1.
Night vision devices
–
A night vision device, also known as a night optical/observation device, is an optoelectronic device that allows images to be produced in levels of light approaching total darkness. The image may be a conversion to light of both visible light and near-infrared, while by convention detection of thermal infrared is denoted thermal imaging. The image produced is typically monochrome, e. g. shades of green, NVDs are most often used by the military and law enforcement agencies, but are available to civilian users. The term usually refers to a unit, including an image intensifier tube, a protective and generally water-resistant housing. Many NVDs also include components such as a sacrificial lens. An NVD may have an IR illuminator, making it an active as opposed to passive night vision device, Night vision devices were first used in World War II and came into wide use during the Vietnam War. The technology has evolved greatly since their introduction, leading to several generations of night vision equipment with performance increasing, consequently, they are available for a wide range of applications, e. g. for gunners, drivers and aviators. The classification below was introduced by the US manufacturers through the US government. Other manufacturers do not abide by it, in 1929, Hungarian physicist Kálmán Tihanyi invented the infrared-sensitive electronic television camera for anti-aircraft defense in Britain. The first military night vision devices were introduced by the German army as early as 1939, the first devices were being developed by AEG starting in 1935. In mid-1943, first tests with infrared night-vision devices and telescopic rangefinders mounted on Panther started, two different arrangements / solutions were created and used on Panther tanks. Solution A - Sperber FG1250, with range up to 600m, was made up of one 30 cm infrared searchlight and this was matched by an earlier experimental Russian version dubbed the PAU-2 and was field tested in 1942. From late 1944 to March 1945, some Panzerkampfwagen V Panther Ausf G mounted with FG1250, were successfully tested, by the end of World War II, the German Reich had equipped approximately 50 Panther tanks, which saw combat on both the Eastern and Western Fronts. The Vampir man-portable system for infantrymen was being used with Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifles, parallel development of night vision systems occurred in the USA. The M1 and M3 infrared night sighting devices, also known as the sniperscope or snooperscope, were introduced by the US Army in World War II and they were active devices, using a large infrared light source to illuminate targets. Vladimir K. Zworykin working for the Radio Corporation of America, zworykins idea came from a former radio guided-missile. At that time infra-red was commonly called black light, a term later restricted to ultraviolet and it was not a success due to its size and cost. First generation passive devices, introduced during the Vietnam War, were an adaptation of earlier active GEN0 technology, using an S-20 photocathode, their image intensifiers produce a light amplification of around 1, 000×, but are quite bulky and require moonlight to function properly
Night vision devices
–
A
U.S. Army aviator uses a pair of helmet-mounted AN/AVS-6 vision goggles. The effect on the
natural night vision of the eye is evident
Night vision devices
–
A standard
telescopic sight augmented with a night vision device in front. Note that in addition to the image intensifier the NVD gathers much more light via its much larger
aperture
Night vision devices
–
A
1PN51-2 night vision
reticle with markings for
range estimation
Night vision devices
–
An
M16A1 rifle fitted with the AN/PVS-2 Starlight scope.
2.
Eiffel Tower
–
The Eiffel Tower is a wrought iron lattice tower on the Champ de Mars in Paris, France. It is named after the engineer Gustave Eiffel, whose company designed, the Eiffel Tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world,6.91 million people ascended it in 2015. The tower is 324 metres tall, about the height as an 81-storey building. Its base is square, measuring 125 metres on each side, due to the addition of a broadcasting aerial at the top of the tower in 1957, it is now taller than the Chrysler Building by 5.2 metres. Excluding transmitters, the Eiffel Tower is the second-tallest structure in France after the Millau Viaduct, the tower has three levels for visitors, with restaurants on the first and second levels. The top levels upper platform is 276 m above the ground – the highest observation deck accessible to the public in the European Union, tickets can be purchased to ascend by stairs or lift to the first and second levels. The climb from ground level to the first level is over 300 steps, although there is a staircase to the top level, it is usually only accessible by lift. Eiffel openly acknowledged that inspiration for a tower came from the Latting Observatory built in New York City in 1853, sauvestre added decorative arches to the base of the tower, a glass pavilion to the first level, and other embellishments. Little progress was made until 1886, when Jules Grévy was re-elected as president of France and Édouard Lockroy was appointed as minister for trade. On 12 May, a commission was set up to examine Eiffels scheme and its rivals, which, after some debate about the exact location of the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. Eiffel was to all income from the commercial exploitation of the tower during the exhibition. He later established a company to manage the tower, putting up half the necessary capital himself. The proposed tower had been a subject of controversy, drawing criticism from those who did not believe it was feasible and these objections were an expression of a long-standing debate in France about the relationship between architecture and engineering. And for twenty years … we shall see stretching like a blot of ink the hateful shadow of the column of bolted sheet metal. Gustave Eiffel responded to criticisms by comparing his tower to the Egyptian pyramids. Will it not also be grandiose in its way, and why would something admirable in Egypt become hideous and ridiculous in Paris. Indeed, Garnier was a member of the Tower Commission that had examined the various proposals, some of the protesters changed their minds when the tower was built, others remained unconvinced. Guy de Maupassant supposedly ate lunch in the restaurant every day because it was the one place in Paris where the tower was not visible
Eiffel Tower
–
The Eiffel Tower as seen from the
Champ de Mars
Eiffel Tower
–
First drawing of the Eiffel Tower by Maurice Koechlin including size comparison with other Parisian landmarks such as
Notre Dame de Paris, the
Statue of Liberty and the
Vendôme Column
Eiffel Tower
–
A
calligram by
Guillaume Apollinaire
3.
Exposition Universelle (1889)
–
The Exposition Universelle of 1889 was a worlds fair held in Paris, France, from 6 May to 31 October 1889. It was held during the year of the 100th anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, an event considered symbolic of the beginning of the French Revolution. The 1889 Exposition covered an area of 0.96 km2, including the Champ de Mars, the Trocadéro, the quai dOrsay, a part of the Seine. Transport around the Exposition was partly provided by a 3 kilometre 600 millimetre gauge railway by Decauville and it was claimed that the railway carried 6,342,446 visitors in just six months of operation. Some of the used on this line later saw service on the Chemins de Fer du Calvados. The main symbol of the Fair was the Eiffel Tower, which served as the arch to the Fair. The 1889 fair was held on the Champ de Mars in Paris, which had been the site of the earlier Paris Universal Exhibition of 1867, since the lifts had not been completed when the Exposition opened, the first visitors had to walk up to the second floor platform. Workers had worked through the night the day before the exhibition opened to complete the construction needed to safely allow patrons to set foot upon the structure. No one other than construction personnel were allowed higher than the second floor platform, an equally significant building constructed for the fair was the Galerie des machines, designed by architect Ferdinand Dutert and engineer Victor Contamin. It was reused at the exposition of 1900 and then destroyed in 1910, at 111 meters, the Galerie spanned the longest interior space in the world at the time, using a system of hinged arches made of steel or iron. Although often described as being constructed of steel, it was made of iron. There is a description, with illustrations, of the Expositions two famous buildings in the British journal Engineering. A follow-up report appears a late issue with this summation, the exhibition will be famous for four distinctive features, the 28 June issue of Engineering also mentions a remarkable Great Model of the Earth created by Theodore Villard and Charles Cotard. There were unseasonal thunderstorms in Paris during that summer of 1889, causing distress to the canopies and decoration of the exposition. The Exhibition included a building by the Paris architect Pierre-Henri Picq and this was an elaborate iron and glass structure decorated with ceramic tiles in a Byzantine-Egyptian-Romanesque style. After the Exposition the building was shipped to Fort de France and reassembled there, known as the Schoelcher Library, initially it contained the 10,000 books that Victor Schoelcher had donated to the island. Today it houses over 250,000 books and an ethnographic museum, a Negro village where 400 people were displayed constituted the major attraction. At the Exposition, the French composer Claude Debussy first heard Javanese gamelan music and this influenced some of his later compositions
Exposition Universelle (1889)
–
General view of the exhibition
Exposition Universelle (1889)
–
Central Dome of the Gallerie des Machines, Exposition Universelle de Paris, 1889, by
Louis Béroud (1852-1930).
Exposition Universelle (1889)
–
EXPO
Paris 1889
Exposition Universelle (1889)
–
Plan of the fair
4.
Lightness
–
In colorimetry and color theory, lightness, also known as value or tone, is a representation of variation in the perception of a color or color spaces brightness. It is one of the color appearance parameters of any color appearance model, various color models have an explicit term for this property. The Munsell color model uses the value, while the HSL color model, HCL color space. The HSV model uses the value a little differently, a color with a low value is nearly black. In subtractive color value changes can be achieved by adding black or white to the color, chiaroscuro and Tenebrism both take advantage of dramatic contrasts of value to heighten drama in art. Artists may also employ shading, subtle manipulation of value, the Munsell value has long been used as a perceptually uniform lightness scale. A question of interest is the relationship between the Munsell value scale and the relative luminance, aware of the Weber–Fechner law, Munsell remarked Should we use a logarithmic curve or curve of squares. The remainder of section is a chronology of lightness approximations. – Munsells V runs from 0 to 10, while Y typically runs from 0 to 100, typically, the relative luminance is normalized so that the reference white has a tristimulus value of Y =100. Since the reflectance of magnesium oxide relative to the perfect reflecting diffuser is 97. 5%,1943 Newhall, Nickerson, and Judd prepare a report for the Optical Society of America. They suggest a quintic parabola, Y =1.221,9 V −0.231,11 V2 +0.239,51 V3 −0.021,009 V4 +0.000,840,4 V5. 1943 Using Table II of the O. S. A, report, Moon and Spencer express the value in terms of the relative luminance, V =50.426 =1.4 Y0.426. 1944 Saunderson and Milner introduce a constant in the previous expression. Later, Jameson and Hurvich claim that this corrects for simultaneous contrast effects, V =2.357 Y0.343 −1.52. 1955 Ladd and Pinney of Eastman Kodak are interested in the Munsell value as a uniform lightness scale for use in television. After considering one logarithmic and five power-law functions, they relate value to reflectance by raising the reflectance to the power of 0.352, V =2.217 Y0.352 −1.324. Realizing this is close to the cube root, they simplify it to. 1958 Glasser et al. define the lightness as ten times the Munsell value,1964 Wyszecki simplifies this to, W ⋆ =25 Y1 /3 −17
Lightness
–
Three
hues in the
Munsell color model. Each color differs in value from top to bottom in equal perception steps. The right column undergoes a dramatic change in perceived color.
5.
Color
–
Color or colour is the characteristic of human visual perception described through color categories, with names such as red, yellow, purple, or blue. This perception of color derives from the stimulation of cells in the human eye by electromagnetic radiation in the spectrum of light. Color categories and physical specifications of color are associated with objects through the wavelength of the light that is reflected from them and this reflection is governed by the objects physical properties such as light absorption, emission spectra, etc. By defining a color space, colors can be identified numerically by coordinates, there may also be more than three color dimensions in other color spaces, such as in the CMYK color model, wherein one of the dimensions relates to a colours colorfulness). The photo-receptivity of the eyes of species also varies considerably from our own. Honeybees and bumblebees for instance have trichromatic color vision sensitive to ultraviolet but is insensitive to red, papilio butterflies possess six types of photoreceptors and may have pentachromatic vision. The most complex color vision system in the kingdom has been found in stomatopods with up to 12 spectral receptor types thought to work as multiple dichromatic units. The science of color is sometimes called chromatics, colorimetry, or simply color science and it includes the perception of color by the human eye and brain, the origin of color in materials, color theory in art, and the physics of electromagnetic radiation in the visible range. Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by its wavelength and its intensity, when the wavelength is within the visible spectrum, it is known as visible light. Most light sources emit light at different wavelengths, a sources spectrum is a distribution giving its intensity at each wavelength. Although the spectrum of light arriving at the eye from a given direction determines the color sensation in that direction, in each such class the members are called metamers of the color in question. The table at right shows approximate frequencies and wavelengths for various pure spectral colors, the wavelengths listed are as measured in air or vacuum. A common list identifies six main bands, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, Newtons conception included a seventh color, indigo, between blue and violet. It is possible that what Newton referred to as blue is nearer to what today is known as cyan, the color of an object depends on both the physics of the object in its environment and the characteristics of the perceiving eye and brain. Some objects not only light, but also transmit light or emit light themselves. This effect is known as color constancy, opaque objects that do not reflect specularly have their color determined by which wavelengths of light they scatter strongly. If objects scatter all wavelengths with roughly equal strength, they appear white, if they absorb all wavelengths, they appear black. Opaque objects that reflect light of different wavelengths with different efficiencies look like mirrors tinted with colors determined by those differences
Color
–
Colored pencils
6.
Grayscale
–
In photography and computing, a grayscale or greyscale digital image is an image in which the value of each pixel is a single sample, that is, it carries only intensity information. Images of this sort, also known as black-and-white, are composed exclusively of shades of gray, grayscale images are distinct from one-bit bi-tonal black-and-white images, which in the context of computer imaging are images with only two colors, black and white. Grayscale images have many shades of gray in between, but also they can be synthesized from a full color image, see the section about converting to grayscale. The intensity of a pixel is expressed within a range between a minimum and a maximum, inclusive. This range is represented in a way as a range from 0 and 1. This notation is used in papers, but this does not define what black or white is in terms of colorimetry. Another convention is to employ percentages, so the scale is then from 0% to 100%. This is used for an intuitive approach, but if only integer values are used, the range encompasses a total of only 101 intensities. Also, the notation is used in printing to denote how much ink is employed in halftoning. In computing, although the grayscale can be computed through rational numbers, image pixels are stored in binary, the precision provided by this format is barely sufficient to avoid visible banding artifacts, but very convenient for programming because a single pixel then occupies a single byte. Technical uses often require more levels, to full use of the sensor accuracy. Sixteen bits per sample is a convenient choice for such uses, the TIFF and the PNG image file formats support 16-bit grayscale natively, although browsers and many imaging programs tend to ignore the low order 8 bits of each pixel. No matter what pixel depth is used, the binary representations assume that 0 is black, a common strategy is to use the principles of photometry or, more broadly, colorimetry to match the luminance of the grayscale image to the luminance of the original color image. This also ensures that both images will have the absolute luminance, as can be measured in its SI units of candelas per square meter, in any given area of the image. Then, linear luminance is calculated as a sum of the three linear-intensity values. To encode grayscale intensity in linear RGB, each of the three primaries can be set to equal the calculated linear luminance Y, linear luminance typically needs to be gamma compressed to get back to a conventional non-linear representation. In practice, because the three components are then equal, it is only necessary to store these values once in sRGB-compatible image formats that support a single-channel representation. The ITU-R BT.709 standard used for HDTV developed by the ATSC uses different color coefficients, although these are numerically the same coefficients used in sRGB above, the effect is different because here they are being applied directly to gamma-compressed values
Grayscale
–
A sample grayscale image.
7.
Black and white
–
Black and white, often abbreviated B/W or B&W, and hyphenated black-and-white when used as an adjective, is any of several monochrome forms in visual arts. Black-and-white images are not usually starkly contrasted black and white and they combine black and white in a continuum producing a range of shades of gray. Even when most studios had the capability to make color films they were not heavily utilized as using the Technicolor process was expensive, for the years 1940–1966, a separate Academy Award for Best Art Direction was given for black-and-white movies along with one for color. Television, Television program was first transmitted in black-and-white, scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the worlds first color television transmission on July 3,1928 using a mechanical process. Some color broadcasts in the US began in the 1950s, with color becoming common in industrialized nations during the late 1960s. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission settled on a color NTSC standard in 1953, color television became more widespread in the U. S. between 1963 and 1967, when the CBS and ABC networks joined NBC in broadcasting full color schedules. Canada began airing color television in 1966 while the United Kingdom began to use a different color system from July 1967 known as PAL. The Republic Of Ireland followed in 1970, in China, black and white television sets were the norm until as late as the 1990s, color TVs not outselling them until about 1989. While seldom used now, many consumer camcorders have the ability to record in black-and-white. Photography, Photographs were either black-and-white or shades of sepia, color photography was originally rare and expensive and again often containing inaccurate hues. Color photography became more common from the mid-20th century, Today, black-and-white is a niche market for photographers who use the medium for artistic purposes. This can take the form of film or digital conversion to grayscale. For amateur use certain companies such as Kodak manufactured black-and-white disposable cameras until 2009, also, certain films are produced today which give black-and-white images using the ubiquitous C41 color process. Printing press, Most American newspapers were black-and-white until the early 1980s, The New York Times, some claim that USA Today was the major impetus for the change to color. In the UK, color was only introduced from the mid-1980s. Even today, many newspapers restrict color photographs to the front, similarly, daily comic strips in newspapers were traditionally black-and-white with color reserved for Sunday strips. Sometimes color is reserved for the cover, magazines such as Jet magazine were either all or mostly black-and-white until the end of the 2000s when it became all-color. Manga are typically published in black-and-white although now it is part of its image, many school yearbooks are still entirely or mostly in black-and-white
Black and white
–
A black-and-white photo of a
breadfruit, c. 1870
Black and white
–
Black-and-white photography of Frankfurt central station
Black and white
–
Contemporary photo of a
Galápagos tortoise (
Chelonoidis nigra) on
Santa Cruz Island.
8.
Spectral color
–
A spectral color is a color that is evoked by a single wavelength of light in the visible spectrum, or by a relatively narrow band of wavelengths, also known as monochromatic light. Every wavelength of light is perceived as a spectral color, in a continuous spectrum. The spectrum is divided into named colors, though any division is somewhat arbitrary. Traditional colors include, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. The division used by Isaac Newton, in his wheel, was, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. In modern divisions of the spectrum, indigo is often omitted, if luminance is counted, then spectral colors form a surface, otherwise their locus is a curve in a two-dimensional chromaticity space. Theoretically, only RGB-implemented colors which might be really spectral are its primaries, red, green, some samples in the table below provide only rough approximations of spectral and near-spectral colors. Ranges of wavelengths and frequencies are only approximate, among some of the colors that are not spectral colors are, Grayscale colors, such as white, gray, and black. Any color obtained by mixing a gray-scale color and another color, violet-red colors, which in color theory include line of purples colors, and other variations of purple and red. Impossible colors, which can not be seen under normal viewing of light, such as over-saturated colors or colors that are seemingly brighter than white
Spectral color
9.
Parrot
–
Parrots, also known as psittacines /ˈsɪtəsaɪnz/, are birds of the roughly 393 species in 92 genera that make up the order Psittaciformes, found in most tropical and subtropical regions. The order is subdivided into three superfamilies, the Psittacoidea, the Cacatuoidea, and the Strigopoidea, Parrots have a generally pantropical distribution with several species inhabiting temperate regions in the Southern Hemisphere, as well. The greatest diversity of parrots is in South America and Australasia, characteristic features of parrots include a strong, curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly coloured, and some are multi-coloured, most parrots exhibit little or no sexual dimorphism in the visual spectrum. They form the most variably sized bird order in terms of length, the most important components of most parrots diets are seeds, nuts, fruit, buds, and other plant material. A few species sometimes eat animals and carrion, while the lories and lorikeets are specialised for feeding on floral nectar, almost all parrots nest in tree hollows, and lay white eggs from which hatch altricial young. Parrots, along with ravens, crows, jays, and magpies, are among the most intelligent birds, some parrots are intelligent and talk at the level of a four-to-five year old human. Measures taken to conserve the habitats of some high-profile charismatic species have protected many of the less charismatic species living in the same ecosystems. Psittaciform diversity in South America and Australasia suggests that the order may have evolved in Gondwana, molecular studies suggest that parrots evolved approximately 59 million years ago in Gondwana. The three major clades of Neotropical parrots originated about 50 Mya, likewise, the earliest parrots do not have the specialised crushing bills of modern species. If so, they probably had not evolved their morphological autapomorphies yet, the combined evidence supported the hypothesis of Psittaciformes being near passerines, i. e. the mostly land-living birds that emerged in close proximity to the K-Pg extinction. Europe is the origin of the first undeniable parrot fossils, which date from about 50 Mya, the climate there and then was tropical, consistent with the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum. Initially, a neoavian named Mopsitta tanta, uncovered in Denmarks Early Eocene Fur Formation and dated to 54 Mya, was assigned to the Psittaciformes, fossils assignable to Psittaciformes date from slightly later in the Eocene, starting around 50 Mya. Several fairly complete skeletons of birds have been found in England. The fossil record—mainly from Europe—consists of bones clearly recognisable as belonging to parrots of modern type, at this point, however, is found the first unambiguous parrot fossil, an upper jaw that is indistinguishable from that of modern cockatoos. The Psittaciformes comprise three lineages, Strigopoidea, Psittacoidea and Cacatuoidea. Colourful feathers with high levels of psittacofulvin resist the feather-degrading bacterium Bacillus licheniformis better than white ones, lorikeets were previously regarded as a third family, Loriidae, but are now considered a tribe within the subfamily Lorinae, family Cacatuoidea. The two other tribes in the subfamily are the closely related fig parrots and budgerigar, the order Psittaciformes consists of roughly 393 species belonging to 92 genera
Parrot
Parrot
Parrot
–
Blue-and-yellow macaw eating a walnut held in its foot
Parrot
–
The feathers of a
yellow-headed amazon: The blue component of the green colouration is due to light scattering, while the yellow is due to pigment.
10.
Image
–
Images may be two-dimensional, such as a photograph or screen display, or three-dimensional, such as a statue or hologram. They may be captured by optical devices – such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc. and natural objects and phenomena, such as the human eye or water. The word image is used in the broader sense of any two-dimensional figure such as a map, a graph. A volatile image is one that only for a short period of time. This may be a reflection of an object by a mirror, a fixed image, also called a hard copy, is one that has been recorded on a material object, such as paper or textile by photography or any other digital process. A mental image exists in a mind, as something one remembers or imagines. The subject of an image need not be real, it may be a concept, such as a graph, function. For example, Sigmund Freud claimed to have dreamed purely in aural-images of dialogs, a still image is a single static image, as distinguished from a kinetic image. This phrase is used in photography, visual media and the industry to emphasize that one is not talking about movies. A film still is a taken on the set of a movie or television program during production. In literature, imagery is a picture which appeals to the senses. It can both be figurative and literal, a moving image is typically a movie or video, including digital video. It could also be an animated display such as a zoetrope, library of Congress – Format Descriptions for Still Images Image Processing – Online Open Research Group Legal Issues Regarding Images Image Copyright Case
Image
–
A man creating an image of himself, in the form of a painting
Image
–
An
SAR radar image acquired by the SIR-C/X-SAR radar on board the
Space Shuttle Endeavour shows the
Teide volcano. The city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is visible as the purple and white area on the lower right edge of the island. Lava flows at the summit crater appear in shades of green and brown, while vegetation zones appear as areas of purple, green and yellow on the volcano's flanks.
11.
Green
–
Green is the color between blue and yellow on the spectrum of visible light. It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of roughly 495–570 nm, the modern English word green comes from the Middle English and Anglo-Saxon word grene, from the same Germanic root as the words grass and grow. It is the color of living grass and leaves and as a result is the color most associated with springtime, growth, by far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll, the chemical by which plants photosynthesize and convert sunlight into chemical energy. Many creatures have adapted to their environments by taking on a green hue themselves as camouflage. Several minerals have a color, including the emerald, which is colored green by its chromium content. In surveys made in Europe and the United States, green is the color most commonly associated with nature, life, health, youth, spring, hope and envy. In Europe and the U. S. green is associated with death, sickness, or the devil. In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, when the color of clothing showed the social status, green was worn by merchants, bankers. The Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci wears green, showing she is not from a noble family, Green is also the traditional color of safety and permission, a green light means go ahead, a green card permits permanent residence in the United States. It is the most important color in Islam and it was the color of the banner of Muhammad, and is found in the flags of nearly all Islamic countries, and represents the lush vegetation of Paradise. It is also associated with the culture of Gaelic Ireland. Because of its association with nature, it is the color of the environmental movement, political groups advocating environmental protection and social justice describe themselves as part of the Green movement, some naming themselves Green parties. This has led to campaigns in advertising, as companies have sold green, or environmentally friendly. The word green comes from the Middle English and Old English word grene, which, like the German word grün, has the same root as the words grass and grow. It is from a Common Germanic *gronja-, which is reflected in Old Norse grænn, Old High German gruoni, ultimately from a PIE root *ghre- to grow. The first recorded use of the word as a term in Old English dates to ca. Latin with viridis also has a genuine and widely used term for green, related to virere to grow and ver spring, it gave rise to words in several Romance languages, French vert, Italian verde. Likewise the Slavic languages with zelenъ, Ancient Greek also had a term for yellowish, pale green – χλωρός, chloros, cognate with χλοερός verdant and χλόη the green of new growth
Green
–
The word green has the same Germanic root as the words for grass and grow.
Green
–
Green
Green
–
Emerald green. The
Gachala Emerald from the
National Museum of Natural History, Washington.
Green
–
Jade. A jade dragon from the
Han Dynasty, China. Jade can be many different shades of green.
12.
Sepia tone
–
In photography, toning is a method of changing the color of black-and-white photographs. In analog photography, it is a process carried out on silver-based photographic prints. This darkroom process cannot be performed with a color photograph, the effects of this process can be emulated with software in digital photography. Most toners work by replacing the silver in the emulsion with a silver compound. The compound may be more stable than silver and may also have a different color or tone. Different toning processes give different colors to the final print, in some cases, the printer may choose to tone some parts of a print more than others. Toner also can increase the range of shades visible in a print without reducing the contrast, selenium toning is especially effective in this regard. Some toning processes can improve the stability of the print. Other toning processes, such as those including iron and copper, many chemical toners are highly toxic, some even containing chemicals that are carcinogenic. It is therefore important that the chemicals be used in a well ventilated area. Selenium toning is a popular archival toning process, converting metallic silver to silver selenide, in a diluted toning solution, selenium toning gives a red-brown tone, while a strong solution gives a purple-brown tone. The change in color depends upon the chemical make-up of the photographic emulsion being toned, chloro-bromide papers change dramatically, whilst pure bromide papers change little. Fibre-based papers are more responsive to selenium toning, selenium toning may not produce prints quite as stable as sepia or gold toning. Recently, doubts have surfaced as to the effectiveness of selenium toner in ensuring print longevity, in most applications, selenium toning was not used for its sepia or red tone by fine art photographers. In fact it was used for the opposite of those effects Agfa Portriga Rapid, depending on the strength of selenium tone mixed in water, a three- to four-minute tray bath, with continuous circulation, removed the brownish green tone and provided a deep rich black. Higher concentrations of selenium toning and longer tray baths produced the red effect, 99% of selenium-toned vintage prints in museums and sold at galleries and auction are toned to remove the brownish green tone and provided a deep rich black. Most reported tests over the years in technical photography publications gave selenium-toned prints twice the longevity of untoned prints, sepia toning is a specialized treatment to give a black-and-white photographic print a warmer tone and to enhance its archival qualities. The metallic silver in the print is converted to a sulfide compound, silver sulfide is at least 50% more stable than silver
Sepia tone
–
A sepia-toned photograph taken in
England in 1895
Sepia tone
–
Aerial view of downtown Houston 1977
Sepia tone
–
A digitally sepia-toned image taken in 2007
Sepia tone
–
A digitally sepia-toned image taken in 2011 of the
Reina Sofia Museum in
Madrid.
13.
Cyanotype
–
Cyanotype is a photographic printing process that produces a cyan-blue print. Engineers used the well into the 20th century as a simple and low-cost process to produce copies of drawings. The process uses two chemicals, ammonium iron citrate and potassium ferricyanide, the English scientist and astronomer Sir John Herschel discovered the procedure in 1842. Though the process was developed by Herschel, he considered it as mainly a means of reproducing notes and diagrams, by using this photogram process, Anna Atkins is sometimes considered the first female photographer. Numerous contemporary artists employ the process in their art, Christian Marclay, Marco Breuer, Kate Cordsen, Hugh Scott-Douglas. In a typical procedure, equal volumes of an 8. 1% solution of potassium ferricyanide, the overall contrast of the sensitizer solution can be increased with the addition of approximately 6 drops of 1% solution potassium dichromate for every 2 ml of sensitizer solution. This mildly photosensitive solution is applied to a receptive surface. Cyanotypes can be printed on any surface capable of soaking up the iron solution, although watercolor paper is a preferred medium, cotton, wool and even gelatin sizing on nonporous surfaces have been used. Care should be taken to avoid alkaline-buffered papers, which degrade the image over time, prints can be made from large format negatives and lithography film, Digital negative or everyday objects can be used to make photograms. A positive image can be produced by exposing it to a source of light as a contact print through the negative or objects. The combination of UV light and the citrate reduces the iron to iron and this is followed by a complex reaction of the iron complex with ferricyanide. The result is an insoluble, blue dye known as Prussian blue, the extent of color change depends on the amount of UV light, but acceptable results are usually obtained after 10–20 minute exposures on a dark, gloomy day. After exposure, developing of the picture involves the yellow unreacted iron solution being rinsed off with running water, although the blue color darkens upon drying, the effect can be accelerated by soaking the print in a 6% solution of 3% hydrogen peroxide. The water-soluble iron salts are washed away, while the non-water-soluble Prussian blue remains in the paper and this is what gives the picture its typical blue color. The highlight values should appear overexposed, as the water reduces the final print values. In a cyanotype, a blue is usually the color, however. These fall into three categories, reducing, intensifying, and toning, reducing is the process of reducing or decreasing the intensity of the blue. Sodium carbonate, ammonia, Clorox, TSP, borax, Dektol, a good easily obtained reducer is bleach
Cyanotype
–
Anna Atkins algae
Cyanotype
Cyanotype
–
Cyanotype postcard, Racine, Wis., c. 1910
14.
Daguerreotypes
–
Daguerreotype process, or daguerreotypy, was the first publicly available photographic process, and for nearly twenty years it was the one most commonly used. During the past few decades, there has been a revival of daguerreotypy among photographers interested in making artistic use of early photographic processes. The darkest areas of the image are simply bare silver, lighter areas have a microscopically fine light-scattering texture, the surface is very delicate, and even the lightest wiping can permanently scuff it. Some tarnish around the edges is normal, the name daguerreotype correctly refers only to one very specific image type and medium, the product of a process that was in wide use only from the early 1840s to the late 1850s. Since the Renaissance era, artists and inventors had searched for a method of capturing visual scenes. Later, with the advent of Modernism, the absence of perspective in art from China, Japan. To copy these images was the first object of Mr. Daguerre met with Niépce, Niépce had invented an early internal combustion engine together with his brother Claude and made improvements to the velocipede, as well as experimenting with lithography and related processes. Their correspondence reveals that Niépce was at first reluctant to any details of his work with photographic images. To guard against letting any secrets out before the invention had been improved,15, for example, signified the tanning action of the sun on human skin,34 - a camera obscura,74 - sulphuric acid. Niépce undertook to release details of the process he had invented - the asphalt process or heliography, Daguerre was sworn to secrecy under penalty of damages, and undertook to design a camera and improve the process. The improved process was named the physautotype. Niépces early experiments had derived from his interest in lithography, the asphalt process, or heliography required exposures that were so long that Arago said it was not fit for use. Nevertheless, without Niépces experiments, it is unlikely that Daguerre would have been able to build on them to adapt, after Niépces death in 1833, his son, Isidore, inherited rights in the contract and a new version was drawn up between Daguerre and Isidore. It would bear Daguerres name alone and this was the daguerreotype process that used iodized silvered plates and was developed with mercury fumes. To exploit the invention four hundred shares would be on offer for a thousand francs each, or, the rights of the process could be bought for twenty thousand francs. Everyone says it is superb, but it will cost us the thousand francs before we learn it and be able to judge if it could remain secret. M. de Mandelot himself knows several persons who could subscribe but will not do so because they think it would be revealed by itself, and now I have proof that many think in this way. I entirely agree with the idea of M. Arago, that is get the government to purchase this discovery, nevertheless, he benefited from the state pension awarded to him together with Daguerre
Daguerreotypes
–
Daguerreotype of
Louis Daguerre in 1844 by Jean-Baptiste Sabatier-Blot
Daguerreotypes
–
1840–1841
Camerae obscurae and plates for Daguerreotype called "Grand Photographe" produced by Charles Chevalier (
Musée des Arts et Métiers)
Daguerreotypes
–
Still life with plaster casts, made by Daguerre in 1837, the earliest reliably dated daguerreotype
Daguerreotypes
15.
Ambrotypes
–
The ambrotype or amphitype, also known as a collodion positive in the UK, is a positive photograph on glass made by a variant of the wet plate collodion process. Like a print on paper, it is viewed by reflected light, like the daguerreotype, which it replaced, and like the prints produced by a Polaroid camera, each is a unique original that could only be duplicated by using a camera to copy it. The ambrotype was introduced in the 1850s, during the 1860s it was superseded by the tintype, a similar photograph on thin black-lacquered iron, hard to distinguish from an ambrotype if under glass. One side of a glass plate was coated with a thin layer of iodized collodion. The plate was exposed in the camera while still wet, exposure times varied from five to sixty seconds or more depending on the brightness of the lighting and the speed of the camera lens. The plate was developed and fixed. The resulting negative, when viewed by reflected light against a background, appears to be a positive image, the clear areas look black. This effect was integrated by backing the plate with black velvet, by taking the picture on a made of dark reddish-colored glass. Either the emulsion side or the side could be coated, if the bare side was blackened. In either case, another plate of glass was put over the fragile emulsion side to protect it, in some instances the protective glass was cemented directly to the emulsion, generally with a balsam resin. This protected the well but tended to darken it. Ambrotypes were sometimes hand-tinted, untinted ambrotypes are monochrome, gray or tan in their lightest areas, the ambrotype was based on the wet plate collodion process invented by Frederick Scott Archer. Ambrotypes were deliberately underexposed negatives made by that process and optimized for viewing as positives instead, in the US, ambrotypes first came into use in the early 1850s. In 1854, James Ambrose Cutting of Boston took out several patents relating to the process and he may be responsible for coining the term ambrotype. An ambrotype, however, appeared dull and drab when compared with the brilliance of a well-made, by the late 1850s, the ambrotype was overtaking the daguerreotype in popularity. youtube. com/watch. v=Z1BtdiA1fDs
Ambrotypes
–
Many ambrotypes were made by unknown photographers, such as this American example of a Union soldier with his family, circa 1863-65. Because of their fragility ambrotypes were usually kept in folding cases like those used for
daguerreotypes. This example is framed for display.
Ambrotypes
–
Peninsular War veteran and his wife, c. 1860, with some hand-tinting
Ambrotypes
–
American actress
Charlotte Cushman, 1859
Ambrotypes
–
Bare ambrotype plate, c. 1860, showing damage to emulsion and varnish
16.
Tintype
–
Tintypes enjoyed their widest use during the 1860s and 1870s, but lesser use of the medium persisted into the early 20th century and it has been revived as a novelty in the 21st. Because the lacquered iron support was resilient and did not need drying, the tintype photograph saw more uses and captured a wider variety of settings and subjects than any other photographic type. It was introduced while the daguerreotype was still popular, though its primary competition would have been the ambrotype, the tintype saw the Civil War come and go, documenting the individual soldier and horrific battle scenes. It captured scenes from the Wild West, as it was easy to produce by itinerant photographers working out of covered wagons. It began losing artistic and commercial ground to higher quality albumen prints on paper in the mid-1860s, yet survived for well over another 40 years, the tintypes immediate predecessor, the ambrotype, was done by the same process of using a sheet of glass as the support. The glass was either of a color or provided with a black backing so that, as with a tintype. Tintypes were sturdy and did not require mounting in a hard case like ambrotypes and daguerreotypes. There are two historic tintype processes, wet and dry, in the wet process, a collodion emulsion containing suspended silver halide crystals had to be formed on the plate just before it was exposed in the camera while still wet. Chemical treatment then reduced the crystals to microscopic particles of silver in proportion to the intensity and duration of their exposure to light. The later and more convenient dry process was similar but used a gelatin emulsion which could be applied to the plate long before use, in both processes, a very underexposed negative image was produced in the emulsion. Its densest areas, corresponding to the lightest parts of the subject, the image as a whole therefore appeared to be a dull-toned positive. This ability to employ underexposed images allowed shorter exposure times to be used, to obtain as light-toned an image as possible, potassium cyanide, a very dangerous and powerful deadly poison, was normally employed as the photographic fixer. It was perhaps the most acutely hazardous of all the highly toxic chemicals originally used in this. One unusual piece of equipment was a twelve-lensed camera that could make a dozen 3⁄4-by-1-inch gem portraits with one exposure. Portrait sizes ranged from gem-size to 11 in ×14 in, from about 1865 to 1910, the most popular size, called Bon-ton, ranged from 2 3⁄8 in ×3 1⁄2 in to 4 in ×5 3⁄4 in. Each tintype is usually a camera original, so the image is usually a mirror image, sometimes the camera was fitted with a mirror or right-angle prism so that the end result would be right-reading. The process was first described by Adolphe-Alexandre Martin in France in 1853, in 1856 it was patented by Hamilton Smith in the United States and by William Kloen in the United Kingdom. It was first called melainotype, then ferrotype by a manufacturer of the iron plates used
Tintype
–
Tintype of two girls in front of a painted background of the Cliff House and Seal Rocks in San Francisco, c. 1900
17.
Binary image
–
A binary image is a digital image that has only two possible values for each pixel. Typically, the two used for a binary image are black and white, though any two colors can be used. The color used for the object in the image is the foreground color while the rest of the image is the background color, in the document-scanning industry, this is often referred to as bi-tonal. Binary images are also called bi-level or two-level and this means that each pixel is stored as a single bit—i. e. The names black-and-white, B&W, monochrome or monochromatic are often used for this concept, in Photoshop parlance, a binary image is the same as an image in Bitmap mode. Binary images often arise in digital image processing as masks or as the result of operations such as segmentation, thresholding. Some input/output devices, such as printers, fax machines. A binary image can be stored in memory as a bitmap, a 640×480 image requires 37.5 KiB of storage. Because of the size of the image files, fax machine. Most binary images also compress well with simple run-length compression schemes, binary images can be interpreted as subsets of the two-dimensional integer lattice Z2, the field of morphological image processing was largely inspired by this view. An entire class of operations on binary images operates on a 3×3 window of the image and this contains nine pixels, so 512 possible values. Considering only the central pixel, it is possible to define whether it remains set or unset, examples of such operations are thinning, dilating, finding branch points and endpoints, removing isolated pixels, shifting the image a pixel in any direction, and breaking H-connections. Conways Game of Life is also an example of a 3×3 window operation, another class of operations is based on the notion of filtering with a structuring element. The structuring element is binary image, usually small, which is passed over the target image, since the pixels can only have two values, the morphological operations are erosion and dilation. Opening tends to enlarge small holes, remove objects. Closing retains small objects, removes holes, and joins objects, a very important characteristic of a binary image is the distance transform. This gives the distance of every set pixel from the nearest unset pixel, the distance transform can be efficiently calculated. It allows efficient computation of Voronoi diagrams, where each pixel in an image is assigned to the nearest of a set of points and it also allows skeletonization, which differs from thinning in that skeletons allow recovery of the original image
Binary image
–
A photograph of a
Neighborhood Watch sign in black and white (binary)
18.
Monochrome monitor
–
A monochrome monitor is a type of CRT computer monitor which was very common in the early days of computing, from the 1960s through the 1980s, before color monitors became popular. They are still used in applications such as computerized cash register systems. Green screen was the name for a monochrome monitor using a green P1 phosphor screen. Abundant in the early-to-mid-1980s, they succeeded Teletype terminals and preceded color CRTs, unlike color monitors, which display text and graphics in multiple colors through the use of alternating-intensity red, green, and blue phosphors, monochrome monitors have only one color of phosphor. All text and graphics are displayed in that color, some monitors have the ability to vary the brightness of individual pixels, thereby creating the illusion of depth and color, exactly like a black-and-white television. But typically only a set of brightness levels was provided to save display memory which was very expensive in the 70s and 80s. Either normal/bright or normal/dim per character as in the VT100 or black/white per pixel in the Macintosh 128K or black, dark gray, light gray, monochrome monitors are commonly available in three colors, if the P1 phosphor is used, the screen is green monochrome. If the P3 phosphor is used, the screen is amber monochrome, if the P4 phosphor is used, the screen is white monochrome, this is the same phosphor as used in early television sets. An amber screen was claimed to give improved ergonomics, specifically by reducing eye strain, well-known examples of early monochrome monitors are the VT100 from Digital Equipment Corporation, released in 1978, and the IBM5151, which accompanied the IBM PC model 5150 upon its 1981 release. This was much higher resolution than the alternative IBM Color Graphics Adapter 320×200 pixel and it could also run most programs written for the CGA cards standard graphics modes. Pixel for pixel, monochrome monitors produce sharper text and images than color CRT monitors, other green screens avoided the heavy afterglow-effects, but at the cost of much more pixelated character images. The 5151, amongst others, had brightness and contrast controls to allow the user to set their own compromise, the ghosting effects of the now-obsolete green screens have become an eye-catching visual shorthand for computer-generated text, frequently in futuristic settings. The opening titles of the first Ghost in the Shell film, green text is also featured in the Swans computer in Lost series. Monochrome monitors are particularly susceptible to burn, because the phosphors used are very high intensity. Another effect of the high-intensity phosphors is a known as ghosting. This has a place in pop culture, as evidenced in movies such as The Matrix. This ghosting effect is deliberate on some monitors, known as long persistence monitors and these use the relatively long decay period of the phosphor glow to reduce flickering
Monochrome monitor
–
An
IBM computer with a green monochrome monitor
19.
Amber (color)
–
The color amber is a pure chroma color, located on the color wheel midway between the colors of gold and orange. In English the first recorded use of the term as a color name, Amber is one of several technically defined colors used in automotive signal lamps. In North America, SAE standard J578 governs the colorimetry of vehicle lights, both standards designate a range of orange-yellow hues in the CIE color space as amber. In the past, the ECE amber definition was more restrictive than the SAE definition, the SAE formally uses the term yellow amber, though the color is most often referred to as yellow. This is not the same as selective yellow, a used in some fog lamps and headlamps. The color box shown above is an approximation, created by taking the centroid of the standard definition and moving it towards the D65 white point. Computers VT220 computer terminals were available with amber phosphors on their CRTs, interior design The original Amber Room in the Catherine Palace of Tsarskoye Selo near Saint Petersburg was a complete chamber decoration of amber panels backed with gold leaf and mirrors. Due to its beauty, it was sometimes dubbed the Eighth Wonder of the World. Sports In Gaelic games Armagh play in a darker Amber color, Offaly play in the colors of the Irish flag and Kilkenny also play in black and amber. Amber is a worn by English Football Clubs Hull City AFC, Bradford City AFC, Barnet FC, Shrewsbury Town FC, Mansfield Town, Cambridge United FC. The color is worn by the Scottish football club Motherwell FC. Traffic engineering Amber is used in traffic lights and turn signals, business management Amber is used in business management to indicate a status of work, as in RAG status. R stands for Red, A stands for Amber, usually represented as the color Yellow in the reports, spectral color List of colors UNECE Regulation No. 6, Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Direction Indicators for Motor Vehicles,48, Uniform Provisions Concerning the Approval of Vehicles with Regard to the Installation of Lighting and Light-Signalling Devices
Amber (color)
–
These silver made with
amber are also amber colored.
Amber (color)
–
A turn signal emitting amber light.
20.
Photographic film
–
This article is mainly concerned with still photography film. For motion picture film, please see film stock, photographic film is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with a gelatin emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, the emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be developed into a visible photograph. In addition to light, all films are sensitive to ultraviolet, X-rays. Unmodified silver halide crystals are only to the blue part of the visible spectrum. This problem was overcome with the discovery that certain dyes, called sensitizing dyes, first orthochromatic and finally panchromatic films were developed. Panchromatic film renders all colors in shades of gray approximately matching their subjective brightness, by similar techniques special-purpose films can be made sensitive to the infrared region of the spectrum. In black-and-white photographic film there is one layer of silver halide crystals. When the exposed silver halide grains are developed, the silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver, color film has at least three sensitive layers, incorporating different combinations of sensitizing dyes. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by a filter layer to stop any remaining blue light from affecting the layers below. Next come a green-and-blue sensitive layer, and a sensitive layer. During development, the silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, following development, the silver is converted back to silver halide crystals in the bleach step. It is removed from the film during the process of fixing the image on the film with a solution of ammonium thiosulfate or sodium thiosulfate, fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, the earliest practical photographic process, the daguerreotype, introduced in 1839, did not use film. The light-sensitive chemicals were formed on the surface of a copper sheet
Photographic film
–
135 Film Cartridge with DX barcode (top) and DX CAS code on the black and white grid below the barcode. The CAS code shows the ISO, number of exposures, exposure latitude (+3/−1 for print film).
Photographic film
–
Advertisement for Ansco Speedex Film, 1922.
Photographic film
–
DX film edge barcode
21.
Monochrome photography
–
Monochrome photography is photography where the image produced has a single hue, rather than recording the colors of the object that was photographed. It includes all forms of photography, which produce images containing tones of grey ranging from black to white. Other hues besides grey, such as sepia, cyan or brown can also be used in monochrome photography, monochrome photography is mostly used for artistic reasons in the contemporary world. Most modern black-and-white films, called panchromatic films, record the visible spectrum. Black-and-white photography is considered by some to be subtle and interpretive. Monochrome images are not direct renditions of their subjects, but are abstractions from reality, in computer terms, this is often called greyscale. Black-and-white photography is considered by some to add a more emotional touch to the subject, selenium toner produces a blue-black or purple image, similarly by converting silver into more stable silver selenide. Cyanotypes used iron salts rather than silver salts to create blue, monochrome images may be produced using black-and-white film or paper, or by manipulating color images using computer software. After software conversion to an image, one or more hues can replace the grey tones to emulate duotones, sepia. Black and White Film Information and Comparisons Chart
Monochrome photography
–
Doris Ulmann 's Laborer's hands
Monochrome photography
–
1889
Eiffel Tower -
Exposition Universelle (1889) for which the Eiffel Tower was built.
22.
Color photography
–
Color photography is photography that uses media capable of reproducing colors. By contrast, black-and-white photography records only a channel of luminance. In color photography, electronic sensors or light-sensitive chemicals record color information at the time of exposure, monochrome images which have been colorized by tinting selected areas by hand or mechanically or with the aid of a computer are colored photographs, not color photographs. Their colors are not dependent on the colors of the objects photographed. Color photography has been the dominant form of photography since the 1970s, Color photography was attempted beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments were directed at finding a substance which would assume the color of the light falling on it. Other experimenters, such as Edmond Becquerel, achieved better results, over the following several decades, renewed experiments along these lines periodically raised hopes and then dashed them, yielding nothing of practical value. Gabriel Lippmann is remembered as the inventor of a method for reproducing colors by photography, based on the interference phenomenon, in 1886 Lippmanns interest had turned to a method of fixing the colors of the solar spectrum on a photographic plate. By April 1892, he was able to report that he had succeeded in producing color images of a glass window, a group of flags, a bowl of oranges topped by a red poppy. He presented his theory of photography using the interference method in two papers to the Academy, one in 1894, the other in 1906. The named colors are somewhat arbitrary divisions imposed on the spectrum of visible light. The test subject was a bow made of ribbon with stripes of colors, apparently including red. Creating colors by mixing colored lights in various proportions is the method of color reproduction. LCD, LED, plasma and CRT color video displays all use this method and this is also known as the RGB color model. In photography, the dye colors are cyan, a greenish-blue which absorbs red, magenta, a purplish-pink which absorbs green, and yellow. The red-filtered image is used to create a dye image, the green-filtered image to create a magenta dye image. When the three dye images are superimposed they form a color image. This is also known as the CMYK color model, most commonly, three pigment images were first created separately by the so-called carbon process and then carefully combined in register
Color photography
–
A circa 1850 "Hillotype" photograph of a colored engraving. Long believed to be a complete fraud, recent testing found that
Levi Hill 's process did reproduce some color photographically, but also that many specimens had been "sweetened" by the addition of hand-applied colors.
Color photography
–
The first color photograph made by the three-color method suggested by
James Clerk Maxwell in 1855, taken in 1861 by
Thomas Sutton. The subject is a colored ribbon, usually described as a
tartan ribbon.
Color photography
–
An 1877 color photographic print on paper by
Louis Ducos du Hauron, the foremost early French pioneer of color photography. The overlapping yellow, cyan and red
subtractive color elements are apparent.
Color photography
–
The Emir of Bukhara in a 1911 color photograph by
Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii. At right is the triple color-filtered black-and-white glass plate negative, shown here as a positive.
23.
Kodachrome
–
Kodachrome is a brand name for a non-substantive, color reversal film introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1935. It was one of the first successful color materials and was used for both cinematography and still photography, because of its complex processing requirements, the film was sold process-paid in the United States until 1954 when a legal ruling prohibited this. For many years it was used for color photography, especially for images intended for publication in print media. After announcing the return of Ektachrome at the beginning of 2017, Kodachrome was the first color film that used a subtractive color method to be successfully mass-marketed. Previous materials, such as Autochrome and Dufaycolor, had used the additive screenplate methods, until its discontinuation, Kodachrome was the oldest surviving brand of color film. Kodachrome is appreciated in the archival and professional market for its dark-storage longevity, because of these qualities, it was used by professional photographers such as Steve McCurry, Peter Guttman and Alex Webb. McCurry used Kodachrome for his 1984 portrait of Sharbat Gula, the Afghan Girl and it was used by Walton Sound and Film Services in the UK in 1953 for the official 16 mm film of the coronation of Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. Copies of the film for sale to the public were also produced using Kodachrome and these had several disadvantages because they used a réseau filter made from discrete color elements that were visible upon enlargement. The finished transparencies absorbed between 70% and 80% of light projection, requiring very bright projection lamps, especially for large projections. Using the subtractive method, these disadvantages could be avoided, the first Kodak product called Kodachrome was invented by John Capstaff in 1913. His Kodachrome was a process that used only two colors, blue-green and red-orange. It required two glass plate negatives, one using a panchromatic emulsion and a red filter, the other made using an emulsion insensitive to red light. The two plates could be exposed as a bipack, which eliminated the need for multiple exposures or a color camera. After development, the images were bleached out with chemistry that hardened the bleached portions of the gelatin. Using dyes which were absorbed only by the gelatin, the negative that recorded the blue and green light was dyed red-orange. The result was a pair of positive dye images, the plates were then assembled emulsion to emulsion, producing a transparency that was capable of surprisingly good color rendition of skin tones in portraits. Capstaffs Kodachrome was made available in 1915. It was also adapted for use as a 35 mm motion picture film process, today, this first version of Kodachrome is nearly forgotten, completely overshadowed by the next Kodak product bearing the name Kodachrome
Kodachrome
–
Kodachrome
Kodachrome
–
Kodachrome II - Film for color slides
Kodachrome
–
Kodachrome photo by Chalmers Butterfield of
Shaftesbury Avenue from
Piccadilly Circus, in the
West End of London, c. 1949.
Kodachrome
–
A typical plastic 35mm Kodachrome slide from the 1990s showing logo and text on the reverse side.
24.
Anaglyph image
–
Anaglyph 3D is the name given to the stereoscopic 3D effect achieved by means of encoding each eyes image using filters of different colors, typically red and cyan. Anaglyph 3D images contain two differently filtered colored images, one for each eye, when viewed through the color-coded anaglyph glasses, each of the two images reaches the eye its intended for, revealing an integrated stereoscopic image. The visual cortex of the brain fuses this into perceptive tion of a scene or composition. Anaglyph images have seen a recent resurgence due to the presentation of images and video on the Web, Blu-ray Discs, CDs, low cost paper frames or plastic-framed glasses hold accurate color filters that typically, after 2002, make use of all 3 primary colors. The current norm is red and cyan, with red being used for the left channel, the cheaper filter material used in the monochromatic past dictated red and blue for convenience and cost. There is an improvement of full color images, with the cyan filter. Video games, theatrical films, and DVDs can be shown in the anaglyph 3D process, practical images, for science or design, where depth perception is useful, include the presentation of full scale and microscopic stereographic images. Examples from NASA include Mars Rover imaging, and the investigation, called STEREO. Other applications include geological illustrations by the United States Geological Survey, a recent application is for stereo imaging of the heart using 3D ultra-sound with plastic red/cyan glasses. Anaglyph images are much easier to view than either parallel or crossed-view pairs stereograms, however, these side-by-side types offer bright and accurate color rendering, not easily achieved with anaglyphs. Recently, cross-view prismatic glasses with adjustable masking have appeared, that offer an image on the new HD video. Template, 3D Glasses The oldest known description of anaglyph images was written in August 1853 by W. Rollmann in Stargard about his Farbenstereoscope and he had the best results viewing a yellow/blue drawing with red/blue glasses. Rollmann found that with a drawing the red lines were not as distinct as yellow lines through the blue glass. In 1858 Joseph DAlmeida began projecting three-dimensional magic lantern slide shows using red and green filters with the audience wearing red, louis Ducos du Hauron produced the first printed anaglyphs in 1891. This process consisted of printing the two negatives which form a photograph on to the same paper, one in blue. The viewer would then use coloured glasses with red and blue or green, the left eye would see the blue image which would appear black, whilst it would not see the red, similarly the right eye would see the red image, this registering as black. Thus a three dimensional image would result, william Friese-Green created the first three-dimensional anaglyphic motion pictures in 1889, which had public exhibition in 1893. 3-D films enjoyed something of a boom in the 1920s, the term 3-D was coined in the 1950s
Anaglyph image
–
Stereoscopic effect used in
macro photography 3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.
Anaglyph image
–
Anaglyph of Saguaro National Park at dusk 3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.
Anaglyph image
–
Anaglyph of a column head in
Persepolis, Iran 3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.
Anaglyph image
–
Stereo monochrome image anaglyphed for red (left eye) and cyan (right eye) filters. 3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.
25.
Stereoscopy
–
Stereoscopy is a technique for creating or enhancing the illusion of depth in an image by means of stereopsis for binocular vision. The word stereoscopy derives from Greek στερεός, meaning firm, solid, any stereoscopic image is called a stereogram. Originally, stereogram referred to a pair of images which could be viewed using a stereoscope. Most stereoscopic methods present two offset images separately to the left and right eye of the viewer and these two-dimensional images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of 3D depth. Stereoscopy creates the illusion of depth from given two-dimensional images. One of the functions that occur within the brain as it interprets what the eyes see is assessing the relative distances of objects from the viewer, the two images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of depth. Although the term 3D is ubiquitously used, the presentation of dual 2D images is distinctly different from displaying an image in three full dimensions. The most notable difference is that, in the case of 3D displays, holographic displays and volumetric display do not have this limitation. Just as it is not possible to recreate a full 3-dimensional sound field with just two speakers, it is an overstatement to call dual 2D images 3D. The accurate term stereoscopic is more cumbersome than the common misnomer 3D, although most stereoscopic displays do not qualify as real 3D display, all real 3D displays are also stereoscopic displays because they meet the lower criteria also. Most 3D displays use this method to convey images. It was first invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1838, but if it be required to obtain the most faithful resemblances of real objects, shadowing and colouring may properly be employed to heighten the effects. Flowers, crystals, busts, vases, instruments of various kinds, Stereoscopy is used in photogrammetry and also for entertainment through the production of stereograms. Stereoscopy is useful in viewing images rendered from large data sets such as are produced by experimental data. Modern industrial three-dimensional photography may use 3D scanners to detect and record three-dimensional information, the three-dimensional depth information can be reconstructed from two images using a computer by correlating the pixels in the left and right images. Solving the Correspondence problem in the field of Computer Vision aims to create meaningful depth information from two images, anatomically, there are 3 levels of binocular vision required to view stereo images, Simultaneous perception Fusion Stereopsis These functions develop in early childhood. Some people who have strabismus disrupt the development of stereopsis, however orthoptics treatment can be used to improve binocular vision, a persons stereoacuity determines the minimum image disparity they can perceive as depth. It is believed that approximately 12% of people are unable to properly see 3D images, according to another experiment up to 30% of people have very weak stereoscopic vision preventing them from depth perception based on stereo disparity
Stereoscopy
–
Pocket stereoscope with original test image. Used by military to examine stereoscopic pairs of
aerial photographs.
Stereoscopy
–
View of
Boston, c. 1860; an early stereoscopic card for viewing a scene from nature
Stereoscopy
–
Kaiserpanorama consisted of a multi-station viewing apparatus and sets of stereo slides. Patented by A. Fuhrmann around 1890.
Stereoscopy
–
Company of ladies watching stereoscopic photographs, painting by Jacob Spoel, before 1868. A very early depiction of people using a stereoscope.
26.
Anaglyph 3D
–
Anaglyph 3D is the name given to the stereoscopic 3D effect achieved by means of encoding each eyes image using filters of different colors, typically red and cyan. Anaglyph 3D images contain two differently filtered colored images, one for each eye, when viewed through the color-coded anaglyph glasses, each of the two images reaches the eye its intended for, revealing an integrated stereoscopic image. The visual cortex of the brain fuses this into perceptive tion of a scene or composition. Anaglyph images have seen a recent resurgence due to the presentation of images and video on the Web, Blu-ray Discs, CDs, low cost paper frames or plastic-framed glasses hold accurate color filters that typically, after 2002, make use of all 3 primary colors. The current norm is red and cyan, with red being used for the left channel, the cheaper filter material used in the monochromatic past dictated red and blue for convenience and cost. There is an improvement of full color images, with the cyan filter. Video games, theatrical films, and DVDs can be shown in the anaglyph 3D process, practical images, for science or design, where depth perception is useful, include the presentation of full scale and microscopic stereographic images. Examples from NASA include Mars Rover imaging, and the investigation, called STEREO. Other applications include geological illustrations by the United States Geological Survey, a recent application is for stereo imaging of the heart using 3D ultra-sound with plastic red/cyan glasses. Anaglyph images are much easier to view than either parallel or crossed-view pairs stereograms, however, these side-by-side types offer bright and accurate color rendering, not easily achieved with anaglyphs. Recently, cross-view prismatic glasses with adjustable masking have appeared, that offer an image on the new HD video. Template, 3D Glasses The oldest known description of anaglyph images was written in August 1853 by W. Rollmann in Stargard about his Farbenstereoscope and he had the best results viewing a yellow/blue drawing with red/blue glasses. Rollmann found that with a drawing the red lines were not as distinct as yellow lines through the blue glass. In 1858 Joseph DAlmeida began projecting three-dimensional magic lantern slide shows using red and green filters with the audience wearing red, louis Ducos du Hauron produced the first printed anaglyphs in 1891. This process consisted of printing the two negatives which form a photograph on to the same paper, one in blue. The viewer would then use coloured glasses with red and blue or green, the left eye would see the blue image which would appear black, whilst it would not see the red, similarly the right eye would see the red image, this registering as black. Thus a three dimensional image would result, william Friese-Green created the first three-dimensional anaglyphic motion pictures in 1889, which had public exhibition in 1893. 3-D films enjoyed something of a boom in the 1920s, the term 3-D was coined in the 1950s
Anaglyph 3D
–
Stereoscopic effect used in
macro photography 3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.
Anaglyph 3D
Anaglyph 3D
–
Anaglyph of Saguaro National Park at dusk 3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.
Anaglyph 3D
–
Anaglyph of a column head in
Persepolis, Iran 3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.
27.
Digital photography
–
Digital photography is a form of photography that uses cameras containing arrays of electronic photodetectors to capture images focused by a lens, as opposed to an exposure on photographic film. The captured images are digitized and stored as a computer file ready for digital processing, viewing. Digital photographs are created solely by computer-based photoelectric and mechanical techniques. Digital photography is one of forms of digital imaging. Digital images are created by non-photographic equipment such as computer tomography scanners. Digital images can also be made by scanning other printed photographic images or negatives, the first consumer digital cameras were marketed in the late 1990s. Many mirrorless cameras accept interchangeable lenses and have advanced features through an electronic viewfinder, the first flyby spacecraft image of Mars was taken from Mariner 4 on July 15,1965 with a camera system designed by NASA/JPL. The first recorded attempt at building a digital camera was in 1975 by Steven Sasson and it used the then-new solid-state CCD image sensor chips developed by Fairchild Semiconductor in 1973. The camera weighed 8 pounds, recorded black and white images to a tape, had a resolution of 0.01 megapixels. The prototype camera was an exercise, not intended for production. This camera was never marketed internationally, and has not been confirmed to have shipped even in Japan, the first commercially available digital camera was the 1990 Dycam Model 1, it also sold as the Logitech Fotoman. It used a CCD image sensor, stored pictures digitally, image sensors read the intensity of light, and digital memory devices store the digital image information as RGB color space or as raw data. The two main types of sensors are charge-coupled devices, in which the photocharge is shifted to a central charge-to-voltage converter, Digital cameras can take pictures, and may also record sound and video. Some can be used as webcams, some can use the PictBridge standard to connect to a printer without using a computer, similarly, many camcorders can take still photographs, and store them on videotape or on flash memorycards with the same functionality as digital cameras. Digital photography is one of the most exceptional instances of the shift from converting conventional analog information to digital information and this shift is so tremendous because it was a chemical and mechanical process and became an all digital process with a built in computer in all digital cameras. The quality of an image is a composite of various factors. Pixel count is one of the major factors, though it is the most heavily marketed figure of merit. Digital camera manufacturers advertise this figure because consumers can use it to easily compare camera capabilities and it is not, however, the major factor in evaluating a digital camera for most applications
Digital photography
–
Nikon D700 — a 12.1-megapixel full-frame DSLR
Digital photography
–
The
Canon PowerShot A 95
Digital photography
–
Image at left has a higher
pixel count than the one to the right, but lower
spatial resolution.
Digital photography
28.
Red
–
Red is the color at the longer-wavelengths end of the spectrum of visible light next to orange, at the opposite end from violet. Red color has a predominant light wavelength of roughly 620–740 nanometers, light with a longer wavelength than red but shorter than terahertz radiation and microwave is called infrared. Red is one of the secondary colors, resulting from the combination of yellow. Traditionally, it was viewed as a primary colour, along with yellow and blue, in the RYB color space and traditional color wheel formerly used by painters. Reds can vary in shade from light pink to very dark maroon or burgundy. Red is the color of cyan. In nature, the red color of blood comes from hemoglobin, the red color of the Grand Canyon and other geological features is caused by hematite or red ochre, both forms of iron oxide. It also causes the red color of the planet Mars, the color of autumn leaves is caused by pigments called anthocyanins, which are produced towards the end of summer, when the green chlorophyll is no longer produced. One to two percent of the population has red hair, the color is produced by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin. Since red is the color of blood, it has historically been associated with sacrifice, danger, modern surveys in the United States and Europe show red is also the color most commonly associated with heat, activity, passion, sexuality, anger, love and joy. In China, India and many other Asian countries it is the color of symbolizing happiness, since the 19th century, red has also been associated with socialism and communism. The word red is derived from the Old English rēad, the word can be further traced to the Proto-Germanic rauthaz and the Proto-Indo European root rewdʰ-. In Sanskrit, the word means red or blood. In the Akkadian language of Ancient Mesopotamia and in the modern Inuit language of Inuit, the words for colored in Latin and Spanish both also mean red. In Portuguese the word for red is vermelho, which comes from Latin vermiculus, in the Russian language, the word for red, Кра́сный, comes from the same old Slavic root as the words for beautiful—красивый and excellent—прекрасный. Thus Red Square in Moscow, named long before the Russian Revolution, in heraldry, the word gules is used for red. Red can vary in hue from orange-red to violet-red, and for each hue there is a variety of shades and tints. Red hematite powder was found scattered around the remains at a grave site in a Zhoukoudian cave complex near Beijing
Red
–
Pure, or solid red, the color of most ripe
strawberries.
Red
–
Red
Red
–
Scarlet is one quarter of the way between the colors red and orange. It is the color worn by a
cardinal of the
Roman Catholic Church..
Red
–
The
cardinal takes its name from the color worn by Roman Catholic
cardinals.
29.
Complementary color
–
Complementary colors are pairs of colors which, when combined, cancel each other out. This means that combined, they produce a grey-scale color like white or black. When placed next to other, they create the strongest contrast for those particular two colors. Due to this striking color clash, the term opposite colors is considered more appropriate than complementary colors. Opponent process theory suggests that the most contrasting color pairs are red–green, in the traditional representation, a complementary color pair is made up of a primary color and a secondary color. For example, yellow is a color, and painters can make purple by mixing of red and blue, so when yellow and purple paint are mixed. Since paints work by absorbing light, having all three primaries together results in a black or gray color, in more recent painting manuals, the more precise subtractive primary colors are magenta, cyan and yellow. Complementary colors can create some striking optical effects, the shadow of an object appears to contain some of the complementary color of the object. For example, the shadow of a red apple will appear to contain a little blue-green and this effect is often copied by painters who want to create more luminous and realistic shadows. Also, if you stare at a square of color for a period of time. Placed side by side as tiny dots, in color mixing. In the RGB model, the colors are red, green. The complementary primary–secondary combinations are red–cyan, green–magenta, and blue–yellow, if the light is not fully intense, the resulting light will be gray. In some other models, such as the HSV color space. Complementary colors lie opposite each other on any horizontal cross-section, for example, in the CIE1931 color space a color of a dominant wavelength can be mixed with an amount of the complementary wavelength to produce a neutral color. Color printing, like painting, also uses subtractive colors, but the colors are different from those used in painting. As a result, the logic applies as to colors produced by light. Color printing uses the CMYK color model, making colors by overprinting cyan, magenta, yellow, in printing the most common complementary colors are magenta–green, yellow–blue, and cyan–red
Complementary color
–
A Boutet color circle from 1708 showed the traditional complementary colors; red and green, yellow and violet, and blue and orange.
Complementary color
–
A traditional color star developed in 1867 by
Charles Blanc. The traditional complementary colors used by 19th-century artists such as Van Gogh, Monet and Renoir are directly opposite each other.
Complementary color
–
The color wheel designed by
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1810) was based on the idea that the primary colors yellow and blue, representing light and darkness, were in opposition to each other.
Complementary color
–
Impression, Sunrise by
Claude Monet (1872) featured a tiny but vivid orange sun against a blue background. The painting gave its name to the Impressionist movement.
30.
Cyan
–
It is evoked by light with a predominant wavelength of between 490–520 nm, between the wavelengths of blue and green. In the subtractive color system, or CMYK, which can be overlaid to produce all colors in paint and color printing, cyan is one of the colors, along with magenta, yellow. In the additive color system, or RGB color model, used to all the colors on a computer or television display, cyan is made by mixing equal amounts of green. Cyan is the complement of red, it can be made by the removal of red from white light, mixing red light and cyan light at the right intensity will make white light. The web color cyan is synonymous with aqua, other colors in the cyan color range are teal, turquoise, electric blue, aquamarine, and others described as blue-green. Its name is derived from the Ancient Greek κύανος, transliterated kyanos, meaning blue, dark blue enamel. It was formerly known as blue or cyan-blue, and its first recorded use as a color name in English was in 1879. Further origins of the name can be traced back to a dye produced from the cornflower. In most languages, cyan is not a color term. Reasons for why cyan is not linguistically acknowledged as a color term can be found in the frequent lack of distinction between blue and green in many languages. The web color cyan shown at right is a color in the RGB color model. In X11 colors, this color is called both cyan and aqua, in the HTML color list, this same color is called aqua. The web colors are more vivid than the used in the CMYK color system. To reproduce the web color cyan in inks, it is necessary to add some white ink to the printers cyan below, so when it is reproduced in printing, it is not a primary subtractive color. It is called aqua because it is a commonly associated with water. Cyan is also one of the inks used in four-color printing, along with magenta, yellow, and black. While both the secondary and the subtractive primary are called cyan, they can be substantially different from one another. Cyan printing ink can be saturated or less saturated than the RGB secondary cyan, depending on what RGB color space
Cyan
–
In the
RGB color model, used to make colors on computer and TV displays, cyan is created by the combination of green and blue light.
Cyan
–
Cyan
Cyan
–
Color printers today use magenta, cyan, and yellow ink to produce the full range of colors.
Cyan
–
Cyan is the color of shallow water over a sandy beach. The water absorbs the color red from the sunlight, leaving a greenish-blue color.
3D red cyan glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.
