1.
Subprefectures in France
–
In France, a subprefecture is the administrative center of a departmental arrondissement that does not contain the prefecture for its department. The term also applies to the building houses the administrative headquarters for an arrondissement. The civil servant in charge of a subprefecture is the subprefect, between May 1982 and February 1988, subprefects were known instead by the title commissaire adjoint de la République. Where the administration of an arrondissement is carried out from a prefecture, the municipal arrondissements of Paris, Lyon, and Marseille) are divisions of the city rather than the prefecture, and so are not arrondissements in the same sense
Subprefectures in France
–
A subprefecture in
Verdun,
Meuse
Subprefectures in France
–
A subprefecture in
Langon,
Gironde
2.
Communes of France
–
The commune is a level of administrative division in the French Republic. French communes are roughly equivalent to civil townships incorporated municipalities in the United States or Gemeinden in Germany, the United Kingdom has no exact equivalent, as communes resemble districts in urban areas, but are closer to parishes in rural areas where districts are much larger. Communes are based on historical geographic communities or villages and have received significant powers of governance to manage the populations, the communes are the fourth-level administrative divisions of France. A French commune may be a city of 2.2 million inhabitants like Paris, communes typically are based on pre-existing villages and facilitate local governance. All communes have names, but not all named geographic areas or groups of people residing together are communes, a commune is a town, city, or municipality. Use of commune in English is a habit, and one that might be corrected. There is nothing in commune in French that is different from town in English. The French word commune appeared in the 12th century, from Medieval Latin communia, as of January 2015, there were 36,681 communes in France,36,552 of them in metropolitan France and 129 of them overseas. This is a higher total than that of any other European country. The whole territory of the French Republic is divided into communes and this is unlike some other countries, such as the United States, where unincorporated areas directly governed by a county or a higher authority can be found. There are only a few exceptions, COM of Saint-Martin and it was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe région. The commune structure was abolished when Saint-Martin became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007, COM of Wallis and Futuna, which still is divided according to the three traditional chiefdoms. It was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe region, the commune structure was abolished when Saint-Barthélemy became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007.88 square kilometres. The median area of metropolitan Frances communes at the 1999 census was even smaller, the median area is a better measure of the area of a typical French commune. This median area is smaller than that of most European countries. In Italy, the area of communes is 22 km2, in Belgium it is 40 km2, in Spain it is 35 km2, and in Germany. Switzerland and the Länder of Rhineland-Palatinate, Schleswig-Holstein, and Thuringia in Germany were the places in Europe where the communes had a smaller median area than in France. The communes of Frances overseas départements such as Réunion and French Guiana are large by French standards and they usually group into the same commune several villages or towns, often with sizeable distances among them
Communes of France
–
Road sign marking the end of the village of
Y in the
Somme department of
Picardy
Communes of France
–
Map of the 36,569 communes of metropolitan France
Communes of France
–
Mittelhausbergen in
Alsace
Communes of France
–
Vacqueyras in
Provence, showing double French/
Provençal name
3.
Jesuit Church, Molsheim
–
The church was built between 1615 and 1617 by the German architect Christoph Wamser, and consecrated on 26 August 1618. Molsheims Jesuit church is considered one of the foremost examples of Gothic Survival architecture or, as it is called in German and it is listed as a Monument historique since 1939 by the French Ministry of Culture. Molsheims Jesuit College was founded in 1580 and dissolved in 1765 and it served as Alsaces main university between 1618 and 1704, preceding the Lutheran Strasbourg University in importance. The churchs construction was funded by the bishop of Strasbourg, Archduke Leopold V of Austria, although a chapel inside is dedicated to Ignatius of Loyola, the church was dedicated from the start to the Holy Trinity. The churchs dimensions are considerable, especially in relation to the size of the town,61.5 m long and 21.5 m wide, the nave 20 m high, the choir measuring 19.5 m by 11 m. Another pride of the church are the 1781 pipe organ by Johann Andreas Silbermann and the monumental Late Gothic cross,4.5 m high and 2.5 m wide, from the former Carthusian monastery of the town
Jesuit Church, Molsheim
–
Jesuit Church, Molsheim
Jesuit Church, Molsheim
–
The nave looking towards the choir
Jesuit Church, Molsheim
–
The nave looking towards the
pipe organ
Jesuit Church, Molsheim
–
Saint Ignatius chapel with
baptismal font
4.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
5.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
6.
Regions of France
–
France is divided into 18 administrative regions, including 13 metropolitan regions and 5 overseas regions. The current legal concept of region was adopted in 1982, the term région was officially created by the Law of Decentralisation, which also gave regions their legal status. The first direct elections for representatives took place on 16 March 1986. In 2016, the number of regions was reduced from 27 to 18 through amalgamation, in 2014, the French parliament passed a law reducing the number of metropolitan regions from 22 to 13 with effect from 1 January 2016. However, the region of Upper and Lower Normandy is simply called Normandy. Permanent names were to be proposed by the new regional councils by 1 July 2016, the legislation defining the new regions also allowed the Centre region to officially change its name to Centre-Val de Loire with effect from January 2015. Two regions, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes and Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, opted to retain their interim names, between 1982 and 2015, there were 22 regions in Metropolitan France. Before 2011, there were four regions, in 2011 Mayotte became the fifth. Regions lack separate legislative authority and therefore cannot write their own statutory law and they levy their own taxes and, in return, receive a decreasing part of their budget from the central government, which gives them a portion of the taxes it levies. They also have considerable budgets managed by a council made up of representatives voted into office in regional elections. A regions primary responsibility is to build and furnish high schools, in March 2004, the French central government unveiled a controversial plan to transfer regulation of certain categories of non-teaching school staff to the regional authorities. Critics of this plan contended that tax revenue was insufficient to pay for the costs. In addition, regions have considerable power over infrastructural spending, e. g. education, public transit, universities and research. This has meant that the heads of regions such as Île-de-France or Rhône-Alpes can be high-profile positions. Number of regions controlled by each coalition since 1986, Overseas region is a recent designation, given to the overseas departments that have similar powers to those of the regions of metropolitan France. Radio France Internationale in English Overseas regions Ministère de lOutre-Mer some explanations about the past and current developments of DOMs and TOMs
Regions of France
7.
Departments of France
–
In the administrative divisions of France, the department is one of the three levels of government below the national level, between the administrative regions and the commune. There are 96 departments in metropolitan France and 5 overseas departments, each department is administered by an elected body called a departmental council. From 1800 to April 2015, they were called general councils, the departments were created in 1791 as a rational replacement of Ancien Régime provinces with a view to strengthen national unity, the title department is used to mean a part of a larger whole. Almost all of them were named after geographical features rather than after historical or cultural territories which could have their own loyalties. The earliest known suggestion of it is from 1764 in the writings of dArgenson and they have inspired similar divisions in many countries, some of them former French colonies. Most French departments are assigned a number, the Official Geographical Code. Some overseas departments have a three-digit number, the number is used, for example, in the postal code, and was until recently used for all vehicle registration plates. For example, inhabitants of Loiret might refer to their department as the 45 and this reform project has since been abandoned. The first French territorial departments were proposed in 1665 by Marc-René dArgenson to serve as administrative areas purely for the Ponts et Chaussées infrastructure administration, before the French Revolution, France gained territory gradually through the annexation of a mosaic of independent entities. By the close of the Ancien Régime, it was organised into provinces, during the period of the Revolution, these were dissolved, partly in order to weaken old loyalties. Their boundaries served two purposes, Boundaries were chosen to break up Frances historical regions in an attempt to erase cultural differences, Boundaries were set so that every settlement in the country was within a days ride of the capital of the department. This was a security measure, intended to keep the national territory under close control. This measure was directly inspired by the Great Terror, during which the government had lost control of rural areas far from any centre of government. The old nomenclature was carefully avoided in naming the new departments, most were named after an areas principal river or other physical features. Even Paris was in the department of Seine, the number of departments, initially 83, was increased to 130 by 1809 with the territorial gains of the Republic and of the First French Empire. Following Napoleons defeats in 1814-1815, the Congress of Vienna returned France to its pre-war size, in 1860, France acquired the County of Nice and Savoy, which led to the creation of three new departments. Two were added from the new Savoyard territory, while the department of Alpes-Maritimes was created from Nice, the 89 departments were given numbers based on their alphabetical order. The department of Bas-Rhin and parts of Meurthe, Moselle, Vosges and Haut-Rhin were ceded to the German Empire in 1871, following Frances defeat in the Franco-Prussian War
Departments of France
–
Geometrical proposition rejected
Departments of France
–
The 101 departments of France
Departments of France
–
The three Algerian departments in 1848
8.
Bas-Rhin
–
Bas-Rhin is a department in the Grand Est region of France. The name means Lower Rhine, however, geographically speaking it belongs to the Upper Rhine region and it is the more populous and densely populated of the two departments of the traditional Alsace region, with 1,112,815 inhabitants in 2014. The prefecture and the General Council are based in Strasbourg, the INSEE and Post Code is 67. The area is home to some of the foothills of the Vosges Mountains. To the north of Bas-Rhin lies the Palatinate forest in the German State of Rhineland-Palatinate, to the south lies the department of Haut-Rhin, the town of Colmar and southern Alsace, and to the west the department of Moselle. On its southwestern corner, Bas-Rhin also joins the department of Vosges, the Bas-Rhin has a continental-type climate, characterised by cold, dry winters and hot, stormy summers, due to the western protection provided by the Vosges. However, the Alsatian climate is less continental than that of Burgundy, the average annual temperature is 10.4 °C in the lowlands and 7 °C on high ground. The annual maximum temperature is high, the average rainfall is 700 mm per year. Established according to data from the Infoclimat station at Strasbourg-Entzheim, over the period from 1961 to 1990 and this is the last French department to have kept the term Bas meaning Lower in its name. The same phenomenon was observed for the inférieur departments such as Charente-Inférieure, Seine-Inférieure, Bas-Rhin is one of the original 83 departments created on 4 March 1790, during the French Revolution. Strasbourg, the lieu of Bas-Rhin is the official seat of the European Parliament as well as of the Council of Europe. The demography of Bas-Rhin is characterized by density and high population growth since the 1950s. In January 2014 Bas-Rhin officially had 1,112,815 inhabitants and was 18th by population at the national level, in fifteen years, from 1999 to 2014, its population grew by more than 86,000 people, or about 5,800 people per year. But this variation is differentiated among the 527 communes that make up the department, the population density of Bas-Rhin is 234 inhabitants per square kilometre in 2014 which is more than twice the average in France, which was 112 in 2009. The first census was conducted in 1801 and this count, renewed every five years from 1821, with 540,213 inhabitants in 1831, the department represented 1. 66% of the total French population, which was then 32,569,000 inhabitants. From 1831 to 1866, the department gained 48,757 people, demographic change between the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and the First World War was higher than the national average. Over this period, the population increased by 100,532 inhabitants, the population increased by 9. 23% between the two world wars from 1921 to 1936 compared to a national growth of 6. 9%. Like other French departments, Bas-Rhin experienced a boom after the Second World War
Bas-Rhin
–
Prefecture building of the Bas-Rhin department, in Strasbourg
Bas-Rhin
–
Château du Haut-Kœnigsbourg
Bas-Rhin
–
Strasbourg Cathedral
Bas-Rhin
–
Covered Bridge at
Strasbourg
9.
Radical Party (France)
–
The Radical Party is a liberal and social-liberal political party in France. Following the legislative elections of 2012, the Radicals have six seats in the National Assembly, founded in 1901 as Republican, Radical and Radical-Socialist Party, it is the oldest active political party in France. Coming from the Radical Republican tradition, the Radical Party upholds the principles of private property, the Radicals were originally a left-wing group, but with the emergence of the French Section of the Workers International in 1905, the Radicals shifted towards the political centre. In 1972 the left wing of the party split off to form the centre-left Radical Party of the Left, since then, the Radical Party has affiliated with the centre-right, becoming one of the founder parties of the Union for French Democracy in 1978. In 2002 the party split from the UDF and affiliated with the UMP, during the 7th term of the European Parliament, along with the UMP, three Radical MEPs sat with the European Peoples Party Group. During the 8th European Parliament, the single Radical MEP Dominique Riquet sits with the Alliance of Liberals, after the collapse of Napoleon Is empire in 1815, a reactionary Bourbon Restoration took place. The Republicans constituted the left-wing opposition, but they were also named Radicals and it was systematically used during the July Monarchy because the law forbade parties to define themselves as Republican. The conservative turn of the July Monarchy reinforced the audience of the radical opposition, some politicians such as Alexandre Ledru-Rollin and Louis Blanc formulated a Radical doctrine. They advocated democratic reforms as a vehicle of social progress and they defended the small private property against the socialist projects and the great landowners. The Radicals took a part in the 1848 Revolution and the foundation of the Second Republic. For a few months, Alexandre Ledru-Rollin was Interior Minister in the provisional government, however, the conservatives won the 1848 legislative election, the first election by universal suffrage. The repression of the June 1848 workers demonstrations disappointed the left-wing supporters of the new regime, Alexandre Ledru-Rollin obtained only 5% of votes at the December 1848 presidential election, which was won by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, who established the Second Empire after the 1851 coup. From opposition, Radicals criticized personal power and the attacks on freedoms, after the collapse of the Second Empire following the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, the Third Republic was proclaimed in September 1870. The Orléanist and Legitimist monarchists together won the first elections in February 1871, eventually the Republicans won the 1876 elections, leading to the firm establishment of the Republic. The Radicals defined the uncompromising part of the Republican Left, in this, Radicals formed the far-left opposition to the moderate Republican governments. In the 1890s, Léon Bourgeois renewed the Radical doctrine, including social reforms such as the income tax. After the Dreyfus Affair, Radicals joined forces with other Republicans, the first congress of the Radical Party was held in June 1901. Delegates represented 476 election committees,215 editorial boards of Radical newspapers,155 Masonic lodges, the existence of a national party immediately changed the political scene
Radical Party (France)
–
Radical Party Parti radical
10.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
–
Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
–
G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
–
Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
–
William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
11.
Central European Summer Time
–
It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
Central European Summer Time
–
light blue
12.
French Revolution
–
Through the Revolutionary Wars, it unleashed a wave of global conflicts that extended from the Caribbean to the Middle East. Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in human history, the causes of the French Revolution are complex and are still debated among historians. Following the Seven Years War and the American Revolutionary War, the French government was deeply in debt, Years of bad harvests leading up to the Revolution also inflamed popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and the aristocracy. Demands for change were formulated in terms of Enlightenment ideals and contributed to the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789, a central event of the first stage, in August 1789, was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules and privileges left over from the Ancien Régime. The next few years featured political struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the intent on thwarting major reforms. The Republic was proclaimed in September 1792 after the French victory at Valmy, in a momentous event that led to international condemnation, Louis XVI was executed in January 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the Revolution, internally, popular agitation radicalised the Revolution significantly, culminating in the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins. Large numbers of civilians were executed by revolutionary tribunals during the Terror, after the Thermidorian Reaction, an executive council known as the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795. The rule of the Directory was characterised by suspended elections, debt repudiations, financial instability, persecutions against the Catholic clergy, dogged by charges of corruption, the Directory collapsed in a coup led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution, almost all future revolutionary movements looked back to the Revolution as their predecessor. The values and institutions of the Revolution dominate French politics to this day, the French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity. Globally, the Revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies and it became the focal point for the development of all modern political ideologies, leading to the spread of liberalism, radicalism, nationalism, socialism, feminism, and secularism, among many others. The Revolution also witnessed the birth of total war by organising the resources of France, historians have pointed to many events and factors within the Ancien Régime that led to the Revolution. Over the course of the 18th century, there emerged what the philosopher Jürgen Habermas called the idea of the sphere in France. A perfect example would be the Palace of Versailles which was meant to overwhelm the senses of the visitor and convince one of the greatness of the French state and Louis XIV. Starting in the early 18th century saw the appearance of the sphere which was critical in that both sides were active. In France, the emergence of the public sphere outside of the control of the saw the shift from Versailles to Paris as the cultural capital of France. In the 1750s, during the querelle des bouffons over the question of the quality of Italian vs, in 1782, Louis-Sébastien Mercier wrote, The word court no longer inspires awe amongst us as in the time of Louis XIV
French Revolution
–
The
August Insurrection in 1792 precipitated the last days of the monarchy.
French Revolution
–
The French government faced a fiscal crisis in the 1780s, and King Louis XVI was blamed for mishandling these affairs.
French Revolution
–
Caricature of the Third Estate carrying the First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) on its back.
French Revolution
–
The meeting of the Estates General on 5 May 1789 at Versailles.
13.
Hectare
–
The hectare is an SI accepted metric system unit of area equal to 100 ares and primarily used in the measurement of land as a metric replacement for the imperial acre. An acre is about 0.405 hectare and one hectare contains about 2.47 acres, in 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the are was defined as 100 square metres and the hectare was thus 100 ares or 1⁄100 km2. When the metric system was further rationalised in 1960, resulting in the International System of Units, the are was not included as a recognised unit. The hectare, however, remains as a non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI units, the metric system of measurement was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government. At the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889 when a new standard metre, manufactured by Johnson Matthey & Co of London was adopted, in 1960, when the metric system was updated as the International System of Units, the are did not receive international recognition. The units that were catalogued replicated the recommendations of the CGPM, many farmers, especially older ones, still use the acre for everyday calculations, and convert to hectares only for official paperwork. Farm fields can have long histories which are resistant to change, with names such as the six acre field stretching back hundreds of years. The names centiare, deciare, decare and hectare are derived by adding the standard metric prefixes to the base unit of area. The centiare is a synonym for one square metre, the deciare is ten square metres. The are is a unit of area, equal to 100 square metres and it was defined by older forms of the metric system, but is now outside of the modern International System of Units. It is commonly used to measure real estate, in particular in Indonesia, India, and in French-, Portuguese-, Slovakian-, Serbian-, Czech-, Polish-, Dutch-, in Russia and other former Soviet Union states, the are is called sotka. It is used to describe the size of suburban dacha or allotment garden plots or small city parks where the hectare would be too large, the decare is derived from deka, the prefix for 10 and are, and is equal to 10 ares or 1000 square metres. It is used in Norway and in the former Ottoman areas of the Middle East, the hectare, although not strictly a unit of SI, is the only named unit of area that is accepted for use within the SI. The United Kingdom, United States, Burma, and to some extent Canada instead use the acre, others, such as South Africa, published conversion factors which were to be used particularly when preparing consolidation diagrams by compilation. In many countries, metrication redefined or clarified existing measures in terms of metric units, non-SI units accepted for use with the International System of Units
Hectare
–
Trafalgar Square has an area of about one hectare.
Hectare
–
Definition of a hectare and of an are.
Hectare
–
Waikato Stadium – Hamilton, New Zealand
Hectare
–
The Statue of Liberty –
New York Harbor
14.
Canon (priest)
–
A canon is a member of certain bodies subject to an ecclesiastical rule. This way of life grew common in the eighth century, in the eleventh century, some churches required clergy thus living together to adopt the rule first proposed by Saint Augustine that they renounce private wealth. Those who embraced this change were known as Augustinians or Canons Regular, in the Roman Catholic Church, the members of the chapter of a cathedral or of a collegiate church are canons. Depending on the title of the church, several languages use specific titles, e. g. in German Domherr or Domkapitular in a Dom, Stiftsherr in a prelature that has the status of a Stift. One of the functions of the chapter in the Roman Catholic Church was to elect a Vicar Capitular to serve during a sede vacante period of the diocese. All canons of the Church of England have been secular since the Reformation, mostly, however, they are ordained, that is, priests or members of the clergy. Today, the system of canons is retained almost exclusively in connection with cathedral churches, a canon is a member of the chapter of priests, headed by a dean, which is responsible for administering a cathedral or certain other churches that are styled collegiate churches. The dean and chapter are the body which has legal responsibility for the cathedral. The title of Canon is not a permanent title and when no longer in a position entitling preferment, however, it is still given in many dioceses to senior parish priests as a largely honorary title. It is usually awarded in recognition of long and dedicated service to the diocese, honorary canons are members of the chapter in name but are non-residential and receive no emoluments. They are entitled to call themselves canon and may have a role in the administration of the cathedral, in some Church of England dioceses, the title Prebendary is used instead of canon when the cleric is involved administratively with a cathedral. Honorary canons within the Roman Catholic Church may still be nominated after the Second Vatican Council, on the demise of the Kingdom of France this honour became transferred to the Presidents of the Republic, and hence is currently held by François Hollande. This applies even when the French President is not Catholic, as is the case with the atheist Hollande, the proto-canon of the papal basilica of Saint Mary Major is the King of Spain, currently Felipe VI. The rank of lay canon is especially conferred upon diocesan chancellors and it has traditionally been said that the King of England is a canon or prebendary of St David’s Cathedral, Wales. However, this is based on a misconception, the canonry of St Mary’s College, St David’s became the property of the Crown on the dissolution of the monasteries. The Sovereign was never a canon of St David’s, even as a layman, though he or she may occupy the first prebendal stall, a canon professor is a canon at an Anglican cathedral who also holds a university professorship. Section 2 of the Church of England Measure 1995 was passed for the purpose of enabling Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. Historically, the chair in Greek at the university was also a canon professorship and this canonry was transferred to the Lightfoot Professor of Divinity in 1940
Canon (priest)
–
Saint Peter
Canon (priest)
–
Four canons with Sts Augustine and Jerome by an open grave, with the Visitation. Master of the Spes Nostra (nl) (active c. 1500–20, Northern Netherlands)
Canon (priest)
–
Kanunnik Petrus-Ludovicus Stillemans (1821–1902), canon of the
Seminary,
Sint Niklaas,
Flanders
Canon (priest)
–
Another
Flemish canon in official clerical dress of canons
15.
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its dissolution in 1806. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne as Emperor, reviving the title in Western Europe, more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The title was revived in 962 when Otto I was crowned emperor, fashioning himself as the successor of Charlemagne, some historians refer to the coronation of Charlemagne as the origin of the empire, while others prefer the coronation of Otto I as its beginning. Scholars generally concur, however, in relating an evolution of the institutions and principles constituting the empire, the office of Holy Roman Emperor was traditionally elective, although frequently controlled by dynasties. Emperor Francis II dissolved the empire on 6 August 1806, after the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine by Napoleon, before 1157, the realm was merely referred to as the Roman Empire. In a decree following the 1512 Diet of Cologne, the name was changed to Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, by the end of the 18th century, the term Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation had fallen out of official use. As Roman power in Gaul declined during the 5th century, local Germanic tribes assumed control, by the middle of the 8th century, however, the Merovingians had been reduced to figureheads, and the Carolingians, led by Charles Martel, had become the de facto rulers. In 751, Martel’s son Pepin became King of the Franks, the Carolingians would maintain a close alliance with the Papacy. In 768 Pepin’s son Charlemagne became King of the Franks and began an expansion of the realm. He eventually incorporated the territories of present-day France, Germany, northern Italy, on Christmas Day of 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor, restoring the title in the west for the first time in over three centuries. After the death of Charles the Fat in 888, however, the Carolingian Empire broke apart, according to Regino of Prüm, the parts of the realm spewed forth kinglets, and each part elected a kinglet from its own bowels. After the death of Charles the Fat, those crowned emperor by the pope controlled only territories in Italy, the last such emperor was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924. Around 900, autonomous stem duchies reemerged in East Francia, on his deathbed, Conrad yielded the crown to his main rival, Henry the Fowler of Saxony, who was elected king at the Diet of Fritzlar in 919. Henry reached a truce with the raiding Magyars, and in 933 he won a first victory against them in the Battle of Riade, Henry died in 936, but his descendants, the Liudolfing dynasty, would continue to rule the Eastern kingdom for roughly a century. Upon Henry the Fowlers death, Otto, his son and designated successor, was elected King in Aachen in 936 and he overcame a series of revolts from an elder brother and from several dukes. After that, the managed to control the appointment of dukes. In 951, Otto came to the aid of Adelaide, the queen of Italy, defeating her enemies, marrying her. In 955, Otto won a victory over the Magyars in the Battle of Lechfeld
Holy Roman Empire
–
The Holy Roman Empire at its maximal extent, in the 13th century
Holy Roman Empire
–
Imperial Banner
Holy Roman Empire
–
An illustration from
Schedelsche Weltchronik depicting the structure of the Reich: The Holy Roman Emperor is sitting; on his left are three ecclesiastics; on his right are four secular electors.
Holy Roman Empire
–
Double-headed eagle with coats of arms of individual states, symbol of the Holy Roman Empire (painting from 1510)
16.
Merovingian
–
The Merovingians were a Salian Frankish dynasty that ruled the Franks for nearly 300 years in a region known as Francia in Latin, beginning in the middle of the 5th century. Their territory largely corresponded to ancient Gaul as well as the Roman provinces of Raetia, Germania Superior and the southern part of Germania. The Merovingian dynasty was founded by Childeric I, the son of Merovech, leader of the Salian Franks, after the death of Clovis there were frequent clashes between different branches of the family, but when threatened by its neighbours the Merovingians presented a strong united front. During the final century of Merovingian rule, the kings were increasingly pushed into a ceremonial role, the Merovingian rule ended in March 752 when Pope Zachary formally deposed Childeric III. Zacharys successor, Pope Stephen II, confirmed and anointed Pepin the Short in 754, the Merovingian ruling family were sometimes referred to as the long-haired kings by contemporaries, as their long hair distinguished them among the Franks, who commonly cut their hair short. The Merovingian dynasty owes its name to the semi-legendary Merovech, leader of the Salian Franks, the victories of his son Childeric I against the Visigoths, Saxons, and Alemanni established the basis of Merovingian land. Childerics son Clovis I went on to unite most of Gaul north of the Loire under his control around 486, when he defeated Syagrius, the Roman ruler in those parts. He won the Battle of Tolbiac against the Alemanni in 496, at time, according to Gregory of Tours. He subsequently went on to defeat the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse in the Battle of Vouillé in 507. After Cloviss death, his kingdom was partitioned among his four sons, leadership among the early Merovingians was probably based on mythical descent and alleged divine patronage, expressed in terms of continued military success. In 1906 the British Egyptologist Flinders Petrie suggested that the Marvingi recorded by Ptolemy as living near the Rhine were the ancestors of the Merovingian dynasty, upon Cloviss death in 511, the Merovingian kingdom included all of Gaul except Burgundy and all of Germania magna except Saxony. To the outside, the kingdom, even when divided under different kings, maintained unity, after the fall of the Ostrogoths, the Franks also conquered Provence. After this their borders with Italy and Visigothic Septimania remained fairly stable, internally, the kingdom was divided among Cloviss sons and later among his grandsons and frequently saw war between the different kings, who quickly allied among themselves and against one another. The death of one king created conflict between the brothers and the deceaseds sons, with differing outcomes. Later, conflicts were intensified by the personal feud around Brunhilda, however, yearly warfare often did not constitute general devastation but took on an almost ritual character, with established rules and norms. Eventually, Clotaire II in 613 reunited the entire Frankish realm under one ruler, later divisions produced the stable units of Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitania. The frequent wars had weakened royal power, while the aristocracy had made great gains and these concessions saw the very considerable power of the king parcelled out and retained by leading comites and duces. Very little is in fact known about the course of the 7th century due to a scarcity of sources, clotaires son Dagobert I, who sent troops to Spain and pagan Slavic territories in the east, is commonly seen as the last powerful Merovingian King
Merovingian
–
Signet ring of
Childeric I.
Monnaie de Paris.
Merovingian
–
Francia expanded from
Austrasia, established by the Merovingian dynasty.
Merovingian
–
Frankish gold
Tremissis, imitation of
Byzantine Tremissis, mid-6th century.
Merovingian
–
Coin of
Chlothar II, 584-628.
British Museum.
17.
Avolsheim
–
Avolsheim is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Grand Est region of north-eastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Avolsheimois or Avolsheimoises, the commune has been awarded one flower by the National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom in the Competition of cities and villages in Bloom. Avolsheim is located some 22 km west by south-west of Strasbourg and 18 km north of Obernai, access to the commune is by the D422 from Odratzheim in the north which passes through the centre of the commune and the town and continues south to Molsheim. The D127 goes east from the town to Dachstein, apart from the significant sized urban area the commune is mixed forest and farmland. The Bruche river flows north through the east of the commune, the Mossig river flows from the north-west forming the northern border of the commune before joining the Bruche. The first written record of the name of a village in the current commune dates from the year 788 and is called Hunzolfesheim and it was found in 1051 spelled Avelsheim then Afelsheim in 1350 with a dialectal form Âfelse. In 1496 it was written Afeltzheim and in 1589 Avelssheim again, since then, the village has had its present name and its spelling has not changed. The prefix offe was the origin of the name Avolsheim and therefore means Open Town and it is possible that this name was given to the village since it was devoid of walls, which in the Middle Ages was relatively rare. This argument, with the one, are confirmed by the popular phrase. Avolsheim is located on the Gallo-Roman road linking Molsheim to Saverne, many objects dating from this period were excavated in 1930. The last mention of this hamlet was in the 16th century and it probably died as a village by the end of the same century. For some historians doubt remains, it may have disappeared in the 17th century, according to the papal bull of Leo IX in 1051 Avolsheim, including the Mont Sainte-Odile Abbey, was part of the possessions of the bishopric of Strasbourg. Avolsheim was put in vassalage to the Counts of Ostoffen, then to von Murnhart in 1384, from 1534 until the Revolution, the area was a fief of the dignitaries of the diocese. The village has been linked to the sub-prefecture of Molsheim since the Revolution, Avolsheim was once on the Sélestat to Saverne railway line before the section from Molsheim to Saverne was removed in 1967 and replaced with a bicycle path. List of Successive Mayors In 2010 the commune had 728 inhabitants, the evolution of the number of inhabitants is known from the population censuses conducted in the commune since 1793. From the 21st century, a census of communes with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants is held five years. This canal was used to transport blocks of sandstone to Strasbourg from quarries at Soultz-les-Bains and this dam enabled the keeping of the water level high enough to supply the canal located a little further down. The commune has two buildings that are registered as historical monuments, The Chapel of Saint-Ullrich
Avolsheim
–
Avolsheim in winter
Avolsheim
–
The Church of Saint-Materne
Avolsheim
–
Milestone limiting the ban of Avolsheim
Avolsheim
–
The Dam on the Bruche
18.
Bugatti
–
Automobiles Ettore Bugatti was a French car manufacturer of high-performance automobiles, founded in 1909 in the then German city of Molsheim, Alsace by Italian-born Ettore Bugatti. Bugatti cars were known for their beauty and for their many race victories. Famous Bugattis include the Type 35 Grand Prix cars, the Type 41 Royale, the Type 57 Atlantic and the Type 55 sports car. The death of Ettore Bugatti in 1947 proved to be the end for the marque, no more than about 8,000 cars were made. The company struggled financially, and released one last model in the 1950s, in the 1990s, an Italian entrepreneur revived it as a builder of limited production exclusive sports cars. Today, the name is owned by German automobile manufacturing group Volkswagen, the company was known both for the level of detail of its engineering in its automobiles, and for the artistic manner in which the designs were executed, given the artistic nature of Ettores family. During the war Ettore Bugatti was sent away, initially to Milan and later to Paris and he exhibited three light cars, all of them closely based on their pre-war equivalents, and each fitted with the same overhead camshaft 4-cylinder 1, 368cc engine with four valves per cylinder. Smallest of the three was a Type 13 with a body and using a chassis with a 2,000 mm wheelbase. The others were a Type 22 and a Type 23 with wheelbases of 2,250 and 2,400 mm respectively, the company also enjoyed great success in early Grand Prix motor racing, in 1929 a privately entered Bugatti won the first ever Monaco Grand Prix. Racing success culminated with driver Jean-Pierre Wimille winning the 24 hours of Le Mans twice, Bugatti cars were extremely successful in racing. The little Bugatti Type 10 swept the top four positions at its first race, the 1924 Bugatti Type 35 is probably the most successful racing car of all time, with over 2,000 wins. The Type 35 was developed by Bugatti with master engineer and racing driver Jean Chassagne who also drove it in the car’s first ever Grand Prix in 1924 Lyon, Bugattis swept to victory in the Targa Florio for five years straight from 1925 through 1929. Louis Chiron held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the modern marque revival Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. named the 1999 Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car in his honour. But it was the racing success at Le Mans that is most remembered—Jean-Pierre Wimille and Pierre Veyron won the 1939 race with just one car. In the 1930s, Ettore Bugatti got involved in the creation of a racer airplane and this would be the Bugatti 100P, which never flew. It was designed by Belgian engineer Louis de Monge who had already applied Bugatti Brescia engines in his Type 7.5 lifting body, Ettore Bugatti also designed a successful motorised railcar, the Autorail Bugatti. The death of Ettore Bugattis son, Jean Bugatti, on 11 August 1939 marked a point in the companys fortunes. Jean died while testing a Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory, World War II left the Molsheim factory in ruins and the company lost control of the property
Bugatti
–
1913 Bugatti 22, 3 seat Vinet
Bugatti
–
The Bugatti logo
Bugatti
–
1938
Type 57SC Atlantic from the
Ralph Lauren collection
Bugatti
–
1933
Type 59 Grand Prix racer from the
Ralph Lauren collection
19.
Automotive industry
–
The automotive industry is a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles, some of them are called automakers. It is one of the worlds most important economic sectors by revenue, the term automotive was created from Greek autos, and Latin motivus to represent any form of self-powered vehicle. This term was proposed by Elmer Sperry, the automotive industry began in the 1890s with hundreds of manufacturers that pioneered the horseless carriage. For many decades, the United States led the world in automobile production. In 1929, before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, at that time the U. S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After World War II, the U. S. produced about 75 percent of auto production. In 1980, the U. S. was overtaken by Japan, in 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U. S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. With 19.3 million units manufactured in 2012, China almost doubled the U. S. production, with 10.3 million units, from 1970 over 1998 to 2012, the number of automobile models in the U. S. has grown exponentially. Safety is a state that implies to be protected from any risk, danger, in the automotive industry, safety means that users, operators or manufacturers do not face any risk or danger coming from the motor vehicle or its spare parts. Safety for the automobiles themselves, implies there is no risk of damage. Safety in the industry is particularly important and therefore highly regulated. Automobiles and other vehicles have to comply with a certain number of norms and regulations, whether local or international. The standard ISO26262, is considered as one of the best practice framework for achieving automotive functional safety. In case of safety issues, danger, product defect or faulty procedure during the manufacturing of the motor vehicle and this procedure is called product recall. Product recalls happen in every industry and can be production-related or stem from the raw material, however, the automotive industry is still particularly concerned about product recalls, which cause considerable financial consequences. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 980 billion litres of gasoline, the automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, meanwhile, in the developed countries, the automotive industry has slowed down. It is also expected that this trend will continue, especially as the generations of people no longer want to own a car anymore
Automotive industry
–
Thomas B. Jeffery automobile factory in Kenosha, Wisconsin, c.1916
Automotive industry
Automotive industry
–
Citroën assembly line in 1918
20.
Bugatti Veyron
–
The original version has a top speed of 407 km/h. It was named Car of the Decade and best car award by the BBC television programme Top Gear, the standard Bugatti Veyron also won Top Gears Best Car Driven All Year award in 2005. Several special variants have been produced, in December 2010, Bugatti began offering prospective buyers the ability to customise exterior and interior colours by using the Veyron 16.4 Configurator application on the marques official website. The Bugatti Veyron was discontinued in late 2014, in May 1998, Volkswagen AG acquired the rights to use the Bugatti logo and the trade name Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. To succeed the EB110 model produced under previous ownership, the maker quickly released a series of cars that would culminate in the Bugatti Veyron 16.4. Between October 1998 and September 1999, Bugatti introduced a series of Giugiaro-designed concept vehicles, each with permanent four-wheel drive, the first, the EB118, was a 2-door coupé presented at the 1998 Paris Motor Show. The next, the EB218, was a 4-door sedan presented at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show, a third, the 18/3 Chiron, was a mid-engined sports car presented at the 1999 International Motor Show in Frankfurt. In October 1999, Bugatti unveiled a concept car at the Tokyo Motor Show. The EB 18/4 Veyron was a mid-engined supercar styled in-house under the direction of Hartmut Warkuß, in 2000 a modified version, the EB 16/4 Veyron, was displayed at motor shows in Detroit, Geneva, and Paris. Rather than the three-bank W-18 of the four concepts, the EB 16/4 featured the four-bank W16 engine architecture installed in every production example of the Bugatti Veyron. The decision to start production of the car was made by the Volkswagen Group in 2001, the first roadworthy prototype was completed in August 2003. It is identical to the later series variant except for a few details, in the transition from development to series production considerable technical problems had to be addressed, repeatedly delaying production until September 2005. The EB refers to Bugatti founder Ettore Bugatti and the 16.4 refers to the engines 16 cylinders and 4 turbochargers, a controversy developed in 2013 over the Veyron Super Sports status as the world’s fastest production car, ultimately resolved in the Veyrons favour. In early April 2013, driving. co. uk began an investigation following claims from US car maker Hennessey that its 928 kW Hennessey Venom GT was entitled to the Guinness World Record. With a recorded speed of 427.6 km/h the Hennessey was 3.1 km/h, Hennessey said its Venom GT was road-ready and unmodified and was therefore a production car in the strict sense of the term. Driving. co. uk requested clarification from Guinness World Records, Hennessey later recorded the Venom GT at 435.31 km/h. However, this was only in one direction, Guinness requires 2 runs in opposite directions to average out wind effects, so the run was not valid for a Guinness world record. The Veyron features an 8. 0-litre, quad-turbocharged, W16 cylinder engine, each cylinder has four valves for a total of 64, but the VR8 configuration of each bank allows two overhead camshafts to drive two banks of cylinders so only four camshafts are needed
Bugatti Veyron
–
Bugatti Veyron 16.4 in Düsseldorf, Germany
Bugatti Veyron
–
The Veyron's quad-turbocharged W16 engine
Bugatti Veyron
–
First U.S. Bugatti Veyron on display in April 2006
Bugatti Veyron
21.
Bugatti Automobiles
–
Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. is a French high-performance luxury automobiles manufacturer and a subsidiary of Volkswagen AG, with its head office and assembly plant in Molsheim, Alsace, France. Volkswagen purchased the Bugatti trademark in June 1998 and incorporated Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. in 1999. Bugatti presented several concept cars between 1998 and 2000 before commencing development of its first production model, the Veyron 16.4, at the urging of then-chairman Ferdinand Piëch, Volkswagen purchased the rights to produce cars under the Bugatti marque in June 1998. This followed the earlier Volkswagen purchases of the Lamborghini marque, the Rolls-Royce factory in Crewe, United Kingdom, on 22 December 2000, Volkswagen officially incorporated Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. with former VW drivetrain chief Karl-Heinz Neumann as president. The company purchased the 1856 Château Saint Jean, formerly Ettore Bugattis guest house in Dorlisheim, near Molsheim, the original factory was still in the hands of Snecma, who were unwilling to part with it. At the Pebble Beach Concours dElegance in August 2000, VW announced that they would build a new modern atelier next to. The atelier was officially inaugurated on 3 September 2005, Bugatti Automobiles S. A. S. is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Volkswagen AG After the Veyrons discontinuation in 2014, the new Bugatti model was revealed to be the Chiron in 2016. Volkswagen commissioned Italdesigns Giorgetto Giugiaro to design a series of cars to return the marque to prominence. The first example, the EB118, was a two-door coupé and was introduced at the Paris Motor Show in 1998 and it was followed by the four-door EB218 touring sedan, introduced at the Geneva Motor Show in 1999. Later that year, the 18/3 Chiron was shown at the IAA in Frankfurt, Volkswagen designed the final Bugatti concept, the EB 18/4 GT in house. Bugatti introduced the EB 18/4 at the 1999 Tokyo Motor Show, all of these early concepts featured a 555 PS 18-cylinder engine. This was the first-ever W-configuration engine on a vehicle, with three blocks of 6 cylinders each. It shared many components with Volkswagens modular engine family, the 16C Galibier was first unveiled during Celebration of the Centenary of the Marque in Molsheim. The presentation was only for Bugatti customers, the car show in Molsheim showed the car in blue carbon fibre and aluminum parts. One year later Bugatti showed the world the 16C Galibier Concept at VW Group Night at the Geneva Auto Show in a new black and aluminum color combination. The Galibier, a 1000 HP sedan, was first shown as a concept in 2010 and it would use the same 16-cylinder 8. 0-litre engine as the Veyron but instead of four turbos, the 16C Galibier would instead use two superchargers to deliver better torque. Production would require new facilities in Molsheim, France, to be refitted, in 2013 it was announced that the car will never be produced as they wish to focus on a Veyron replacement. In the 1980s the Bugatti brand was back as Bugatti Automobili S. p. A. in Italy
Bugatti Automobiles
–
Veyron 16.4
Bugatti Automobiles
–
The Bugatti Logo
22.
Public domain
–
The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
Public domain
–
Newton's own copy of his
Principia, with hand-written corrections for the second edition
Public domain
–
L.H.O.O.Q. (1919). Derivative work by the
Dadaist Marcel Duchamp based on the
Mona Lisa.
23.
Adamswiller
–
Adamswiller is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Grand Est region of northeastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Adamswillerois or Adamswilleroises Adamswiller is located some 20 km north by north-west of Phalsbourg and 20 km south-east of Sarralbe, the D9 road from Mackwiller passes south through the western part of the commune on the way to Durstel in the south. The D182 runs off the D9 in the commune to Rexingen in the south-west, there is also the D239 road from the village going north-east to join the D919 road just outside the commune. The commune is farmland with a little forest in the east. The commune is renowned for its pink sandstone from the north-east of the commune which has approved for the restoration of historical monuments. The Eichel river forms the border of the commune and the Marstbach forms the western border. The commune lies within the Northern Vosges Regional Natural Park, the commune was formerly part of the County of La Petite-Pierre. Between Adamswiller and Mackwiller there have found ancient tombs which have been given the name Totdenberg due to the heights on which they were found. 1281, Adelmanswiler 1793, Adamsweiller 1801, Adamswiler In German, list of Successive Mayors of Adamswiller In 2009 the commune had 387 inhabitants. The evolution of the number of inhabitants is known through the censuses conducted in the commune since 1793. From the 21st century, a census of municipalities with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants is held five years. The Church has several items which are registered as historical objects, The Furniture in the Church The Organ A Baptismal Ewer, all movable items in the Cemetery are registered as historical objects
Adamswiller
–
Adamswiller Àdàmswiller
Adamswiller
–
The Rauschen Sandstone Quarry
24.
Alteckendorf
–
Alteckendorf is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Grand Est region of northeastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Alteckendorfois or Alteckendorfoises Alteckendorf is about 30 km north-west of Strasbourg and 20 km east of Saverne. Covering an area of 572 hectares, the commune is located on the plain of Alsace and more specifically in the area of some loess hills behind Kochersberg, the town is located 177 metres above sea level and is watered by the Landgraben stream, a tributary of the Zorn. It is surrounded by the Koppenberg, Englischberg, and Schyrberg hills, to the north of the town is the Alteckendorf forest. The Sarreguemines-Strasbourg railway runs through the commune with a station on the south-east edge of the village, neighbouring localities within a radius of 5 kilometres include Minversheim, Ettendorf, Huttendorf, Ringendorf, Lixhausen, Bossendorf, Hochfelden and Schwindratzheim. Alteckendorf is approximately an hour by car from Strasbourg and is near the famous militarily historical town of Haguenau, the entire road network occupy 9 hectares out of the 572 hectares of the commune. The town is crossed from west to east by the D69 which connects Kirrwiller to Mommenheim and this road crosses the D25 at Altdorf linking Ettendorf to Hochfelden. This latter approach road is extended by several county roads, the nearest entrance to the Autoroute de LEst is via the D32 through the toll-gate at Schwindratzheim. There is parking there for car-pooling, the Sarreguemines–Strasbourg railway line has passed through the commune since 1895 and occupies a total of ten hectares. The railway station located at Eckendorf is now disused and this building was purchased by the municipality in 1982 and transformed in 1984 into a multipurpose hall. Now the nearest SNCF station is at Mommenheim accessible from Alteckendorf by a bus connection on the TER Alsace service from Obermodern – Mommenheim, School buses to the College at Hochfelden and to the Bouxwiller High School are available during school terms. The type of climate prevailing in Alteckendorf is an oceanic climate with a relatively large amplitude of temperature. Thus snowfall is common in winter while some summer days can be hot. Situated between two mountain ranges the village has little exposure to wind, similarly, rainfall is relatively scarce and irregular compared to other French regions, with natural protection against the prevailing westerly winds from the Vosges. The town is subject to violent storms in spring and summer. The most devastating occurred on 18 and 30 May 2008 when floods, the communal territory of Alteckendorf is not crossed by streams of significant importance. There however two streams, The Landgraben has its source in the north in the commune of Buswiller and it flows south through Ettendorf then through Alteckendorf and Minversheim. At Mommenheim, this modest stream takes the name of Minversheimerbach, the Schweinbachgraben or Schweingraben is a river that marks part of the eastern border of Alteckendorf
Alteckendorf
–
Half-timbered Farmhouse
Alteckendorf
Alteckendorf
–
Alteckendorf in 1760 and 1828
Alteckendorf
–
The building of the "Buredewels" farm built in 1809 in Altdorf and photographed one hundred years later.
25.
Altenheim
–
Altenheim is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Grand Est region of north-eastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Altenheimois or Altenheimoises Altenheim is located some 10 km east by south-east of Saverne and 30 km north-west of Strasbourg, all these roads intersect in the village. The commune consists entirely of other than the village. The only waterway in the commune is the Drusenbach crossing the south-western corner, on 21 January 1945, an American B-17 bomber, the Princess Pat was hit by flak returning from a mission to Heilbronn and landed on its belly near the D230 road between Altenheim and Furchhausen. List of Successive Mayors of Altenheim In 2009, the commune had 226 inhabitants, the evolution of the number of inhabitants is known through the population censuses conducted in the town since 1793. From the 21st century, a census of municipalities with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants is held five years
Altenheim
–
An old house in Altenheim
Altenheim
–
The Town Hall
Altenheim
–
Altenheim War Memorial
Altenheim
–
A street in Altenheim
26.
Altorf
–
Altorf is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Grand Est region of northeastern France. A part of the Canton of Molsheim and also its arrondissement, the A352 National Highway runs from east to west across the southern portion of the commune but has no exit. Access to the commune is by road D392 which runs parallel but north of the highway and connects with Highway exit 8 to the east of the commune and west to Dorlisheim. Another access road is the D127 which comes from Jaegerhof just over the border south to the village then continuing south to Griesheim-pres-Molsheim. There are also a number of country roads covering the commune. Most of the commune is farmland with forests in the north-eastern portion. In the north-east another waterway forms the border of the commune. The only other hamlet in the commune is that of Forstoff north-east of Altorf village and it was known as Altum Coenobium in 787. The origin of the commune name Altorf is from the form Alt-dorf, the old spelling was still visible before the Second World War. However the spelling Altorf through Altorfium / Atorfium it is likely to come from the Latin root altum. Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year round, the Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is Cfb. Altorf is located on the ancient Roman via romana or Bergstrasse which connected Strasbourg to the pass of Donon. The funerary steles of the 3rd century attest to a Roman presence, quickly the villages history became intertwined with that of its Benedictine abbey which was founded in 960 by Hugues III of Eguisheim called lEnroue, Count of Nordgau and his wife Countess Hewilde. His father, Count Eberhard IV was buried in the abbey in 972, the abbey had was built following a cenobite community of monks called the Altum Coenobium, which was reported in 787, where the name of the abbey and village came from. Pope Saint Leo IX, son of the powerful family of Eguisheim-Dabo came to Altorf in 1049 to honor his ancestors. He consecrated an altar to Saint Cyriac in 1079 and endowed it with relics, the reliquary in oriental style represents a bust in polychrome wood and with the words notitia altorfensis is one of the major parts of the Abbey. Cyriac of Malaga, who had cured epilepsy of the daughter of the Emperor Diocletian in the 4th century, became the saint of the village. Altorf was a place of pilgrimage for epileptics and people possessed with demons with many healings reported in the archives in the 13th century
Altorf
–
Altorf Àldorf
Altorf
–
Funerary
Stele from the 3rd century (
Archeological Museum of Strasbourg)
27.
Altwiller
–
Altwiller is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Grand Est region of northeastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Altwillerois or Altwilleroises Altwiller is located some 20 km south of Sarreguemines on the German border, the commune is accessed by the D23 road running east from Vibersviller to the village then continuing east to Harskirchen. The D153 road also runs through the portion of the commune as it runs from the D39 road in the south-west north-east to Harskirchen. The western and northern borders of the commune are also the borders between the Bas-Rhin and Moselle departments, as well as Altwiller village there is also the hamlet of Chateau Bonnefontaine in the south of the commune. The Canal des Houllietes de la Satre passes along the border of the commune. The Rose stream passes near the village flowing west from Moselle to the Albe river partly forming the border of the commune. The northern part of the commune is farmland while the part is mainly forested. Fragments of vases and other Gallo-Roman pieces have been found at Bonnefontaine, the site is located on the salt route. In addition to the two annexes of Neuweyershof and the Bonnefontaine domain the village had in its vicinity a hamlet called Honkesen-Huntzen which has now disappeared, Altwiller was deserted in the 15th century and rebuilt a little later in 1559 mainly by Huguenots from Lorraine. It was partially destroyed again in 1635 by the Croatians then became the property of Sarrewerden then of Nassau-Saarbrücken with the capital of the Bailiwick of Harskirchen, the village returned to France in 1793. List of Successive Mayors of Altwiller In 2009, the commune had 422 inhabitants, the evolution of the number of inhabitants is known through the population censuses conducted in the town since 1793. From the 21st century, a census of municipalities with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants is held five years. The movable items in the cemetery are registered as historical objects
Altwiller
–
The Protestant Church
28.
Andlau
–
Andlau is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Alsace region of northeastern France. The village owes its origin to Andlau Abbey which was founded in 880 by Richardis, Andlau has been a wine-growing centre and traveler destination since its earliest days. Andlau is located some 40 km south by south-west of Strasbourg and 20 km north of Selestat and it is a small town in the Canton of Barr located in the valley of the Andlau river in the foothills of the Vosges Mountains. The surroundings of Andlau town are entirely the Vosges, including a summit, the Stosskopf, the surrounding communes include Mittelbergheim to the north-east, Eichhoffen to the east, Bernardvillé to the south, Le Hohwald to the north-west and Barr. The commune has an area of 23.69 km² and its highest point is towards the tip of Niederberg. Access to the commune is by the D62 road from Exit 13 on the A35 autoroute which goes west to the town, there is also the D425 from just north of Eichhoffen going west to the village then continuing west to Le Hohwald. West of the town the commune is forested with an extensive network of forest roads. East of the town there is an area of farmland. The Andlau River, a river which rises in the Vosges Mountains near the Champ du Feu which is a mountain situated at the eastern end of the Ban-de-la-Roche. It flows from west to east through Andlau, Eichhoffen, Saint-Pierre, Stotzheim, Zellwiller, Hindisheim, Lipsheim, further upstream the waters of the Valff and the Kirneck used to power 60 mills and other factories until the 19th century. Its course is about 45 km, Andelaha Andelelaha Andeloïa Andeloha Andelow Andeloa Andelow Andelach Andlau is a distortion of the word Andelaha from Andelaw or Andlaw. Andelaha could come from the name of the river of which there are traces in old maps drawn in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Andlau River is 42.8 km long and flows from the Champ du Feu to the Ill and is the origin of the name of the town, on 30 July 1857 Andlau was called Andlau-au-Val to distinguish it from that of Andelot in Haute-Marne. At the beginning of the 20th century the name became Andlau, the village undoubtedly already existed in Gallo-Roman times. The village developed around the abbey of nuns founded in 880 AD by Richarde de Souabe, Sainte Richarde later the wife of Emperor Charles the Fat who was grandson of Louis the Pious. The abbey was placed in Saint-Sauveur following the rule of Saint Benedict. It was allowed to raise money until 1004 and it was endowed with substantial assets and subsequently received many privileges. The exact date of its secularization is not known but it is believed that it took place between the 12th and 14th centuries
Andlau
–
Andlau Àndlöi
Andlau
–
Andlau and its Vineyards
Andlau
–
Church of Saint-Peter-and-Saint-Paul (11th-18th centuries)
29.
Artolsheim
–
Artolsheim is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department in Alsace in northeastern France. Artolsheim has the distinction of being further from the sea than any place in France. The Gulf of Genoa and the mouth of the River Scheldt are both 430 kilometres away, employment opportunities in the village are limited. The traditional economic focus of the region is Sélestat some fifteen kilometres to the west, communes of the Bas-Rhin department INSEE commune file
Artolsheim
–
Artolsheim Àrtelse
30.
Aschbach, Bas-Rhin
–
Aschbach is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Grand Est region of north-eastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Aschbachois or Aschbachoises, Aschbach is located some 13 km south by south-east of Wissembourg and 8 km east of Soultz-sous-Forêts. Access to the commune is by the D245 road from Stundwiller in the passing through the village. With exception of a band of forest on the western border the commune is entirely farmland. The Seebach river forms the border of the commune as it flows south to join the Seltzbach at Buhl. An unnamed stream rises in the centre of the commune and flows south-east through the village to join the Seebach on the south-eastern border, in the 14th century Aschbach was the property of the Diocese of Speyer. Under the Ancien Régime Aschbach, Stundwiller, and Oberroedern formed the Superior Court with their church at Stundwiller and these three villages were merged in 1974 but Aschbach was separated again in 1988. According to the plan of 1839 there were buildings built close together. The school was built in 1833, an oratory at a place called Kreutzfeld dates to 1864, the village suffered terrible damage in the Second World War and reconstruction gave the village a new look with a larger and more open built-up area. The presbytery was built in 1950, list of Successive Mayors In 2010 the commune had 667 inhabitants. The evolution of the number of inhabitants is known from the censuses conducted in the commune since 1793. From the 21st century, a census of communes with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants is held five years. Population Change Sources, Ldh/EHESS/Cassini until 1962, INSEE database from 1968 Aschbach has four registrations as historical monuments
Aschbach, Bas-Rhin
–
Street Art in Aschbach
Aschbach, Bas-Rhin
–
The Town Hall
Aschbach, Bas-Rhin
–
Aschbach War Memorial
Aschbach, Bas-Rhin
–
The Church of the Immaculate Conception
31.
Asswiller
–
Asswiller is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Grand Est region of north-eastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Asswillerois or Asswilleroises, the commune has been awarded one flower by the National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom in the Competition of cities and villages in Bloom. Asswiller is in the Northern Vosges Regional Natural Park some 27 km south-east of Sarralbe and 38 km south-west of Bitche, access to the commune is by the D9 road from Durstel in the north-west passing through the heart of the commune and the village and continuing south-east to Petersbach. The D309 road goes south-west from the village to Drulingen, there is a large forest in the west with strips of forest along the borders with the remainder of the commune farmland. The Isch forms the boundary of the commune as it flows west to eventually join the Sarre west of Wolfskirchen. The Ottwillergraben forms the border of the commune as it flows north to join the Eichel at Tieffenbach. 718, Asco vilare 1793, Asveiller 1801, Asswiler In German the commuen name is Aßweiler, Asswiller was a small lordship dependent on the Counts of La Petite-Pierre. These Protestant lords introduced the Reformation and remained in Asswiller from the 16th century to 1819, in 1789 Asswiller belonged to the Lord of Carbiston who had acquired it in 1771 by marriage with the heiress of the Steincallenfels family. After the French Revolution Asswiller was attached to France in 1793 by decree of the National Convention which overrode the rights of princes holding possessions, list of Successive Mayors In 2010 the commune had 285 inhabitants. The evolution of the number of inhabitants is known from the censuses conducted in the commune since 1793. From the 21st century, a census of communes with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants is held five years
Asswiller
–
An old house in Asswiller
Asswiller
–
The Town Hall
Asswiller
–
Asswiller War Memorial
Asswiller
–
The entry to Asswiller
32.
Auenheim
–
Auenheim is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Grand Est region of north-eastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Auenheimois or Auenheimoises, auenheim is located some 15 km east of Haguenau and 13 km north-east of Bischwiller. Access to the commune is by the road D468 from Rœschwoog in the north-east which passes through the north of the commune, the D463 branches off the D468 in the north of the commune and goes west to Rountzenheim. The TER Strasbourg-Lauterbourg railway passes through the village and there is a station in the commune which, however, appears to be disused. There is a belt of forest through the centre of the commune, the Moder river comes from the south and passes through the south-west then the centre of the commune before forming half of the eastern border and continuing east to join the Rhine at Neuhaeusel. There is also a reservoir in the north of the commune. According to the Cassini Map of 1750 Auen- was spelt Augenheim which in modern German would mean of the eye + -heim meaning hamlet or village, the suffix -heim indicates a Frankish origin since before the first creation of villages by the Alemanni. -heim signified a hamlet or a group of houses in French from which came the Alemannic hüs from which comes haus which is house in German, in 1359 the village was called Oweheim and in 1596 it was Awenheim. List of Successive Mayors In 2010 the commune had 872 inhabitants, the evolution of the number of inhabitants is known from the population censuses conducted in the commune since 1793. From the 21st century, a census of communes with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants is held five years. It housed an officer, a officer and 20 enlisted men. Floor dimensions, 25x15 metres, Height,7.50 metres, Thickness of structural work,2 metres, Exposed concrete slab,2. 25m thick walls, Rear walls,1 m thick. Armament, one 37mm Cannon,3 Reibel machine guns,5 FM,250 mm mortars, grenade launcher chutes. History, From 1939 to 1940 the blockhouse was held by a detachment of the 68th Fortress Infantry Regiment who resisted German pressure until 1 July 1940,6 days after the Armistice came into effect, auenheim Blockhouse south An isolated infantry Blockhouse, simple flank built in 1932. It housed an officer, a officer and 20 enlisted men. Floor dimensions, 25x15 metres, Height,7.50 metres, Thickness of structural work,2 metres, Exposed concrete slab,2. 25m thick walls, Rear walls,1 m thick. Armament, one 37mm Cannon,3 Reibel machine guns,5 FM,250 mm mortars, grenade launcher chutes. History, From 1939 to 1940 the blockhouse was held by a detachment of the 68th Fortress Infantry Regiment who resisted German pressure until 1 July 1940,6 days after the Armistice came into effect
Auenheim
–
Blockhouse 1 in Auenheim
Auenheim
–
Auenheim Blockhouse North
Auenheim
–
Auenheim Blockhouse South
33.
Balbronn
–
Balbronn is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Grand Est region of north-eastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Balbronnais or Balbronnaises, Balbronn is located some 25 kilometres west of Strasbourg and 8 km south-west of Wasselonne. Access to the commune is by the D75 road from Westhoffen in the north passes through the village. The D275 goes from the village south-east to Bergbieten, the commune is mostly farmland but with large forests north of the D75 in the west of the commune. Le Schleithal river flows south through the forests in the west, the Niedermattgraben rises near the village and flows south-east to join the Kehlbach east of Bergbieten. In his chronicle, Hertzog describes Balbronn as a Staettlin, inside it is a headstone from 1574 containing the remains of Jean de Mittelhausen and his wife Barbe Hufel. In the forests in the west of Balbronn there was once a village called Elbersforst which was in a clearing in the forest where there is now the Auberge dElemerforst. A plaque indicates that the place is the property of the Notre Dame works, stones from the old village can still be seen above the restaurant patio. These are the old foundations of buildings of what was formerly called Elbersforst. Since 2007 this medieval town has been the subject of archaeological excavations, Elbersforst was part of Westhoffen which depended on Marmourtier Abbey. List of Successive Mayors In 2010 the commune had 625 inhabitants, the evolution of the number of inhabitants is known from the population censuses conducted in the commune since 1793. From the 21st century, a census of communes with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants is held five years. The Presbytery contains 2 communion ewers which are registered as an historical object, the Cemetery contains a Cemetery Cross which is registered as an historical object. Louis Albert Kiefer, pastor from 1873 to 1913, the date of his death, author of the book, Die geschichte balbronn,1894
Balbronn
–
Balbronn
34.
Baldenheim
–
Baldenheim is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Alsace region of north-eastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Baldenheimois or Baldenheimoises, the commune has been awarded two flowers by the National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom in the Competition of cities and villages in Bloom. Access to the commune is by the D605 from Hessenheim in the south passes through the village. The D209 comes from Schwobsheim in the east and passes through the village continuing west to join the D21 near the commune border, the D208 goes south-west from the village to Mussig. The commune is at the centre of an alluvial plain and is part of the Ried Natural Region. The water table is only 1.50 metres below the surface on average, water pierces the clay layer and gives rise to waterways. The Ill river flows relatively calmly across the plain, like all the rivers in Vosges it is subject to an oceanic regime which is characterized by high winter waters and low summer waters, contrary to the Rhine. The last catastrophic flood occurred in May 1983, the climate is of semi-continental type with about 600 mm of rain per year. Temperature differences are particularly marked, summers can be very hot, about 80% of the utilized agricultural area is cultivated. The Ill, the Blind and numerous streams flow north though the commune all eventually merging with the Ill which joins the Rhine at Plobsheim, bandenheim,1182 There is a Merovingian and Carolingian Cemetery with a hundred graves which attest to the ancient occupation of the commune. Most of the tombs are shallow and contained no ornaments with disturbed skeletons indicating plundering long ago, the ornaments collected from Baldenheim are from a time period between 550 and 650. Baldenheim appeared in a document from the half of the 7th century in the form of Baldenheim Villa. The name of village, according to legend, is that the Devil one day lost his hat. He refused to retrieve it saying Bhaltene, the village did not have a name at that time and adopted this onomatopoeia. But the name Baldenheim does appear in the 9th century, the Protestant Reformation was introduced in 1576. A castle was built in 1740 and destroyed in 1821, the Simultaneau in 1843 provoked a violent conflict between the two religious communities. In the 19th century there was significant growth in weaving and there were 150 weavers in the commune, in the last third of the 19th century, the cooperative movement developed in the commune. A savings bank was founded in 1890 and a dairy cooperative operated until 1981, in 1324 the village belonged to the Duchy of Württemberg
Baldenheim
–
A House in Baldenheim
Baldenheim
–
The Baldenheim Helmet in the Strasbourg Archaeological Museum
35.
Barembach
–
Barembach is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Grand Est region of north-eastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Barembachois or Barembachoises, Barembach is located in a valley perpendicular to the Bruche valley some 25 km west by south-west of Illkirch and 30 km north-west of Sélestat at 350 metres above sea level. The Barembach Forest covers most of the commune with several summits including Pépinière, Barraque des Bœufs, Ordon Saxe, access to the commune is by the D204 road from Grendelbruch in the north-east which passes through the north-eastern corner of the commune and continues to Schirmeck. Access to the village is by the D193 which branches off the D204 in the commune, the D1420 from Muhlbach-sur-Bruche in the north-east passes along the northern border as it goes south-west to Fouday. The Barembach river rises in the south-east of the commune and flows north-west to join the Bruche just north-west of the commune, the Bornichon river rises in the south of the commune and flows north to join the Barembach at the village. A list of online mapping systems can be displayed by clicking on the coordinates in the top right corner of this article. None of these maps, however, show the extent of nor any information on the commune, Barembach was completely destroyed in 1875 by a violent fire. After the reconstruction of the village almost immediately after the disaster, there were also mills and sawmills producing galoshes which later changed to weaving. An enterprise was set up by Camille Glaszmann which specialised in Theatrical property, the company was sold in 1964 and continued by Mecatherm who extended the buildings. Shortly before Liberation the village was the headquarters of Marshal Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, Barembach previously included part of the commune of Rothau on the north shore of the Rothaine. Barembach appears as Barenbach on the 1750 Cassini Map and the same on the 1790 version, the name Barembach originated from the German Bach meaning stream and Bär meaning bear. List of Successive Mayors In 2010 the commune had 868 inhabitants, the evolution of the number of inhabitants is known from the population censuses conducted in the commune since 1793. From the 21st century, a census of communes with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants is held five years. Marshal Jean de Lattre de Tassigny had his headquarters in the village, the street from the cemetery to the church bears his name. There is a monument to him on this street near the church
Barembach
–
The Town Hall / School
Barembach
–
The Church of Saint-Georges
Barembach
–
The Church Interior
Barembach
–
The Church Organ
36.
Barr, Bas-Rhin
–
Barr is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Alsace region of north-eastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Barrois or Barroises, the commune has been awarded three flowers by the National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom in the Competition of cities and villages in Bloom. Barr lies in the foothills of the Vosges Mountains at the foot of Mont Sainte-Odile some 25 km south-west of Strasbourg and 5 km north of Epfig. The A35 autoroute passes through the tip of the commune from north to south. The D62 runs west through the commune from the exit to Andlau, access to Barr town is by the D362 from Mittelbergheim in the south, by the D35 from Heiligenstein in the north, and by the D42 which branches from the D1422 north of Gertwiller. The D1422 from Gertwiller in the runs from north to south through the east of the commune. The D854 goes from the town west through the length of the commune north to join the D426 in the west. The D426 continues through the part of the commune to Le Hohwald. The D109 comes from Saint-Nabor in the north to join the D854 in the west of the commune, the D130 branches off the D426 in the west of the commune and goes west to join the D214 at Rothlach. There is also Barr railway station in the town with the railway going north to Gertwiller station, Barr is the wine capital of Alsace with the oldest Alsace wine fair and an historical Harvest Festival which is traditionally held the first weekend of October. La Kirneck river rises in the west of the commune and flows eastwards through the town, a list of online mapping systems can be displayed by clicking on the coordinates in the top right hand corner of this article. Barr has a TER Alsace railway station located eight minutes walk from the city centre, there is a train every half-hour. The cycle route of the Alsatian vineyards passes through the centre of the city, Barr town is a step in the Vosges part of the hiking trail GR5 and E2 European path. From 1889 to 1906 the Forest Railway Welschbruch was a narrow gauge forest railway along the river Kirneck, part of the forest of Landsberg is located in the commune. This forest has been owned by a group run by six managers since 1800. The forest covers 158 hectares spread over 3 communes and it is the subject of a close to nature forestry management according to the principles recommended by Prosilva with no clear-felling. It was certified by the Forest Stewardship Council in December 2000, Barr appears as Barr on the 1750 Cassini Map and the same on the 1790 version. Barr was originally a property, but in 1522 the Habsburgs leased it to Nicolas Ziegler
Barr, Bas-Rhin
–
Town square
37.
Bassemberg
–
Bassemberg is a French commune in the Bas-Rhin department in the Alsace region of north-eastern France. The inhabitants of the commune are known as Bassembergeois or Bassembergeoises, the commune has been awarded one flower by the National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom in the Competition of cities and villages in Bloom. Bassemberg is located 1 km south-west of Villé and 12 km north-west of Sélestat and its steep slopes are covered with old cultivated forests. On the south-west side the commune encroaches slightly on the bank of the Giessen towards Comte-Ban. Regular and a few steep slopes rise from 280 to 330 metres above sea level and are suitable for agriculture, the village is 280 metres above sea level at the foot of the slope of the Honel. Its location close to Giessen does not protect it from flooding of the river, access to the commune is by the D39 road from Villé]] in the north-east which passes through the commune and continues to Fouchy. The D97 from Neuve-Église also passes through the south of the commune, the Giessen river forms part of the southern border as it flows to the east through the village and continues east to join the Ill north of Muttersholtz. A list of online mapping systems can be displayed by clicking on the coordinates in the top right corner of this article. The commune lies in the basin of the valley of Villé. In 1361 the area was called Bassenberg and became Bassemberg by the 18th century, the name may have come from an old German name Badubald meaning the brave. Other interpretations may apply der basse meaning wild boar, in case a mountain boar. Bassemberg appears as Bassemtrery on the 1750 Cassini Map and does not appear at all on the 1790 version, the village was probably built in the Middle Ages on the ancient road connecting Villé to Saint-Dié-des-Vosges. The locality is mentioned for the first time in 1361 while it was in the hands of Frédéric de Cuntzmann de Hattstatt from a powerful Alsatian noble family, the village was probably formed around a mill and a bridge over the Scheer dUrbeis. After the end of conflicts that devastated the region Bassemberg adopted a regulation containing no less than 29 articles. This was in order to regulate rural policing and precisely specified rights to the forest, the vines, the shepherds, the horses, cattle, pigs, chickens, geese, and even dogs. It was so precise that any individual, married or not, in the 19th century Bassemberg had a small Jewish community which did not exist at the census of 1784 but had 21 people in 1850. A synagogue was established in 1832, thereafter the small community moved to Villé. The First World War transformed the life of the village which was on the route of the Londonbahn that ran from June 1917 until the armistice of 11 November 1918
Bassemberg
–
Bassemberg
38.
Benfeld
–
Benfeld is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department in Grand Est in northeastern France. It is situated on the river Ill, in the nearby hamlet Ehl there is an archaeological site with the remains of the Gallo-Roman city Ellelum or Helvetum. The handsome 1846 synagogue survived the Nazi occupation, communes of the Bas-Rhin department INSEE commune file
Benfeld
–
Benfeld Banfald
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Molsheim". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 677.
