1.
Polychord
–
In music and music theory, a bichord or polychord consists of two or more chords, one on top of the other. In shorthand they are written with the top chord above a line, the use of polychords may suggest bitonality or polytonality. Examples may be found in Igor Stravinskys Petrushka, p.15 and they may also be found in the song Point of No Return from Andrew Lloyd Webbers The Phantom of the Opera, including chords such as E♭m over Fm. Extended chords contain more than one triad, and so can be regarded as a type of polychord, For example G7♯11♭9 is formed from G major, examples of extended chords include the Elektra chord. When one or both of the chords in a polychord are not chords in some exclusive sense according to some preferred chord theory or other, secundal Tertian Quartal Upper structure Chordioid
2.
Pulley
–
A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of a taut cable, supporting shell is referred to as a block. A pulley may also be called a sheave or drum and may have a groove or grooves between two flanges around its circumference. The drive element of a system can be a rope, cable, belt. Hero of Alexandria identified the pulley as one of six simple machines used to lift weights, pulleys are assembled to form a block and tackle in order to provide mechanical advantage to apply large forces. Pulleys are also assembled as part of belt and chain drives in order to power from one rotating shaft to another. A set of pulleys assembled so that they rotate independently on the axle from a block. Two blocks with an attached to one of the blocks. A block and tackle is assembled so one block is attached to fixed mounting point, the ideal mechanical advantage of the block and tackle is equal to the number of parts of the rope that support the moving block. This system is included in the list of simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists, if the rope and pulley system does not dissipate or store energy, then its mechanical advantage is the number of parts of the rope that act on the load. This can be shown as follows, consider the set of pulleys that form the moving block and the parts of the rope that support this block. If there are p of these parts of the supporting the load W. This means the force on the rope is T=W/p. Thus, the block and tackle reduces the force by the factor p. The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and lines are weightless, and it is also assumed that the lines do not stretch. In equilibrium, the forces on the block must sum to zero. In addition the tension in the rope must be the same for each of its parts and this means that the two parts of the rope supporting the moving block must each support half the load. These are different types of systems, Fixed, A fixed pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to a supporting structure. A fixed pulley changes the direction of the force on a rope or belt that moves along its circumference, mechanical advantage is gained by combining a fixed pulley with a movable pulley or another fixed pulley of a different diameter
3.
Musical instrument
–
A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
4.
Laboratory
–
A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the requirements of specialists in the various fields of science. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, a chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologists laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as commonly used by computer scientists. Scientists in other fields will use other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices, scientific laboratories can be found as research and learning spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. Early instances of laboratories recorded in English involved alchemy and the preparation of medicines, larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument. Both laboratory equipment and scientific instruments are increasingly being designed and shared using open hardware principles, open source labs use open source scientific hardware. The title of laboratory is used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. In many labs, though, hazards are present, in laboratories where dangerous conditions might exist, safety precautions are important. Rules exist to minimize the risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab user from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency. This standard is referred to as the Laboratory Standard. Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a Chemical Hygiene Plan which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, the CHP must be reviewed annually. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a Chemical Hygiene Officer to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is used to provide an objective outside view which provides a fresh look at areas. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance, training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries, efforts are made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging. The dictionary definition of laboratory at Wiktionary Media related to Laboratory at Wikimedia Commons Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories
5.
Chord (music)
–
A chord, in music, is any harmonic set of pitches consisting of two or more notes that are heard as if sounding simultaneously. In everyday use by musical ensembles such as bands and orchestras, however, the notes of a chord do not have to be played together at the same time, arpeggios and broken chords may, for many practical and theoretical purposes, also constitute chords. Other chords with more than three notes include added tone chords, extended chords and tone clusters, which are used in classical music, jazz. Triads commonly found in the Western classical tradition are major and minor chords, the descriptions major, minor, augmented, and diminished are referred to collectively as chordal quality. Chords are also classified by their root note—for instance, a C major triad consists of the pitch classes C, E. While most chords have at least three notes, power chords, which are used in rock music, particularly in hard rock. An ordered series of chords is called a chord progression, one example of a widely used chord progression in Western traditional music and blues is the 12 bar blues progression, the simplest versions of which include tonic, subdominant and dominant chords. To describe this, Western music theory has developed the practice of numbering chords using Roman numerals which represent the number of steps up from the tonic note of the scale. Common ways of notating or representing chords in Western music include Roman numerals, figured bass, macro symbols, the chords in a song or piece are also given names which refer to their function. The chord built on the first note of a scale is called the tonic chord. The chord built on the note of a major scale is called the subdominant chord. The chord built on the degree of the major scale is called the dominant chord. There are names for the built on every note of the major scale. Chords can be played on instruments, including piano, pipe organ, guitar. Chords can also be performed when multiple musicians play together in an ensemble or when multiple singers sing in a choir. The English word chord derives from Middle English cord, a shortening of accord in the sense of agreement and later. A sequence of chords is known as a progression or harmonic progression. These are frequently used in Western music, a chord progression aims for a definite goal of establishing a tonality founded on a key, root or tonic chord
6.
Musical bow
–
The musical bow is a simple string musical instrument part of a number of South African cultures, also found in other places in the world through the result of slave trade. It consists of a flexible, usually wooden, stick 1.5 to 10 feet long and it can be played with the hands or a wooden stick or branch. Often, it is a normal archery bow used for music, types of bow are different mouth-resonated string bow, earth-resonated string bow, gourd-resonated string bow, bridged string bow, spiked fiddle, and bowed trough fiddle. Although the bow is now thought of as a weapon, it is not clear whether it was used in this way originally. A cave painting in the Trois Frères cave of southern France, dated to around 13,000 BCE, displays a bow being used as a musical instrument, Musical bows are still used in a number of cultures today. It can be found as far south as Swaziland, and as far east as eastern Africa, Madagascar, the usual way to make the bow sound is to pluck the string, although sometimes a subsidiary bow is used to scrape the string, much as on a violin. The Onavillu of Kerala sounds when struck with a thin stick, unlike string instruments used in classical music, however, they do not have a built-in resonator, although resonators may be made to work with the bow in a number of ways. The most usual type of resonator consists of an attached to the back of the string bearer. The bow may also be stood in a pit or gourd on the ground and this last method allows the size of the resonator to be varied as the instrument is played, thus allowing a melody to be heard consisting of the notes resonating in the players mouth. As well as various forms of resonators, the bow is frequently played without a resonator at all. In Africa the musical bow is usually played by a solo performer, in Capoeira, the berimbau is played as part of the roda, a musical group standing in a circle, in the centre of which the Capoeiristas perform or play. The Appalachian mouth-bow can be played amplified in old-time music jams, due to the nature of their construction and playing, musical bows are quiet instruments, therefore needing a resonator to resound. The resonator can either be a gourd or the players mouth Musical bows are the instruments of the Nguni and Sotho people. Historians believe that many of the musical came from Khoisan peoples. Although there are differences between musical bows, all of them share two things, a resonator, and at least two fundamental notes. The strongest notes are the fundamentals, the deepest notes produced by the string, there are at least two fundamental notes produced by all musical bows, an open and a closed. In Xhosa they are called vu and ba respectively and these two notes can already be on the string, if it is divided or stopped by a string attached to the gourd, as in the case of umakhweyana, xitende, berimbau, hungu, etc. The pitch difference between a vu and a ba is usually about a whole tone, in certain places in can be closer to a semitone or closer to a minor third
7.
Fingerboard
–
The fingerboard is an important component of most stringed instruments. It is a thin, long strip of material, usually wood, the strings run over the fingerboard, between the nut and bridge. To play the instrument, a musician presses strings down to the fingerboard to change the vibrating length and this is called stopping the strings. Depending on the instrument and the style of music, the musician may pluck, on some instruments, notes can be sounded by the fretting hand alone, such as with hammer ons, an electric guitar technique. The word fingerboard in other languages sometimes occurs in musical directions, in particular, the direction sul tasto for bowed string instruments to play with the bow above the fingerboard. This reduces the prominence of upper harmonics, giving a more ethereal tone, a fingerboard may be fretted, having raised strips of hard material perpendicular to the strings, which the player presses the strings against to stop the strings. On modern guitars, frets are made of metal. Frets let the player stop the string consistently in the same place, as well, frets do not dampen string vibrations as much as fingers alone on an unfretted fingerboard. Frets may be fixed, as on a guitar or mandolin, or movable, fingerboards may also be unfretted, as they usually are on bowed instruments, where damping by the finger is of little consequence because of the sustained stimulation of the strings by the bow. Unfretted fingerboards allow a more control over subtle changes in pitch than fretted boards. Fingerboards may also be, though uncommon, a hybrid of these two, such a construction is seen on the sitar, where arched frets attach at the edges of a smooth fingerboard, unfrettable strings run inside the frets, while frettable ones run outside. A double dot or some other variation marks the 12th fret, variations on the standard dot shape can make a guitar more distinctive. Position markers are sometimes made luminescent to make more visible on stage. Position markers are sometimes repeated on the edge of the fingerboard for easy viewing. Over time, strings wear frets down, which can cause buzzing, fixing this occasionally requires replacing the frets—but more often they just need dressing. In fret dressing, a luthier levels and polishes the frets, stainless steel guitar frets may never need dressing, because of the density of the material. Not having frets carefully and properly aligned with the fingerboard can cause severe intonation issues, the ultimate way of determining the source of a buzz and detuning problem is to measure the levelness of the frets. A straightedge positioned on the neck in the lie of one of the strings should show nearly level frets, on bowed string instruments, the fingerboard is usually made of ebony, rosewood or other hardwood
8.
Fingering (music)
–
In music, fingering, or on stringed instruments stopping, is the choice of which fingers and hand positions to use when playing certain musical instruments. Fingering typically changes throughout a piece, the challenge of choosing good fingering for a piece is to make the hand movements as comfortable as possible without changing hand position too often, a substitute fingering is an alternative to the indicated fingering, not to be confused with finger substitution. Depending on the instrument, not all the fingers may be used, for example, saxophonists do not use the right thumb and string instruments only use the fingers. Fingering applies to the rotary and piston valves employed on many brass instruments, the trombone, a fully chromatic brass instrument without valves, employs equivalent numbered notation for slide positions rather than fingering. On keyboard instruments all digits are used and the thumb is considered to be a finger, so there are numbers from 1 to five. The numbers are related to the fingers themselves, not to the position on the keyboard. There are only few publications about piano fingering and it is mentioned by Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach in his book Versuch über die wahre Art, das Clavier zu spielen where he dedicated several paragraphs to this topic. The British pianist Tobias Matthay wrote a small book Principles of Fingering, in 1971 Julien Musafia published his book The Art of Fingering in Piano Playing. The book includes musical examples mostly from the Beethovens Violin and Piano Sonatas, in 2012 Rami Bar-Niv published his book The Art of Piano Fingering -- Traditional, Advanced, and Innovative. The book teaches the craft of piano fingering using music examples, photos and diagrams, exercises, and injury-free techniques. On string instruments fingers are numbered from 1 to 4, beginning with the finger, the thumb not being counted because it does not normally play on a string. In those cases on string instruments where the thumb is used, guitar music indicates thumb, occasionally used to finger bass notes on the low E string, with a T. Position may be indicated through ordinal numbers or Roman numerals, a string may also be indicated through Roman numerals, often I-IV, or by its open-string note. A change in positions is referred to as a shift, guitar music indicates position with Roman numerals and string designations with circled numbers. The classical guitar also has a notation system for the plucking hand, known as pima, abbreviations of Spanish. It is usually notated in scores where a passage is particularly difficult. Otherwise, plucking-hand fingering is generally left to the discretion of the guitarist, several alternate fingerings may exist for any given pitch. Simple flutes as well as bagpipe chanters have open holes which are closed by the pads of the players fingertips, some such instruments use simple keywork to extend the players reach for one or two notes
9.
String (music)
–
A string is the vibrating element that produces sound in string instruments such as the guitar, harp, piano, and members of the violin family. Strings are lengths of a material that a musical instrument holds under tension so that they can vibrate freely. Wound strings have a core of one material, with an overwinding of other materials and this is to make the string vibrate at the desired pitch, while maintaining a low profile and sufficient flexibility for playability. This enabled stringed instruments to be made with less thick bass strings, on string instruments that the player plucks or bows directly, this enabled instrument makers to use thinner strings for the lowest-pitched strings, which made the lower-pitch strings easier to play. The end of the string that mounts to the tuning mechanism is usually plain. Depending on the instrument, the other, fixed end may have either a plain, loop. When a ball or loop is used with a guitar, this ensures that the string stays fixed in the bridge of the guitar, when a ball or loop is used with a violin-family instrument, this keeps the string end fixed in the tailpiece. Fender Bullet strings have a cylinder for more stable tuning on guitars equipped with synchronized tremolo systems. Strings for some instruments may be wrapped with silk at the ends to protect the string, the color and pattern of the silk often identifies attributes of the string, such as manufacturer, size, intended pitch, etc. There are several varieties of wound strings available, the simplest wound strings are roundwound—with round wire wrapped in a tight spiral around either a round or hexagonal core. Such strings are usually simple to manufacture and the least expensive and they have several drawbacks, however, Roundwound strings have a bumpy surface profile that produce friction on the players fingertips. This causes squeaking sounds when the fingers slide over the strings. Roundwound strings higher friction surface profile may hasten fingerboard and fret wear, when the core is round, the winding is less secure and may rotate freely around the core, especially if the winding is damaged after use. Flatwound strings also have either a round or hex core, however, the winding wire has a rounded square cross-section that has a shallower profile when tightly wound. This makes for more playing, and decreased wear for frets. Squeaking sounds due to fingers sliding along the strings are also decreased significantly, flatwound strings also have a longer playable life because of smaller grooves for dirt and oil to build up in. On the other hand, flatwound strings sound less bright than roundwounds, flatwounds also usually cost more than roundwounds because of less demand, less production, and higher overhead costs. Manufacturing is also difficult, as precise alignment of the flat sides of the winding must be maintained
Play (help·info). Half of this length will produce a pitch two octaves higher than the original—four times the initial frequency (4:1)—and so on. Standard diatonic Pythagorean tuning (Ptolemy's Diatonic Ditonic) is easily derived starting from superparticular ratios, (n+1)/n, constructed from the first four counting numbers, the tetractys, measured out on a monochord.[citation needed] The mathematics involved include the multiplication table, least common multiples, and prime and composite numbers.[4]
"Monochord". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). 1911.
"
