1.
Castle of the Moors
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The Castle of the Moors is a hilltop medieval castle located in the central Portuguese civil parish of Santa Maria e São Miguel, in the municipality of Sintra, about 25km northwest of Lisbon. Built by the Moors in the 8th and 9th centuries, it was an important strategic point during the Reconquista and it is classified as a National Monument, part of the Sintra Cultural Landscape, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This transfer did not result in any security, and the castle was lost to the invading Almoravid, after the conquest of Lisbon by forces loyal to Afonso Henriques, the castle surrendered voluntarily to Christian forces. Afonso Henriques entrusted the security to 30 inhabitants, granting them privileges in the foral signed by the monarch in 1154. The charter suggested that settlers should occupy and inhabit the castle, as a mechanism for guaranteeing the regions security, during the second half of the 12th century, the chapel constructed within the walls of the castle became the parish seat. This was followed by the remodelling and construction under the initiative of King Sancho I of Portugal, in 1375 King Ferdinand I of Portugal, under the counsel of João Annes de Almada, ordered the rebuilding of the castle. While the structure was fortified by 1383, its military importance was progressively diminishing as, more and more. This was followed in the 16th century by the transfer of the parish of São Pedro from the castle to the new parochial church in the village. The Jews occupying and using the structures in the castle were expelled by Manuel I of Portugal, the 1755 Lisbon earthquake caused considerable damage to the chapel and affected the stability of the castle. An 1830 lithograph by Burnett immortalized the chapels place in the Castle, by 1838 the towers were already in ruins, when in 1840 Ferdinand II of Portugal took up the task of conserving and improving the condition of the castle, in which he committed 240 réis annually. He consolidated the walls, reforested the spaces, created nooks and manicured spaces, along the south flank of the chapel he built a monument to collect the bones discovered during the public works, planting a tree in the central nave of the chapel. These reforms in the enclosure were overseen by Baron von Eschewege, at the end of the 19th century the administrator of the Forestry Service, Carlos de Nogueira, authorized several projects in the castle and chapel. In 1939 the DGEMN became involved in the reconstruction of the castle walls, with an eye towards a fledgling tourist market, in 1954 a few of the cliffs were cleared to establish a picnic area near the castle, and in 1965 a transformer was installed to provide illumination. A dispatch by the Ministry of Culture, on 26 June 1996, during the summer of 1986, scouts were involved in projects to consolidate the walls with cement and clean the grounds, supported by the CMS. In 2001 there were various interventions associated with cleaning the property, clearing undergrowth and forest overgrowth, and it is situated on the top of the Sintra Mountains, where it has a panoramic view of the municipality of Sintra, and on a clear day Mafra and Ericeira. It is accessible from Santa Maria e São Miguel by a gate and turnstile. The castle is located in the limits of the Sintra-Cascais Natural Park, in the flank of the Sintra Mountains. The climate is characterized by low temperatures and elevated precipitation, due to its proximity to the sea, its relief and dense vegetation
2.
Fortifications of Gibraltar
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It has repeatedly been contested between European and North African powers and has endured fourteen sieges since it was first settled in the 11th century. At their peak in 1865, the fortifications housed around 681 guns mounted in 110 batteries and positions, guarding all land, Gibraltars fortifications are clustered in three main areas. The densest fortifications are in the area where historically Gibraltar was under the most threat – at the end of the peninsula. Another group of fortifications guards the town and the harbour, referred to as the West Side, the southern end of the town is guarded by the South Land Front. Few fortifications exist on the east side, as the cliff of the Rock of Gibraltar is a virtually impassable obstacle. Further fortifications occupy the plateaus of Windmill Hill and Europa Point at the end of the peninsula. Lookout posts and batteries on the summits of the Rock provide a 360° view across the Strait, the nature and position of Gibraltars defences have been dictated by the territorys topography. It is a long, narrow peninsula measuring 5.1 kilometres by 1.6 kilometres wide at maximum, with a land area of about six square kilometres. The only land access to the peninsula is via a sandy isthmus, the peninsula is dominated by the limestone massif of the Rock of Gibraltar, which presents a sheer cliff over 400 metres high at its north end, facing the isthmus. The Rock extends southwards for 2.5 kilometres with several peaks before it descends to two southern plateaus at heights of between 90–130 metres and 30–40 metres above sea level, the southern tip of Gibraltar is surrounded by steep cliffs. The Rock itself is asymmetric, with a slope on the west side. A great deal of 20th century land reclamation on the west side has also widened the coastal area, a couple of small settlements, originally fishing villages, occupy the east side. These features have made Gibraltar a naturally defensive position. The isthmus lacks any natural cover, exposing any approaching enemy to opposing fire, the heights of the Rock form a natural barrier to movement and rocky ledges provide natural platforms for gun batteries. A single road connects Gibraltar with Spain, and within the territory most roads are narrow, over the centuries, Gibraltars successive occupants have built an increasingly complex set of fortifications around, on top of and incorporating the territorys natural features. From Europa Point, which pushes into the sea on the side, to the highest point of the Rock. Proceeding towards Europa Point, at the entrance of the town, fortifications, magazines, barracks, Gibraltars fortifications have evolved in a number of stages. Its first permanent inhabitants, the Moors of North Africa, are said to have established a fort on Djebel Tarik to be on guard and watch events on the other side of the Straits as early as 1068
3.
Gibraltar Nature Reserve
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The Gibraltar Nature Reserve is a protected nature reserve in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar that covers over 40% of the countrys land area. It was established as the Upper Rock Nature Reserve in 1993 under the International Union for Conservation of Natures category Ia and was last extended in 2013 and it is known for its semi-wild population of Barbary macaques, and is an important resting point for migrating birds. Originally named the Upper Rock Nature Reserve, it was limited to the part of the Rock of Gibraltar. The Rock is part of the Betic Cordillera, formed about 200 million years ago, from the crest of the rock there is a dramatic view of the area, including Spain across the Bay of Gibraltar and Jebel Musa of Morocco across the Strait of Gibraltar. It is an area of natural beauty and one of the main tourist attractions in Gibraltar. The Upper Rock area of the reserve can be reached by road or by the Gibraltar Cable Car. The reserve was established in 1993 to protect the area of land that the United Kingdoms Ministry of Defence had decommissioned from military use and its purpose is to preserve the wildlife and natural and historical sites, while providing access to the public. The flora and fauna of the reserve are protected by the law of Gibraltar. The nature reserve was last extended in 2013 when it was renamed the Gibraltar Nature Reserve to reflect its wider scope outside the Upper Rock, the protected area now covers the Great Gibraltar Sand Dune, Windmill Hill and the Europa Foreshore. Gibraltar has a typical Mediterranean climate, moderated by the sea that almost surrounds the peninsula, summers are warm and dry, while winters are cool and wet. Temperatures range from 13.4 °C to 24.2 °C, annual rainfall is about 768 millimetres. The Levanter clouds provide condensation that keeps the green even in the dry season. These clouds form when moisture-laden easterly winds are forced upward by the cliffs of Gibraltar, the nature reserve contains many of Gibraltars important natural history sites including caves such as St Michaels Cave, with its many stalagmites and stalactites. St. Michaels Cave was first mentioned by Pomponius Mela in 45 AD and it has become an important tourist attraction. Concerts are held in its main chamber, forbes Quarry is where the Neanderthal discovery was made in 1848. The Gibraltar 1 skull was one of the first to be found, Neanderthal skulls have also been found at the Devils Tower Cave on the North Front. It is possible some of the last Neanderthals may have made the caves of Gibraltar their home before they died out 30,000 years ago. The Gibraltar Heritage Trust manages conservation of the sites and their development as tourist attractions
4.
Grand Casemates Square
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Grand Casemates Square is the larger of the two main squares within the city centre of Gibraltar. The square takes its name from the British-built Grand Casemates, a casemate, located at the northern end of Main Street, the square is lined with numerous pubs, bars and restaurants and acts as the gateway into Gibraltars city centre for most tourists. Grand Casemates Square dates back to Gibraltars Moorish period when the place was first fortified, the square is built on sand that was once a beach. In May 1160 Moroccans sent by the Almohad ruler Abd al-Mumin landed to lay the foundations of the first substantial settlement and this City of Victory was small and included the area within the Moorish Castle and the land just below. It was this new ruler who changed the name of the rock to Jabal al-Fath meaning Mount of Conquest and this land was an intertidal zone used by the Muslims to beach their galleys. After the Siege of Gibraltar in 1309, Ferdinand IV of Castile gave orders that a house be built where his ships could be repaired. This house gradually sank into the sand over the few centuries. In the late 15th century a gate in the wall near Water Gate was opened to let galleys in, the building of the Old Mole in the 1570s led to the passage silting and the galley house became unusable. The area of Grand Casemates Square formed part of the old town Spanish, Villa Vieja during Spanish times, being walled with its own gates, early 17th century plans refer to this area as La Barcina. Following the problems the Spanish faced with the sinking into the soft wet ground. In 1770, chief engineer William Green began preparatory work for the construction of Grand Casemates as bombproof barracks on the northern flank. However, its construction was not started until after the Great Siege of 1779-1783, after the Great Siege the British decided to demolish most buildings within the square which had suffered great damage. This opened up the area into an esplanade which could be used for events such military parades. Grand Casemates Square was once the site of public military hangings, following excavations during the refurbishment of the square in the 1990s, archeological remains of a galley house were unearthed. These foundations are still on display in the square, the square is also used to host various cultural events from live open-air concerts, to National Day celebrations. In 2012 the square was host to celebration for Elizabeth IIs Diamond Jubilee celebration which was attended by the Earl, monuments found within the square include, Gibraltar Defence Force Koehler gun Grand Casemates Grand Casemates Gates Main Street, Gibraltar John Mackintosh Square Benady, Tito
5.
Gibraltar
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Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula. It has an area of 6.7 km2 and shares its border with Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the landmark of the region. At its foot is a populated city area, home to over 30,000 Gibraltarians. An Anglo-Dutch force captured Gibraltar from Spain in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession on behalf of the Habsburg claim to the Spanish throne, the territory was subsequently ceded to Great Britain in perpetuity under the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Today Gibraltars economy is based largely on tourism, online gambling, financial services, the sovereignty of Gibraltar is a major point of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations as Spain asserts a claim to the territory. Gibraltarians overwhelmingly rejected proposals for Spanish sovereignty in a 1967 referendum, under the Gibraltar constitution of 2006, Gibraltar governs its own affairs, though some powers, such as defence and foreign relations, remain the responsibility of the British government. The name Gibraltar is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name Jabal Ṭāriq, earlier, it was known as Mons Calpe, a name of Phoenician origin and one of the Pillars of Hercules. The pronunciation of the name in modern Spanish is, evidence of Neanderthal habitation in Gibraltar between 28,000 and 24,000 BP has been discovered at Gorhams Cave, making Gibraltar possibly the last known holdout of the Neanderthals. Within recorded history, the first inhabitants were the Phoenicians, around 950 BC, subsequently, Gibraltar became known as one of the Pillars of Hercules, after the Greek legend of the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar by Heracles. The Carthaginians and Romans also established semi-permanent settlements, after the collapse of the Roman Empire, Gibraltar came briefly under the control of the Vandals. The area later formed part of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania from 414 AD until the Islamic conquest of Iberia in 711 AD, in 1160, the Almohad Sultan Abd al-Mumin ordered that a permanent settlement, including a castle, be built. It received the name of Medinat al-Fath, on completion of the works in the town, the Sultan crossed the Strait to look at the works and stayed in Gibraltar for two months. The Tower of Homage of the Moorish Castle remains standing today, from 1274 onwards, the town was fought over and captured by the Nasrids of Granada, the Marinids of Morocco and the kings of Castile. In 1462, Gibraltar was finally captured by Juan Alonso de Guzmán, after the conquest, King Henry IV of Castile assumed the additional title of King of Gibraltar, establishing it as part of the comarca of the Campo Llano de Gibraltar. In 1501, Gibraltar passed back to the Spanish Crown, the occupation of the town by Alliance forces caused the exodus of the population to the surrounding area of the Campo de Gibraltar. As the Alliances campaign faltered, the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht was negotiated and ceded control of Gibraltar to Britain to secure Britains withdrawal from the war. Unsuccessful attempts by Spanish monarchs to regain Gibraltar were made with the siege of 1727 and again with the Great Siege of Gibraltar, during the American War of Independence
6.
Union Jack
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The Union Jack, or Union Flag, is the national flag of the United Kingdom. Further, it is used as a flag in some of the smaller British overseas territories. The Union Jack also appears in the canton of the flags of several nations, the claim that the term Union Jack properly refers only to naval usage has been disputed, following historical investigations by the Flag Institute in 2013. The origins of the flag of Great Britain date back to 1606. King James also began to refer to a Kingdom of Great Britaine, the present design of the Union Flag dates from a Royal proclamation following the union of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. Notably, the country of Wales is not represented separately in the Union Jack, being only indirectly represented through the cross of St George. The terms Union Jack and Union Flag are both historically correct for describing the de facto flag of the United Kingdom. Whether the term Union Jack applies only when used as a flag on a ship is a modern matter of debate. According to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, Until the early 17th century England and Scotland were two independent kingdoms. This changed dramatically in 1603 on the death of Elizabeth I of England, because the Queen died unmarried and childless, the English crown passed to the next available heir, her cousin James VI, King of Scotland. England and Scotland now shared the same monarch under what was known as a union of the crowns, in 1606, James VI gave orders for a British flag to be created which bore the combined crosses of St. George and of St. Andrew. The result was the Union Jack, Jack being a shortening of Jacobus, the institute also notes, it is often stated that the Union Flag should only be described as the Union Jack when flown in the bows of a warship, but this is a relatively recent idea. In 1908, a government minister stated, in response to a parliamentary question, notwithstanding Their Lordships circular of 1902, by 1913 the Admiralty described the Union Flag and added in a foot note that A Jack is a Flag to be flown only on the Jack Staff. However, the authoritative A Complete Guide to Heraldry published in 1909 by Arthur Charles Fox-Davies uses the term Union Jack, the term Union Flag is used in King Charles Is 1634 proclamation. Andrew and St. Patrick Quarterly per Saltire, counterchanged Argent and Gules, when the first flag representing Britain was introduced on the proclamation of King James I in 1606, it became known simply as the British flag or the flag of Britain. The royal proclamation gave no name to the new flag. The word jack was in use before 1600 to describe the maritime bow flag, by 1627 a small Union Jack was commonly flown in this position. Reinforcing the distinction the Kings proclamation of the day concerning the arms
7.
North Bastion, Gibraltar
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The North Bastion, formerly the Baluarte San Pablo was part of the fortifications of Gibraltar, in the north of the peninsula, protecting the town against attack from the mainland of Spain. The bastion was based on the older Giralda tower, built in 1309. The bastion, with a mole that extended into the Bay of Gibraltar to the west, after the British took Gibraltar in 1704 they further strengthened these fortifications, flooding the land in front and turning the curtain wall into the Grand Battery. Today, the bastion is surrounded by reclaimed land to the west, glacis Road runs along the base of the bastions former glacis. Smith Dorrien Avenue separates the bastion from the wall, which is still largely intact. The bastion is occupied by the Giralda Gardens and a pétanque club, the Government of Gibraltar has plans to rehabilitate the site as part of a plan to develop the old fortifications as tourist attractions. Gibraltar is accessible by land only along a narrow isthmus overlooked by the Rock, the only entrance to Gibraltar is via the west side of the Rock. A Moorish town occupied the strip of land along the west of the peninsula between the sea and the Rock. The northern approaches to the town were defended by a castle on the slopes of the rock, a tower was built at the end of the wall by the Spanish after Ferdinand IV of Castile took Gibraltar from the Moors in 1309. The Spanish built an arsenal where the Grand Casemates barracks now stand, the tower was built on Ferdinands orders to protect the dockyard, although improvements to other defenses were neglected. In 1333 the Moors retook Gibraltar after a siege. Portillo describes the Giralda tower as a redoubt of very great strength and capable of containing sufficient numbers to defend the place, the Spanish finally took Gibraltar in August 1462. A mole extending into the bay from a location just south of the tower provided shelter for trading vessels, the Moors built a wall along the bay south from the tower, which the Spanish later improved and the British further fortified. The Moors built their galleys in a building behind the tower, later the Grand Casemates Gates, formerly called the Waterport Gate, provided access to the town through the wall that ran along the bay. Vessels landing at the wharves by the old mole could gain entry through these fortified gates just south of the North Bastion, the Italian Engineer Giovan Giacomo Paleari Fratino was commissioned by Philip II of Spain to improve the defenses of Gibraltar in the 1560s. Among other works he converted the tower into a bastion, the foot of the glacis in front of the north bastion, and part of the curtain wall leading towards the Rock, was washed by the water of the bay. Further improvements to the defenses were made by the British after they took Gibraltar in 1704. They mounted guns along the front curtain wall, calling this the Grand Battery, and mounted more guns on the old mole
8.
Castle
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A castle is a type of fortified structure built in Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages by European nobility. Scholars debate the scope of the castle, but usually consider it to be the private fortified residence of a lord or noble. Usage of the term has varied over time and has applied to structures as diverse as hill forts. Over the approximately 900 years that castles were built, they took on a great many forms with different features, although some, such as curtain walls. A European innovation, castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes. Although their military origins are often emphasised in castle studies, the structures served as centres of administration. Many castles were built from earth and timber, but had their defences replaced later by stone. Early castles often exploited natural defences, lacking features such as towers and arrowslits, in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged. This led to the proliferation of towers, with an emphasis on flanking fire, many new castles were polygonal or relied on concentric defence – several stages of defence within each other that could all function at the same time to maximise the castles firepower. These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the Crusades, such as concentric fortification, not all the elements of castle architecture were military in nature, so that devices such as moats evolved from their original purpose of defence into symbols of power. Some grand castles had long winding approaches intended to impress and dominate their landscape, while castles continued to be built well into the 16th century, new techniques to deal with improved cannon fire made them uncomfortable and undesirable places to live. As a result, true castles went into decline and were replaced by artillery forts with no role in civil administration, and country houses that were indefensible. From the 18th century onwards, there was a renewed interest in castles with the construction of castles, part of a romantic revival of Gothic architecture. The word castle is derived from the Latin word castellum, which is a diminutive of the word castrum, meaning fortified place. The Old English castel, Old French castel or chastel, French château, Spanish castillo, Italian castello, the word castle was introduced into English shortly before the Norman Conquest to denote this type of building, which was then new to England. In its simplest terms, the definition of a castle accepted amongst academics is a fortified residence. Feudalism was the link between a lord and his vassal where, in return for service and the expectation of loyalty. Castles served a range of purposes, the most important of which were military, administrative, as well as defensive structures, castles were also offensive tools which could be used as a base of operations in enemy territory
9.
Moors
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Moors are not a distinct or self-defined people, and mainstream scholars observed in 1911 that The term Moors has no real ethnological value. Medieval and early modern Europeans variously applied the name to Arabs, Berber North Africans and Muslim Europeans. The term has also used in Europe in a broader, somewhat derogatory sense to refer to Muslims in general, especially those of Arab or Berber descent. During the colonial era, the Portuguese introduced the names Ceylon Moors and Indian Moors in Sri Lanka, in 711, troops mostly formed by Moors from North Africa led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. The Iberian peninsula then came to be known in classical Arabic as Al-Andalus, in 827, the Moors occupied Mazara on Sicily, developing it as a port. They eventually consolidated the rest of the island and some of southern Italy, in 1224 the Muslims were expelled from Sicily to the settlement of Lucera, which was destroyed by European Christians in 1300. The fall of Granada in 1492 marked the end of Muslim rule in Iberia, the Berber tribes of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, which was subsequently rendered as Moors in English and in related variations in other European languages. Mauri is recorded as the name by Strabo in the early 1st century. This appellation was also adopted into Latin, whereas the Greek name for the tribe was Maurusii, in medieval Romance languages, variations of the Latin word for the Moors developed different applications and connotations. During the context of the Crusades and the Reconquista, the term Moors included the suggestion of infidels. Apart from these associations and context, Moor and Moorish designate a specific ethnic group speaking Hassaniya Arabic. They inhabit Mauritania and parts of Algeria, Western Sahara, Tunisia, Morocco, Niger, in Niger and Mali, these peoples are also known as the Azawagh Arabs, after the Azawagh region of the Sahara. Some authors have pointed out that in modern colloquial Spanish use of the term moro is derogatory for Moroccans in particular, however, this designation has gained more acceptance in the south. In the Philippines, a former Spanish colony, many modern Filipinos call the large, local Muslim minority concentrated in Mindanao, the word is a catch-all term, as Moro may come from several distinct ethno-linguistic groups such as the Maranao people. The term was introduced by Spanish colonisers, and has since been appropriated by Filipino Muslims as an endonym, moreno can mean dark-skinned in Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and the Philippines. Also in Spanish, morapio is a name for wine, especially that which has not been baptized or mixed with water. Among Spanish speakers, moro came to have a broader meaning, Moro refers to all things dark, as in Moor, moreno, etc. It was also used as a nickname, for instance, the Milanese Duke Ludovico Sforza was called Il Moro because of his dark complexion, in Portugal, mouro may refer to supernatural beings known as enchanted moura, where moor implies alien and non-Christian
10.
House of Habsburg
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The House of Habsburg, also called House of Hapsburg, or House of Austria, was one of the most influential royal houses of Europe. The throne of the Holy Roman Empire was continuously occupied by the Habsburgs between 1438 and 1740, from the sixteenth century, following the reign of Charles V, the dynasty was split between its Austrian and Spanish branches. Although they ruled distinct territories, they maintained close relations. The House takes its name from Habsburg Castle, a built in the 1020s in present-day Switzerland, in the canton of Aargau, by Count Radbot of Klettgau. His grandson Otto II was the first to take the name as his own. The House of Habsburg gathered dynastic momentum through the 11th, 12th, by 1276, Count Radbots seventh generation descendant Rudolph of Habsburg had moved the familys power base from Habsburg Castle to the Duchy of Austria. Rudolph had become King of Germany in 1273, and the dynasty of the House of Habsburg was truly entrenched in 1276 when Rudolph became ruler of Austria, which the Habsburgs ruled until 1918. A series of dynastic marriages enabled the family to expand its domains to include Burgundy, Spain and its colonial empire, Bohemia, Hungary. In the 16th century, the separated into the senior Habsburg Spain and the junior Habsburg Monarchy branches. The House of Habsburg became extinct in the 18th century, the senior Spanish branch ended upon the death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and was replaced by the House of Bourbon. It was succeeded by the Vaudemont branch of the House of Lorraine, the new successor house styled itself formally as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, although it was often referred to as simply the House of Habsburg. His grandson Radbot, Count of Habsburg founded the Habsburg Castle, the origins of the castles name, located in what is now the Swiss canton of Aargau, are uncertain. There is disagreement on whether the name is derived from the High German Habichtsburg, or from the Middle High German word hab/hap meaning ford, the first documented use of the name by the dynasty itself has been traced to the year 1108. The Habsburg Castle was the seat in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. The Habsburgs expanded their influence through arranged marriages and by gaining political privileges, in the 13th century, the house aimed its marriage policy at families in Upper Alsace and Swabia. They were also able to high positions in the church hierarchy for their members. Territorially, they often profited from the extinction of other families such as the House of Kyburg. By the second half of the 13th century, count Rudolph IV had become one of the most influential territorial lords in the area between the Vosges Mountains and Lake Constance
11.
Kingdom of Great Britain
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The Kingdom of Great Britain, officially Great Britain, was a sovereign state in western Europe from 1 May 1707 to 31 December 1800. It did not include Ireland, which remained a separate realm, the unitary state was governed by a single parliament and government that was based in Westminster. Also after the accession of George I to the throne of Great Britain in 1714, the early years of the unified kingdom were marked by Jacobite risings which ended in defeat for the Stuart cause at Culloden in 1746. On 1 January 1801, the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom, the name Britain descends from the Latin name for the island of Great Britain, Britannia or Brittānia, the land of the Britons via the Old French Bretaigne and Middle English Bretayne, Breteyne. The term Great Britain was first used officially in 1474, in the instrument drawing up the proposal for a marriage between Edward IV of Englands daughter Cecily and James III of Scotlands son James. The Treaty of Union and the subsequent Acts of Union state that England and Scotland were to be United into one Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain. However, both the Acts and the Treaty also refer numerous times to the United Kingdom and the longer form, other publications refer to the country as the United Kingdom after 1707 as well. The websites of the UK parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the BBC, additionally, the term United Kingdom was found in informal use during the 18th century to describe the state. The new state created in 1707 included the island of Great Britain, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, both in existence from the 9th century, were separate states until 1707. However, they had come into a union in 1603. Each of the three kingdoms maintained its own parliament and laws and this disposition changed dramatically when the Acts of Union 1707 came into force, with a single unified Crown of Great Britain and a single unified parliament. Ireland remained formally separate, with its own parliament, until the Acts of Union 1800, legislative power was vested in the Parliament of Great Britain, which replaced both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. In practice it was a continuation of the English parliament, sitting at the location in Westminster. Newly created peers in the Peerage of Great Britain were given the right to sit in the Lords. Despite the end of a parliament for Scotland, it retained its own laws. As a result of Poynings Law of 1495, the Parliament of Ireland was subordinate to the Parliament of England, the Act was repealed by the Repeal of Act for Securing Dependence of Ireland Act 1782. The same year, the Irish constitution of 1782 produced a period of legislative freedom, the 18th century saw England, and after 1707 Great Britain, rise to become the worlds dominant colonial power, with France its main rival on the imperial stage
12.
Medieval fortification
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During this millennium, fortifications changed warfare, and in turn were modified to suit new tactics, weapons and siege techniques. Towers of medieval castles were usually made of stone or sometimes wood, often toward the later part of the era they included battlements and arrow loops. The tower had a staircase to make it hard for the attackers to fight upward. An exact nature of the walls of a town or city would depend on the resources available for building them, the nature of the terrain. In northern Europe, early in the period, walls were likely to have constructed of wood. Especially where stone was available for building, the wood will have been replaced by stone to a higher or lower standard of security. This would have been the pattern of events in the Five Boroughs of the Danelaw in England, in many cases, the wall would have had an internal and an external pomoerium. This was a strip of ground immediately adjacent the wall. The word is from the medieval, derived from the classical Latin post murum. An external pomoerium, stripped of bushes and building, gave defenders a clear view of what was happening outside, an internal pomoerium gave ready access to the rear of the curtain wall to facilitate movement of the garrison to a point of need. By the end of the century, the word had developed further in common use. By that time too, the walls were no longer secure against a serious threat from an army as they were not designed for resisting cannon shot. They were sometimes rebuilt, as at Berwick on Tweed, or retained for use against thieves, very elaborate and complex schemes for town defences were developed in the Netherlands and France but these belong mainly to the post-medieval periods. However, a few, such as those of Carcassonne and Dubrovnik, Medieval walls that were no longer adequate for defending were succeeded by the star fort. After the invention of the shell, star forts became obsolete as well. Harbours or some sort of access was often essential to the construction of medieval fortification. It was a route for trading and fortification. The concept of rivers or harbours coming directly up to the walls of fortifications was used by the English as they constructed castles throughout Wales
