeries. This laminating process, in different types of steels together produces patterns that can be seen in the surface of the finished blade. By the 2nd and 3rd century AD, the Celts commonly used pattern welding for decoration in addition to structural reasons, the technique involves folding and forging alternating layers of steel into rods, then twisting the steel to form complex patterns when forged into a blade. By the end of the Viking era, pattern welding fell out of use in Europe During the Middle ages, Damascus steel was produced in India and brought back to Europe. The similarities in the markings led many to believe it was the process being used. However even these attempts have not been a huge success, a similar technique was also employed by Scandinavian Medieval swordsmiths. The Mora knife is manufactured with a similar technique. Today the traditional crucible steel is used, but the high carbon steel is usually tool steel or stainless steel. The ancient swordmakers exploited the qualities of pattern welded steel. Two bars twisted in opposite directions created the common chevron pattern, often, the center of the blade was a core of soft steel, and the edges were solid high carbon steel, similar to the laminates of the Japanese. The American Bladesmith Societys Master Smith test, for example, requires a 300 layer blade to be forged, starting with just two layers, eight folding operations will yield 512 layers in the blank. A blade ground from such a blank will show a grain much like a cut from a block of wood. Some manufactured objects can be re-purposed into pattern welded blanks, some modern bladesmiths have taken pattern welding to new heights, with elaborate applications of traditional pattern welding techniques, as well as with new technology. A layered billet of steel rods with the blade blank cut perpendicular to the layers can also produce some spectacular patterns, powder metallurgy allows alloys that would not normally be compatible to be combined into solid bars. Mokume-gane, a technique, often involving precious metals, used to produce decorative pieces Maryon. A Sword of the Nydam Type from Ely Fields Farm, near Ely, proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society
24.
Damascus steel
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Damascus steel was a type of steel used for manufacturing sword blades in the Near East made with wootz steel. These swords are characterized by patterns of banding and mottling reminiscent of flowing water. Such blades were reputed to be tough, resistant to shattering and capable of being honed to a sharp, the steel is named after Damascus, the capital city of Syria. It may either refer to swords made or sold in Damascus directly, or it may just refer to the aspect of the typical patterns, the original method of producing Damascus steel is not known. Modern attempts to duplicate the metal have not been successful due to differences in raw materials. Several individuals in modern times have claimed that they have rediscovered the methods by which the original Damascus steel was produced. The reputation and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, a research team in Germany published a report in 2006 revealing nanowires and carbon nanotubes in a blade forged from Damascus steel. These ingots would then be further forged and worked into Damascus steel blades, research now shows that carbon nanotubes can be derived from plant fibers, suggesting how the nanotubes were formed in the steel. Some experts expect to discover such nanotubes in more relics as they are analyzed more closely, Damascus blades were manufactured in the Near East from ingots of wootz steel that were imported from India, as well as Sri Lanka. Archaeological evidence suggests that the steel process started in the present-day Tamil Nadu before the start of Common Era. The Arabs introduced the Indian wootz steel to Damascus, where a weapons industry thrived, from the 3rd century to the 17th century, India was shipping steel ingots to the Middle East. Production of these patterned swords gradually declined, ceasing by around 1750, the original Damascus steel or wootz was imported from India to Damascus, where bladesmiths learned how to forge them into swords. The technique for controlled thermal cycling after the initial forging at a specific temperature could also have been lost, recreating Damascus steel is a subfield of experimental archaeology. Many have attempted to discover or reverse-engineer the process by which it was made, pattern-welded steel has been referred to as Damascus steel since 1973 when Bladesmith William F. Moran unveiled his Damascus knives at the Knifemakers Guild Show. The patterns vary depending on how the works the billet. The billet is drawn out and folded until the number of layers are formed. In order to attain a Master Smith rating with the American Bladesmith Society that Moran founded, J. D. Verhoeven and A. H. Pendray published an article on their attempts to reproduce the elemental, structural, and visual characteristics of Damascus steel. The wootz was in a soft, annealed state, with a grain structure, however, Verhoeven and Pendray discovered that in samples of true Damascus steel, the Damascene pattern could be recovered by aging at a moderate temperature
25.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
26.
Portable Document Format
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The Portable Document Format is a file format used to present documents in a manner independent of application software, hardware, and operating systems. Each PDF file encapsulates a complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts, graphics, PDF was developed in the early 1990s as a way to share computer documents, including text formatting and inline images. It was among a number of competing formats such as DjVu, Envoy, Common Ground Digital Paper, Farallon Replica, in those early years before the rise of the World Wide Web and HTML documents, PDF was popular mainly in desktop publishing workflows. Adobe Systems made the PDF specification available free of charge in 1993 and these proprietary technologies are not standardized and their specification is published only on Adobe’s website. Many of them are not supported by popular third-party implementations of PDF. So when organizations publish PDFs which use proprietary technologies, they present accessibility issues for some users. In 2014, ISO TC171 voted to deprecate XFA for ISO 32000-2, on January 9,2017, the final draft for ISO 32000-2 was published, thus reaching the approval stage. The PDF combines three technologies, A subset of the PostScript page description programming language, for generating the layout, a font-embedding/replacement system to allow fonts to travel with the documents. A structured storage system to bundle these elements and any associated content into a single file, PostScript is a page description language run in an interpreter to generate an image, a process requiring many resources. It can handle graphics and standard features of programming such as if. PDF is largely based on PostScript but simplified to remove flow control features like these, often, the PostScript-like PDF code is generated from a source PostScript file. The graphics commands that are output by the PostScript code are collected and tokenized, any files, graphics, or fonts to which the document refers also are collected. Then, everything is compressed to a single file, therefore, the entire PostScript world remains intact. PDF supports graphic transparency, PostScript does not, PostScript is an interpreted programming language with an implicit global state, so instructions accompanying the description of one page can affect the appearance of any following page. Therefore, all preceding pages in a PostScript document must be processed to determine the appearance of a given page. A PDF file is a 7-bit ASCII file, except for elements that may have binary content. A PDF file starts with a header containing the magic number, the format is a subset of a COS format. A COS tree file consists primarily of objects, of which there are eight types, Boolean values, representing true or false Numbers Strings, enclosed within parentheses, objects may be either direct or indirect
27.
Jewellery
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Jewellery or jewelry consists of small decorative items worn for personal adornment, such as brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, and bracelets. Jewellery may be attached to the body or the clothes, for many centuries metal, often combined with gemstones, has been the normal material for jewellery, but other materials such as shells and other plant materials may be used. It is one of the oldest type of archaeological artefact – with 100, historically, the most widespread influence on jewellery in terms of design and style have come from Asia. Jewellery may be made from a range of materials. Gemstones and similar such as amber and coral, precious metals, beads, and shells have been widely used. In most cultures jewellery can be understood as a symbol, for its material properties, its patterns. Jewellery has been made to nearly every body part, from hairpins to toe rings. The word jewellery itself is derived from the jewel, which was anglicised from the Old French jouel. In British English, Indian English, New Zealand English, Hiberno-English, Australian English, both are used in Canadian English, though jewelry prevails by a two to one margin. Numerous cultures store wedding dowries in the form of jewellery or make jewellery as a means to store or display coins, alternatively, jewellery has been used as a currency or trade good, an example being the use of slave beads. Many items of jewellery, such as brooches and buckles, originated as functional items. Jewellery can also symbolise group membership or status, wearing of amulets and devotional medals to provide protection or ward off evil is common in some cultures. These may take the form of symbols, stones, plants, animals, body parts, in creating jewellery, gemstones, coins, or other precious items are often used, and they are typically set into precious metals. Alloys of nearly every metal known have been encountered in jewellery, bronze, for example, was common in Roman times. Modern fine jewellery usually includes gold, white gold, platinum, palladium, titanium, most contemporary gold jewellery is made of an alloy of gold, the purity of which is stated in karats, indicated by a number followed by the letter K. American gold jewellery must be of at least 10K purity, many whimsical fashions were introduced in the extravagant eighteenth century. Cameos that were used in connection with jewellery were the attractive trinkets along with many of the objects such as brooches, ear-rings. Some of the necklets were made of pieces joined with the gold chains were in and bracelets were also made sometimes to match the necklet
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Anklet
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An anklet, also called ankle chain, ankle bracelet or ankle string, is an ornament worn around the ankle. Barefoot anklets and toe rings historically have been worn for centuries by girls and women in India and they have also been worn by Egyptian women since predynastic times. In the United States both casual and more formal anklets became fashionable from the 1930s to the twentieth century. While in western popular culture both younger men and women may wear casual leather anklets, they are popular among barefoot women, formal anklets are used by some women as fashion jewellery. Anklets are an important piece of jewellery in Indian marriages worn along with saris, occasionally, anklets on both ankles are joined by a chain to limit the step. This practice was prevalent in South East Asia, where the effect was to give a feminine short tripping step. Today, a few western women follow this practice, but rarely in public, more rarely still, some people wear permanent ankle chains and even connecting chains. Anklets were worn as an ornament by Egyptian women of all social classes in ancient Egypt from as early as predynastic times. The name for anklets was not much different from that of bracelets being menefret except by adding a phrase to denote connection to the feet, during the fourth, fifth, and sixth dynasties, anklets were usually made of beads threaded in several rows held together with spacer-bars. Anklets were also worn by dancers like those shown in the tombs of Kagemni, Ti, in the early twentieth century, anklets were commonly worn by Egyptian women of inner cities. They were called kholkhal and were most classically worn by women of Alexandria, anklets are still commonly worn by dancers in public events. Bronze anklets are visible as early as the Bronze Age in temperate Europe, in an area roughly along the Danube, in the Alpine foreland, up the Rhine to the Atlantic, and also down the Rhône. These were found among hoards in these areas, along with other items characteristic of this time. A first-century CE epic of Tamil literature called Cilappatikaram dealt with a woman whose husband was killed trying to sell one of her anklets to a dishonest goldsmith. The anklets are described in detail in the poem. Rajasthani women wear the heaviest type of anklets, which are silver, the women wear these as costume jewelry, but also to show their bravery as a tribe against other rival tribes. The fashion for heavy anklets is declining in India now, but is common in rural areas. In the eastern Indian state of Odisha, which is famous for its jewelry, there are varieties of anklets known as Paunji Nupur
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Barrette
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A barrette, also known as a hair clip, hair-slide or clasp, is a clasp for holding hair in place. They are often made from metal and/or plastic and sometimes feature decorative fabric, in one type of barrette, a clasp is used to secure the barrette in place, the clasp opens when the two metal pieces at either side are pressed together. The barrette was invented by Jackie Roach when she was five, barrettes are worn in different ways partly according to their size, with small ones often used at the front and large ones in the back to hold more hair. They are used to keep out of the eyes, or to secure a bun. Short metal clip barrettes are sometimes used to pull back front pieces of hair, barrettes are also sometimes used purely for decorative purposes. Larger barrettes are designed to pull back longer hair or an amount of hair and are usually worn at the back of the head. If the intent is to pull back, the length of the barrette is not the only consideration. Many different kinds of hair clips have been invented in the 20th century, several of these are seen in the image
30.
Belt buckle
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A belt buckle is a buckle, a clasp for fastening two ends, such as of straps or a belt, in which a device attached to one of the ends is fitted or coupled to the other. The word enters Middle English via Old French and the Latin buccula or cheek-strap, Belt buckles and other fixtures are used on a variety of belts, including cingula, baltea, baldrics and later waist-belts. Belt buckles go back at least to the age and a gold great buckle was among the items interred at Sutton Hoo. Primarily decorative shield on tongue buckles were common Anglo-Saxon grave goods at this time, elaborately decorated on the shield portion and associated only with men. One such buckle, found in a 7th-century grave at Finglesham, frame-style buckles are the oldest design. In a frame-and-prong buckle the prong attaches to one end of the frame and extends away from the wearer through a hole in the belt, where it anchors against the opposite side of the frame. The oldest styles have a loop or D shaped frame. Very small buckles with removable center pins and chapes were introduced and used on shoes, beginning in the 17th century, a chape is the fixed cover or plate which attaches buckle to belt while the mordant or bite is the adjustable portion. Plate-style buckles are common on western military belts of the mid-19th century, officers might have a similar but more intricate clasp-style closure that featured two interlocking metal parts. In practice, the term belt plate refers to any flat, the distance between the fixed frame or chape of a plate buckle and its adjustment prong is called the throw. Box-out buckles make the traditional belt seen today, usually made with an enduring leather or other synthetic material as the band, these belt buckles are less functional but more fashionable. These belts became popular after Hollywood began using them in movies for their fresh, now they dominate belt production, and are viewed as a more attractive belt. Box-frame buckles are another, 20th-century style of military friction buckle, the box-frame buckle consists of three parts. There may or may not be a tip on the opposite tongue end of the belt for easier insertion. Earlier, military-style buckles often use friction and are designed for use with cloth belts or straps, simple friction buckles are one-piece frames with no prong whatsoever, the strap or belt winding through a series of slots, and may more technically be called belt slides or belt trims. Although technically not buckles, other such as plastic side-clasp or even seat belt latches are also often used on belts. Because of their association with military equipment, belt buckles were primarily a masculine ornament well into the 19th century. Belt buckles became more popular as fashion accessories in the early 20th century, the large, flat surface of the western-style belt buckles make them a popular ornament or style of jewelry
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Belly chain
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A belly chain or waist chain are the popular English terms for the Kamarband/Udiyanam, which is a type of body jewelry worn around the waist. Some belly chains attach to a piercing, these are also called pierced belly chains. They are often made of silver or gold, sometimes a thread is used around the waist instead of a chain. A belly chain is an adornment for belly dancers. Historically, waist chains have used in Eastern countries, specifically India, by men and women, as ornaments and as part of religious ceremonies, as accessories. Many ancient sculptures and paintings from locations in India, dating back to the Indus Valley civilization, around the world, an increasing number of women including celebrities are wearing waist ornaments. In Maldives, it was reported that scholars, magistrates and other influential people wore silver chains around their waists before the 1680s, sayyid Mohammed arrived in Male’ when he heard that Maldives was filled with what he called forbidden practices. He banned men from wearing waist chains as part of his effort to remove superstition, some men complied, in other cases chains were forcibly removed. Many deities in the Hindu religion, such as Lord Krishna, a waistband called cummerbund or patka was a part of the medieval upper class costume of Rajasthanis. A 14th century poetry indicates that the waist chain has been a fashion for men in parts, The golden waist chain. Belly chains are common among women in India, in some regions waist chains are common among men as well. Namboothri men generally wear waist strings even as adults, in some aristocratic families, Namboothiri men wore a flattened triple gold string around the waist. As a Hindu custom newborns get a waist chain on the 28th day after their birth, in Kerala, a state in India, almost all newborns irrespective of the religious affiliation get a waist chain. Although many boys generally abandon waist chains during their years, a large fraction of the girls. A follower of Lord Siva is expected to wear a chain, with Rudrakshas strung in a chain with one hundred beads. In Lakshdweep a silver thread is worn by men and women. Dhodia and Kathodis are Katkari men use ornaments around the waist, for cultural reasons, waist chains became a fashion accessory for women and men in many parts of the world. Patent was issued for using waist chain as a monitoring device to facilitate weight loss
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Bindi (decoration)
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A bindi is a red dot worn on the centre of the forehead, commonly by Hindu and Jain women. The word Bindu dates back to the hymn of creation known as Nasadiya Sukta in the Rigveda, Bindu is considered the point at which creation begins and may become unity. It is also described as the symbol of the cosmos in its unmanifested state. Bindi is a dot of red colour applied in the centre of the forehead close to the eyebrow worn in the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia among Bali. Bindi in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism is associated with Ajna Chakra, Bindu is the point or dot around which the mandala is created, representing the universe. Bindi has historical and cultural presence in the region of Greater India, traditionally, the area between the eyebrows is said to be the sixth chakra, ajna, the seat of concealed wisdom. The bindi is said to retain energy and strengthen concentration, the bindi also represents the third eye. The Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda, the earliest known Sanskrit text, the Ajna is symbolised by a sacred lotus with two petals, and corresponds to the colours violet, indigo or deep blue, though it is traditionally described as white. It is at point that the two side nadi Ida and Pingala are said to terminate and merge with the central channel Sushumna, signifying the end of duality. The seed syllable for this chakra is the syllable OM, and the deity is Ardhanarishvara. The Shakti goddess of Ajna is called Hakini, in metaphysics, Bindu is considered the dot or point at which creation begins and may become unity. It is also described as the symbol of the cosmos in its unmanifested state. Bindu is the point around which the mandala is created, representing the universe, Ajna, is known as the third eye chakra and is linked to the pineal gland which may inform a model of its envisioning. Ajnas key issues involve balancing the higher and lower selves and trusting inner guidance, ajnas inner aspect relates to the access of intuition. Mentally, Ajna deals with visual consciousness, emotionally, Ajna deals with clarity on an intuitive level. In Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism bindi is associated with Ajna Chakra, the very spot between the eyebrows known as Bhrumadhya is where one focuses his/her sight, so that it helps concentration. In South Asia, bindi is worn by women of all religious dispositions and is not restricted to religion or region, however, the Islamic Research Foundation, located in India, says wearing a bindi or mangalsutra is a sign of Hindu women. The traditional bindi still represents and preserves the symbolic significance that is integrated into Indian mythology in many parts of India, the red bindi has multiple meanings which are all simultaneously valid— One simple interpretation it is a cosmetic mark used to enhance beauty
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Bolo tie
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A bolo tie is a type of necktie consisting of a piece of cord or braided leather with decorative metal tips – aglets – secured with an ornamental clasp or slide. Bolos are easy to make, using attractive flat objects such as pins, coins, plastic netsuke reproductions, polished stones, Christmas tree ornaments. Cords of leather and cordage stock, clips and tips, called findings are available from jewelry supply firms. In the United States, bolo ties are associated with Western wear. Bolo tie slides and tips in silver have been part of Hopi, Navajo, Zuni, the bolo tie was made the official neckwear of Arizona in 1971. New Mexico passed a measure to designate the bolo as the states official neckwear in 1987. On March 13,2007, New Mexico Governor, Bill Richardson, also in 2007, the bolo tie was named the official tie of Texas. Politicians and officials from western states will often wear them, such as former Montana Governor, in the United Kingdom, bolo ties are known as bootlace ties. They were popular with 1950s Teddy Boys, who wore them with drape suits, along with other 1950s fashions, bolo ties were revived as part of the Rockabilly look in the 1980s. The bolo tie returned as a fashion accessory in the fall of 1988 when male Hollywood stars would be frequently found wearing them. Chain stores like Jeanswest and Merry-Go-Round sold multiple choices for all occasions, during the 1980s and 1990s bolo ties, some elegant and expensive, were sold in Japan, Korea, and China. Some had fancy, hand-made cords, and unusual tips, sales overseas skyrocketed post-1970s, this was due to the overflow from the United States, where it had fallen out of fashion in the 1980s. During the 2013 NFL season, San Diego Chargers quarterback, Philip Rivers and he was noted wearing it again after defeating the Cincinnati Bengals in the 2013–14 NFL playoffs. Metallurgist Dr. William E. Mangelsdorf of Kingman, Arizona claims to have invented the bolo tie in the late 1940s, according to an article in Sunset, Victor Cedarstaff was riding his horse one day when his hat blew off. Wary of losing the silver-trimmed hatband, he slipped it around his neck and his companion joked, Thats a nice-looking tie youre wearing, Vic. An idea incubated, and Cedarstaff soon fashioned the first bola tie and it is also said that the bolo tie is a North American pioneer creation that dates back to between 1866 and 1886. There is a tie on display at a trading post in Zuni Pueblo
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Bracelet
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A bracelet is an article of jewellery that is worn around the wrist. It may have a function, such as holding a wristwatch or other items of jewellery such as religious symbols or charms. Medical and identity information is marked on some bracelets, such as bracelets, hospital patient-identification tags. If a bracelet is a single, inflexible loop, it is called a bangle. When it is worn around the ankle it is called an ankle bracelet or anklet, a boot bracelet is used to decorate boots. Colloquially, handcuffs are sometimes called bracelets, although the term armlet may be technically similar, it is taken to mean an item that sits on the upper shoulder, an arm ring. The origin of the bracelet is from the Greek brachile meaning of the arm. A bracelet is also a small brace or bracer, the history of Egyptian bracelets is as old as 5000 BCE. Starting with materials like bones, stones and woods to serve religious, from the National Geographic Society, the Scarab Bracelet is one of the most recognized symbols of ancient Egypt. The scarab represented rebirth and regeneration, carved scarabs were worn as jewelry and wrapped into the linen bandages of mummies. Myth told of the god, Khepri, pushing the sun across the sky. Artifacts, including a bracelet, excavated in the cave at the level were carbon dated to around 40,000 BP. In Bulgaria there is a tradition called Martenitsa, which involves tying a red. In some parts of India, the number and type of bangles worn by a woman denotes her marital status, in Sikhism a bracelet is one of the mandatory articles known as the Five Virtues. In Latin America, Azabache Bracelets are worn to protect against the Mal de ojo, the evil eye is believed to result of excessive admiration or envious looks by others. Having newborn babies wear an azabache, is believed to protect them from the evil eye, taken in the plural, bracelets is often used as slang for handcuffs. A charm bracelet is an item of jewelry worn around the wrist and it carries personal charms, decorative pendants or trinkets which are signifiers of important things in the wearers life. In recent history, Italian charm bracelets have become trendy, while traditional charms dangle, Italian charms feature individual pieces soldered flat onto the surface of the link
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Brooch
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A brooch /ˈbroʊtʃ/ is a decorative jewelry item designed to be attached to garments, often to hold them closed. It is usually made of metal, often silver or gold, brooches are frequently decorated with enamel or with gemstones and may be solely for ornament or sometimes serve a practical function as a fastening, perhaps for a cloak. The earliest known brooches are from the Bronze Age, as fashions in brooches changed rather quickly, they are important chronological indicators. Many sorts of European brooches found in archaeology are usually referred to by the Latin term fibula, the fibula is an ornamental clasp used by Romans, Greeks, Germanic peoples and also by Celts and migratory tribes in Europe from the Early Bronze Age. They may have replaced fibulae made of more perishable Neolithic materials, fibulae are useful type-objects, carefully catalogued local typologies, dating and distribution of fibulae can help date finds where neither numismatic nor ceramic materials provide a secure date. Fibulae were shaped somewhat like a safety pin and were used to hold clothing together. They came in varieties and held prominent significance for the identity of the wearer, indicating ethnicity. Elaborately designed fibulae were an important part of Late Antique dress, the same types of fibulae can often be found on either side of the Roman limites, both among Roman and barbarian populations. The cultural interplay of elite objects designed to show status can be quite complex and it is likely that this type originated among Celtic groups and came to be adopted as an exotic fashion by Roman aristocrats, becoming naturalized as an important Roman emblem, and then exported. From the eighteenth century through the Victorian era it was fashionable to incorporate hair, the practice began as an expression of mourning, then expanded to keepsakes of loved ones who were living. Human hair was encased within the brooch or braided and woven into a band to which clasps were affixed and it was not uncommon for miniature brooch portraits to incorporate ground human hair as pigment. Two sided swivel brooches would display a portrait on one side and a lock of hair on the other, hellenic Ministry of Culture, Katie Demakopoulou, Bronze Age Jewellry in Greece Brooch. Metropolitan jewelry, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
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Chatelaine (chain)
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A chatelaine is a decorative belt hook or clasp worn at the waist with a series of chains suspended from it. Each chain is mounted with useful household appendages such as scissors, thimbles, watches, keys, vinaigrette, chateleine bags refer to bags suspended from a waistband by cord or chain, which were popular from the 1860s to the end of the 19th century. Chatelaines were worn by many housekeepers in the 19th century and in the 16th century Dutch Republic, similar jewelry was also worn by Anglo-Saxon women, as seen from the burial record, but their function is uncertain. Ancient Roman women wore chatelaines with ear scoops, nail cleaners, women in Roman Britain wore chatelaine brooches from which toilet sets were suspended. The chatelaine was also used as a keychain in the 19th century to show the status of women in a household. The woman with the keys to all the desks, chest of drawers, food hampers, pantries, storage containers. Frequently, this hostess was the woman of the house. When a woman married a son and moved into his fathers house, however, if the mother became a widow, the keys and their responsibilities and status were often passed to the oldest sons wife. In the case of the absence of a woman of the house, the dictionary definition of chatelaine at Wiktionary Chatelaine
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Crown (headgear)
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In art, the crown may be shown being offered to those on Earth by angels. In religious art, a crown of stars is used similarly to a halo, crowns worn by rulers often contain jewels. A crown is often an emblem of the monarchy, a monarchs government, the word itself is used, particularly in Commonwealth countries, as an abstract name for the monarchy itself, as distinct from the individual who inhabits it. A specific type of crown is employed in heraldry under strict rules, costume headgear imitating a monarchs crown is also called a crown. Such costume crowns may be worn by actors portraying a monarch, people at parties, or ritual monarchs such as the king of a Carnival krewe. The nuptial crown, sometimes called a coronal, worn by a bride, in the present day, it is most common in Eastern Orthodox cultures. The Eastern Orthodox marriage service has a section called the crowning, wherein the bride and groom are crowned as king, in Greek weddings, the crowns are diadems usually made of white flowers, synthetic or real, often adorned with silver or mother of pearl. They are placed on the heads of the newlyweds and are held together by a ribbon of white silk and they are then kept by the couple as a reminder of their special day. In Slavic weddings, the crowns are made of ornate metal, designed to resemble an imperial crown. A parish usually owns one set to use for all the couples that are married there since these are more expensive than Greek-style crowns. This was common in Catholic countries in the past, a Crown of thorns according to the Bible, was placed on the head of Jesus before his crucifixion and has become a common symbol of martyrdom. According to Roman Catholic tradition, the Blessed Virgin Mary was crowned as Queen of Heaven after her assumption into heaven and she is often depicted wearing a crown, and statues of her in churches and shrines are ceremonially crowned during May. The Crown of Immortality is also common in historical symbolism, dancers of certain traditional Thai dances often wear crowns on their head. These are inspired in the worn by deities and by kings. Three distinct categories of crowns exist in those monarchies that use crowns or state regalia, coronation, worn by monarchs when being crowned. State, worn by monarchs on other state occasions, consort crowns, worn by queens consort, signifying rank granted as a constitutional courtesy protocol. In Classical antiquity, the crown that was awarded to people other than rulers, such as triumphal military generals or athletes, was actually a wreath or chaplet. Numerous crowns of various forms were used in antiquity, such as the Hedjet, Deshret, the Pschent double crown and it was referred to as the chaplet studded with sunbeams” by Lucian, about 180 AD
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Cufflink
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Cufflinks are used to secure button shirt cuffs and may also be an item of jewellery for boys and men. Cufflinks can be manufactured from a variety of different materials, such as glass, stone, leather, metal, securing of the cufflinks is usually achieved via toggles or reverses based on the design of the front section, which can be folded into position. In addition, there are variants with chains or a rigid. The front sections of the cufflinks can be decorated with gemstones, inlays, inset material or enamel, Cufflinks are designed only for use with shirts which have buttonholes on both sides but no buttons. These may be single or double-length cuffs, and may be worn either kissing, with the ends pinched together, or barrel-style. The barrel-style was popularized by a famous 19th century entertainer and clown, Dan Rice, however, cufflink designs vary widely, with the most traditional the double-panel, consisting of a short post or chain connecting two disc-shaped parts, both decorated. Whale-back and toggle-back cufflinks have a flat decorated face for one side, while the side shows only the swivel-bar. The swivel bar is placed vertically to put the links on and off, Links of knotted brightly coloured silk enjoyed renewed popularity in the 1990s, joined by an elasticated section. The visible part of a cufflink is often monogrammed or decorated in some way, there are numerous styles including novelty, traditional, or contemporary. Colourful and whimsical cufflink designs are only suitable for casual and relatively informal events, and signals someone who is fun-loving, approachable. Sartorial experts prescribe gold to be worn during the daytime and silver for evening wear, an alternative type of cufflink is the cheaper silk knot which is usually two conjoined monkeys fist or Turks head knots. The Paris shirtmaker Charvet is credited with their introduction in 1904 and they became quickly popular, Charvet buttons of twisted braid are quite the style noted The New York Times in 1908. French cuff shirts are often accompanied with a set of colour-coordinated silk knots instead of double-button cufflinks and they are now often not from silk, and consist of a fabric over an elasticated core. Owing to the popularity of this fashion, metal cufflinks shaped to look like a silk knot are also worn, although the first cufflinks appeared in the 1600s, they did not become common until the end of the 18th century. Their development is related to that of the mens shirt. Men have been wearing shirt-like items of clothing since the invention of woven fabric 5,000 years BC, although styles and methods of manufacturing changed, the underlying form remained the same, a tunic opened to the front with sleeves and collar. The shirt was worn next to the skin, it was washable. Conversely, it protected the skin against the rougher and heavier fabrics of jackets and coats by covering the neck
39.
Earring
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An earring is a piece of jewellery attached to the ear via a piercing in the earlobe or another external part of the ear. Earrings are worn by both sexes, although more common among women, and have used by different civilizations in different times. Locations for piercings other than the earlobe include the rook, tragus, the simple term ear piercing usually refers to an earlobe piercing, whereas piercings in the upper part of the external ear are often referred to as cartilage piercings. Cartilage piercings are more complex to perform than earlobe piercings and take longer to heal, earring components may be made of any number of materials, including metal, plastic, glass, precious stone, beads, wood, bone, and other materials. Designs range from small loops and studs to large plates and dangling items, the size is ultimately limited by the physical capacity of the earlobe to hold the earring without tearing. However, heavy earrings worn over extended periods of time may lead to stretching of the earlobe, Ear piercing is one of the oldest known forms of body modification, with artistic and written references from cultures around the world dating back to early history. Gold, Silver and Bronze hoop earrings were prevalent in the Minoan Civilization and examples can be seen on frescoes on the Aegean island of Santorini, during the late Minoan and early Mycenaean periods of Bronze Age Greece hoop earrings with conical pendants were fashionable. Early evidence of earrings worn by men can be seen in evidence from Persepolis in ancient Persia. The carved images of soldiers of the Persian Empire, displayed on some of the walls of the palace. Howard Carter writes in his description of Tutankhamuns tomb that the Pharaohs earlobes were perforated, the burial masks ears were perforated as well, but the holes were covered with golden discs. That implies that at the time, earrings were worn in Egypt by children. Other early evidence of earring-wearing is evident in the Biblical record, in Exodus 32, 1–4, it is written that while Moses was up on Mount Sinai, the Israelites demanded that Aaron make a god for them. It is written that he commanded them to bring their sons, Earrings became fashionable among courtiers and gentlemen in the 1590s during the English Renaissance. A document published in 1577 by clergyman William Harrison, Description of England, states Some lusty courtiers and gentlemen of courage do wear either rings of gold, among sailors, a pierced earlobe was a symbol that the wearer had sailed around the world or had crossed the equator. The practice of wearing earrings was a tradition for Ainu men and women, Earrings were also commonplace among nomadic Turkic tribes. By the late 1950s or early 1960s, the practice re-emerged, teenage girls were known to hold ear piercing parties, where they performed the procedure on one another. Such an event is depicted in the 1978 motion picture Grease, where Sandy, by the mid-1960s, some physicians offered ear piercing as a service. Simultaneously, Manhattan jewelry stores were some of the earliest commercial, non-medical locations for getting an ear piercing, in the late 1960s, ear piercing began to make inroads among men through the hippie and gay communities, although they had been popular among sailors for decades
40.
Lapel pin
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A lapel pin is a small pin worn on clothing, often worn on the lapel of a jacket. Lapel pins can be ornamental or can indicate wearers affiliation with an organization or cause, before the popularity of wearing lapel pins, boutonnières were worn. Lapel pins are used as symbols of achievement and belonging in different organizations. Lapel pins from the organization are often collected by members and non-members alike, businesses also use lapel pins to designate achievement and membership. Lapel pins are an element of employee recognition programs. Like fraternity and sorority pins, these lapel pins instill a sense of belonging to a group of performers at the organization. Businesses also award lapel pins to employees more frequently to boost employee morale, productivity, the Soviet Union had great production of these. Besides pins showing political figures and as souvenirs for tourist spots, there were pins for various sports, cultural, the pins had countercultural meanings as well, for example, the pin featuring the robot spacecraft Kosmos 186 had a sexual connotation. In recent years, pin collecting and trading has become a popular hobby. Disney pin trading is an example of this. In the 1970s, initiates of Guru Maharaj Ji extensively used buttons, sometimes quite large, senior politicians in the UKs government, wore official Games pins for the London 2012 Summer Olympics. Pin design starts off very similar to animation, everything is literally hand drawn with a blue line. It is done digitally or on paper with a light-box to plan out all of the elements. Once the design is approved, it is inked, colored, and placed on a mechanical sheet, step 1, Stamping Molding Molds the metal surface to form the design. Step 2, Outline Cutting Cutting molds are made separately, then cut to the outline of the design. Additional outline cutting molds may be required depending on the complexity of the design, * If a center hole or cut-out is required, an additional cut-through mold must be used. Step 3, Attachment Solder attachment onto the back of each piece, step 4, Plating Plating now can be processed. The quality of plating varies with the length of time the metal is soaked in the plating liquid, step 5, Polishing The metal surface is then polished until it is smooth and shiny
41.
Necklace
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A necklace is an article of jewellery which is worn around the neck. Necklaces are frequently formed from a jewellery chain. Others are woven or manufactured from cloth using string or twine, common features of necklaces include colorful stones, wood, art glass, feathers, shells, beads or corals - a hugely wide variety of other adornments have also been used. If a necklace includes a primary hanging feature, it is called a pendant, if the pendant is itself a small container, necklaces are worn by both men and women in cultures around the world for purposes of adornment and social status. However, in Western society, the necklace in English often carries a female connotation. Men in Western countries often call their neck jewelry chains instead, necklaces have been an integral part of jewelry since the time of ancient civilizations and pre-date the invention of writing. Necklaces are believed to be as old as 40,000 years, during the neolithic period shell necklaces were made with the shells of 3 genera Spondylus, Glycymeris and Charonia. Cloth working and metalworking greatly expanded the range of available to humans. Twine and string enabled the development of smaller, more durable, gemcutting and glassblowing allowed faceted and highly polished gemstones and/or beautiful art glass to be added to pieces. Miniaturisation and laser etching enable the crafting of finely detailed artwork, or insignias or other calligraphy, womens necklaces are often classified by length. Choker 35 centimetres to 41 centimetres long and sits high on the neck, princess necklace A princess necklace is 45 centimetres to 50 centimetres long, longer than a choker, but shorter than a matinee. Matinee necklace A matinee length necklace is 56 centimetres to 58 centimetres long — typically a single strand that rests at the top of the cleavage, opera necklace An opera necklace is 75 centimetres to 90 centimetres long and sits at the breastbone. Rope necklace A rope necklace is any longer than opera length. Cross necklace A necklace featuring a Christian cross, diamond necklace A diamond necklace is a necklace that incorporates diamonds — they are often given as gifts in Western countries as signs of love and fealty between wealthy lovers or families. Pearl necklace Pearl necklaces are popular among women, a bib necklace is made of multiple strands of stepped pearls. Tooth pendant necklace Some mens necklaces attach a tooth as the pendant portion. A particularly popular variant is a leather string necklace with a shark tooth attached, prayer bead necklace A long, beaded necklace typically in the form of a wide lasso, usually with a religious symbol at the end of the lasso. The beads can be made of wood, metal, gems or even plastic
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Pectoral (Ancient Egypt)
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The pectorals of ancient Egypt were a form of jewelry, often represented as a brooch. These were mostly worn by people and the pharaoh. One type is attached with a necklace, meant to be suspended from the neck, statuary from the Old Kingdom onwards shows this form. A later form was attached as a brooch, with the thematic, iconographic function, the thematic statements were typically about the pharaoh or statements of ancient Egyptian mythology and culture. They are usually of gold with inlays of gemstones. The basic definition of a brooch is as a piece of jewellery. Therefore, one form of the pectoral word listings uses the word for breadth, broad, to be wide or spacious, 15) None may have an alternate determinative used to define the word. From the above definitions, it can be seen that the collar, neckband, pectoral, beads, etc. can also include amulets inclusive into the pectorals iconography. The above listed words are refenced in E. A. Wallis Budges dictionary to 200 works, steles, papyri, Egyptian literature, personal literature, statements in Egyptian language hieroglyhs were often the theme of famous pectorals, regardless of their actual use for adornment. One famous complex pectoral for Amenemhat III has a statement of his rulership, the Pectoral of Amenemhat III states the following, Lord Heaven, God-Good, Lord of the Two Lands, Ny-Maat-Ra, Lord Lands. Kamrins modern hieroglyph primer for Egyptian artifacts uses Amenemhat IIIs pectoral for Exercise 22, the discussion explains that the extended wings of the Vulture Goddess relate to Lord of the Sky-, the Vulture Goddess. Her translation, Lord of the sky Nimaatre, the god, lord of the Two Lands. Gardiners Sign List#S. Crowns, Dress, Staves, etc, gardiners Sign List List of ancient Egyptian statuary with amulet necklaces, Budge. An Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary, E. A. Wallace Budge, ©1978, ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs, A Practical Guide, Janice Kamrin, ©2004, Harry N. Abrams, Publisher, Lambelet. Orbis Terrae Aegiptiae, Museum Aegiptium, Illustrated Guide of the Egyptian Museum, Edouard Lambelet, ©1981, Lehnert & Landrock & Co
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Pendant
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The word pendant derives from the Latin word pendere, and Old French word pendre, both of which translate to to hang down. It comes in the form of a piece of jewellery, generally attached by a small loop to a necklace. A pendant earring is an earring with a piece hanging down, in some case though the separation between necklace and pendant is far clearer. Pendants are among the oldest recorded types of bodily adornment, stone, shell, pottery, and more perishable materials were used. Ancient Egyptians commonly wore pendants, some shaped like hieroglyphs, pendants can have several functions, which may be combined, Award Identification Ornamentation Ostentation. Protection Self-affirmation The many specialized types of pendants include lockets which open, often to reveal an image, and pendilia, throughout the ages, pendants have come in a variety of forms to serve a variety of purposes. Though amulets come in forms, a wearable amulet worn around the neck or on the arm or leg in the form of a pendant is the most common. These are objects believed to possess magical or spiritual power to protect the wearer from danger or dispel evil influences, similar to an amulet, a talisman is an object believed to possess supernatural traits. However, while an amulet is strictly a defensive object, a talisman is meant to confer special benefits or powers upon the wearer. A locket is an object that opens to reveal a space which serves to hold a small object. They typically come in the form of a pendant hanging from a necklace, a medallion is most often a coin-shaped piece of metal worn as a pendant around the neck or pinned onto clothing. These are generally granted as awards, recognitions, or religious blessings, tools worn as pendants include Maori pounamu pendants. Shepherds whistles, bosuns whistles, and ocarinas can also be made as pendants, portable astronomical and navigational instruments were made as pendants. In the first decade of the 21st century, jewellers started to incorporate USB flash drives into pendants
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