1.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
2.
Romanization of Russian
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Romanization of the Russian alphabet is the process of transliterating the Russian language from the Cyrillic script into the Latin alphabet. Scientific transliteration, also known as the International Scholarly System, is a system that has used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST, OST8483 was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced in 16 October 1935. This standard is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as a standard of the COMECON. GOST7. 79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship and it is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Machine readable passports is an adoption of an ICAO stadards for travel documents and it was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013. The standard was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, ISO/R9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968, was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization. It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages, ISO9,1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It is based on its predecessor ISO/R9,1968, which it deprecates, for Russian, the UNGEGN, a Working Group of the United Nations, in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71. It may be found in some international cartographic products, American Library Association and Library of Congress romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in the British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of the system requires some diacritics and two-letter tie characters, British Standard 2979,1958 is the main system of the Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce, the portion of the system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports, transliteration was based on French rules, in 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports, a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, but this system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST52535. 1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports, in 2010, the Federal Migratory Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST52535. 1-2006. The standard was abandoned in 2013, finally in 2013, Order No.320 of the Federal Migratory Service of Russia came into force. It states that all names in the passports must be transliterated using the ICAO system. This system differs from the GOST52535. 1-2006 system in two things, ц is transliterated into ts, ъ is transliterated into ie, Scholarly ¹ Some archaic letters are transcribed in different ways
3.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
4.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
5.
Third Ring Road (Moscow)
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The Third Ring Road, or The Third Ring, is Moscows newest beltway, located between the Garden Ring in the city centre and Moscow Ring Road. The Third Ring is 35 km in length, i. e. about 10 km in diameter, as it is one of Moscows main roads there is a lot of traffic and it suffers from frequent congestion. There is a planned Fourth Ring between the Moscow Ring Road and the Third Ring, the Third Ring can be used to get from areas such as Sokolniki Park to Sparrow Hills, on the other side of the city. The road is used by many Moscovites who live in the suburbs of Moscow to bypass the city centre. The Third Ring Road was completed in 2004 with the Lefortovo tunnel, the third longest urban tunnel in Europe after the Södra länken tunnel in Stockholm,1961 - put into effect a tunnel under the Leningrad prospectus. 1984 - open Rusakovskaya overpass and a tunnel under Mitkovskaya connecting branch, october 28,1998 - opening of the Berezhkovskii bridge. May 10,1999 - opening of the Luzhnetskaya overpass from Komsomolsk prospectus to Berezhkovsky bridge, august 31,1999 - opening of the first phase of the New Riga overpass. December 4,1999 - opening of the phase of the New Riga overpass. December 11,1999 - opening of the section from the bridge to the Berezhkovsky Kutuzovsky Prospekt, including Kiev, fall 2000 - opening of the section from Komsomolsk prospectus to Leninsky Prospekt, including St. Andrews Bridge. December 30,2000 - opening of the section of Kutuzovsky Prospekt to Shmitovsky including Dorogomilovsky bridge, december 12,2001 - opening of the section of the Gagarin Square to the Volgograd prospectus, including Gagarins tunnel and the bridge reconstructed Avtozavodskii. August 28,2001 - opening of the tunnel on Maslovka, november 6,2002 - opening of the areas of the Zvenigorod highway to and from the street Running from Ostapovsky travel to Nizhny Novgorod street. October 1,2003 - open area from the street to the Spartakovskaya Krasnokazarmennaya waterfront, november 5,2003 - opening of the section of Nizhniy Novgorod Street to Highway Enthusiasts. December 5,2003 - opening of the Lefortovo Tunnel, the Third Ring Road is closed, november 4,2005 - opening of the reconstructed interchange with the Leningrad prospectus, Sheremetyevo street Zvenigorod highway. Traffic on the ring was continuous, without traffic lights, boulevard Ring in Moscow Garden Ring in Moscow MKAD in Moscow Moscows Third Transport Ring, Making Space for the New Middle Class by Robert Argenbright
6.
Presnensky District
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Presnensky District, commonly called Presnya, is a district of Central Administrative Okrug of the federal city of Moscow, Russia. The district is home to the Moscow Zoo, White House of Russia, Kudrinskaya Square Building, Patriarshy Ponds, Vagankovo Cemetery and it is unusually large and diverse among the Central Okrug Districts, combining affluent residential, administrative and old industrial neighborhoods. This section is based on P. V, Ponds that were set up on Presnya River and its tributaries in the seventeenth century survive as Patriarshy Pond and the Moscow Zoo ponds. Another small north-south brook flows in piping two kilometers west from Presnya river, today, it fills four ponds separating the old Presnya district from the Expocenter and Moskva-City developments. This river, named in reports as Studenetz or Vaganskoi River flows just under 4 km. Present-day Krasnaya Presnya street is a part of a road connecting Moscow with Novgorod via Volokolamsk since the twelfth century. In the 17th century, lands south of the road were managed by Patriarch Joachims court, lands north from it belonged to Voskresenskoye settlement and this royal village housed a private zoo, a distant predecessor of current Moscow Zoo. Peter I, Feodors brother a co-ruler, was a frequent guest here, in 1729, Voskresenskoe became property of Vakhtang VI of Kartli, a deposed Georgian king in exile. The memories of Vakhtang and his court remain in the names of Gruzinskaya streets, however, at the same time, there was and still is a sizable Armenian community, Armenian cemetery remains in Presnensky district. By 1787, there were four ponds on the Presnya, with a wooden bridge, the Studenetz area was a popular picnic destination, the same time,1798, the famous Trekhgornaya textile factory was built. Entertainment relocated east, closer to Presnya River, and the Kremlin Administrator, Valuev, entertainment continued with the private Studenetz Park and the public Moscow Zoo. But the district became an industrial, densely populated working-class area. In the December 1905 the whole district, the centre of industry, was taken over by revolutionary militias. Much of the Presnya district was destroyed, and more than one thousand, in the November 1917, Presnya workers took over the neighborhood again. Martemyan Ryutin was secretary of the local Communist Party in 1932, when the Ryutin Affair occurred, in the 1920s, streets of central Presnya were rebuilt into five to six story housing for the workers, although most of the district remained wooden low-rises. Stalinist construction projects concentrated on Garden Ring, while the areas east of it were neglected. Moscow-City project, conceived in 1992, commenced after the 1998 crises, at the same time, old industrial properties are torn down and replaced with office space of varying quality. Tram network in Presnensky District, severely cut in 1950s and 1973, was destroyed in 2000–2004, another big manufactory known as Zavod Krasnaya Presnya was pulled down and new residential district appeared instead
7.
Central Administrative Okrug
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Central Administrative Okrug, or Tsentralny Administrativny Okrug, is one of the twelve administrative okrugs of Moscow, Russia, located within the Kamer-Kollezhny Bank. The Kremlin Hill, from which the colonization of Moscow began, is depicted under Yury Dolgoruky, the purple background symbolizes the supreme power of Russia, concentrated in Central Administrative Okrug. The gold unicorn was a symbol of the Russian Tsars. Below him an ancient Kremlin white-stone wall is featured, the Interstate Aviation Committee, the aviation accident technical investigation body of the Commonwealth of Independent States, has its head office in the Yakimanka District in the okrug. The Federal Penitentiary Service has its office in Yakimanka District. The Ministry of Education and Science has its office in the Tverskoy District. Aeroflot has its office in the Arbat District in the okrug. United Aircraft Corporation has its office in the Krasnoselsky District in the okrug. Tupolev has its office in the Basmanny District in the okrug. The All Nippon Airways Moscow sales office is located in the Presnensky District in the okrug, korean Air operates its CIS office in the Tverskoy District in the okrug. The Lycée Français Alexandre Dumas de Moscou, a French international school, is located in the Krasnoselsky District in the okrug, daugavpils, Latvia Riga, Latvia Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany Official website of Central Administrative Okrug
8.
Moskva River
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The Moskva River is a river of western Russia. It rises about 140 km west of Moscow, and flows roughly east through the Smolensk and Moscow Oblasts, passing through central Moscow. About 110 km south east of Moscow, at the city of Kolomna, it flows into the Oka River, itself a tributary of the Volga, Moskva and Moscow are two different renderings of the same Russian word Москва. The city is named after the river, the origin of the name is unknown, although several theories exist. The river is 503 km long, with a drop of 155 m. The area of its basin is 17,600 km2. The maximum depth is 3 metres above Moscow city limits, normally, it freezes in November–December and begins to thaw around late March. In Moscow, the river freezes occasionally, during a warm winter in 2006–2007. The absolute water level in downtown Moscow is 120 metres above sea level, the main tributaries are the Ruza, Istra, Yauza, Pakhra, and Severka rivers. Sources of water are estimated as 61% thaw, 12% rain, since completion of the Moscow Canal, the Moskva River has also collected a share of Upper Volga water. This has enabled reliable commercial shipping, which was interrupted by summer droughts. The average discharge, including Volga waters, varies from 38 m3/s near Zvenigorod to 250 m3/s at the Oka inlet, the speed of the current, depending on the season, varies from 0.1 m/s to 1. 5–2.0 m/s. Moscow, the capital of Russia, is situated on its banks, the river also flows through the towns of Mozhaysk, Zvenigorod, Zhukovsky, Bronnitsy, Voskresensk, and — at the confluence of the Moskva and Oka — Kolomna. As of 2007, there are 49 bridges across the Moskva River and its canals within Moscow city limits, within the city, the river is 120–200 metres wide, the narrowest point being under the Kremlin walls. Drinking water for the city of Moscow is collected from five stations on the Moskva River, canals, built within Moscow city limits, have created a number of islands. Some of them have names in Russian, some have none, major, permanent islands are, Serebryany Bor. Separated from the mainland in the 1930s, tatarskaya Poyma, commonly known as Mnyovniki. Separated from the mainland in the 1930s Balchug Island, also known as Bolotny Ostrov, the island was formed by the construction of the Vodootvodny Canal in the 1780s, and has no official name in Russian
9.
Red Square
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Red Square is a city square in Moscow, Russia. It separates the Kremlin, the royal citadel and currently the official residence of the President of Russia. Red Square is often considered the central square of Moscow since Moscows major streets, the name Red Square neither originates from the pigment of the surrounding bricks nor from the link between the colour red and communism. Rather, the name came about because the Russian word красная, several ancient Russian towns, such as Suzdal, Yelets, and Pereslavl-Zalessky, have their main square named Krasnaya ploshchad. The rich history of Red Square is reflected in paintings by Vasily Surikov, Konstantin Yuon. The square was meant to serve as Moscows main marketplace and it was also the site of various public ceremonies and proclamations, and occasionally a coronation for Russias Tsars would take place. The square has been built up since that point and has been used for official ceremonies by all Russian governments since it was established. The relevant decrees were issued in 1493 and 1495 and they called for the demolition of all buildings within 110 sazhens of the wall. Three square gates existed on this side of the wall, which in the 17th century, were known as, the last two are directly opposite Red Square, while the Konstantino-Elenensky gate was located behind Saint Basils Cathedral. In the early 19th century, the Arch of Konstantino-Elenensky gate was paved with bricks, from this gate, wooden and stone bridges stretched across the moat. Books were sold on this bridge and stone platforms were built nearby for guns – raskats, the Tsar Cannon was located on the platform of the Lobnoye mesto. The square was called Veliky Torg or simply Torg, then Troitskaya by the name of the small Troitskaya Church, after that, the square held the name Pozhar, which means burnt. It was not until 1661–62, when it was first mentioned by its contemporary Krasnaya – Red name, Red Square was the landing stage and trade centre for Moscow. Ivan the Great decreed that trade should only be conducted from person to person, but in time, after a fire in 1547, Ivan the Terrible reorganised the lines of wooden shops on the Eastern side into market lines. The streets Ilyinka and Varvarka were divided into the Upper lines, Middle lines and Bottom lines, after a few years, the Cathedral of Intercession of the Virgin, commonly known as Saint Basils Cathedral, was built on the moat under the rule of Ivan IV. This was the first building which gave the square its present-day characteristic silhouette, in 1595, the wooden market lines were replaced with stone. By that time, a platform for the proclamation of the tsars edicts. Red Square was considered a sacred place, during the expulsion of Poles from Moscow in 1612, Prince Dmitry Pozharsky entered the Kremlin through the square
10.
Federation Tower
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The Federation Tower is a complex of skyscrapers being built on the 13th lot of the Moscow International Business Center in Moscow, Russia. The project was conceived by Sergei Tchoban and Peter Schweger, the construction of the towers began in 2003. However, construction stopped until it resumed in August 2011 and is now expected to be completed in mid 2016, upon completion, it is set to become the tallest building in Europe, overtaking the OKO Tower and the Mercury City Tower, also part of the MIBC. Construction is being carried out by AEON Corporation, the complex consists of two towers built on one podium. Tower East is a 95-storey structure, Tower West is a 65-storey structure. The building will accommodate offices, hotel suites and apartments, as stipulated in the plan, three covered sky bridges between the East and West towers will house restaurants and cafes. Currently, the 61st floor of the Tower West accommodates the highest restaurant in Moscow, ‘Sixty’, the building also features the highest digital clock in the world. The building is used as a sightseeing object and a high-rise structure for extreme sports lovers, as well as a site for shooting films. In 2012, the Moscow 24 TV channel shot a movie about the business complex, another film dedicated to the skyscraper was made by the Discovery Channel TV channel in 2009. The tower was climbed solo by the Frenchman Alain Robert in September 2007, the higher tower of the complex located in the eastern part of lot number 13 was formerly known as Tower A. But in November 2006, to avoid competition with Naberezhnaya Tower. Tower East is designed to have 95 above-ground and 3 underground floors, in early December 2009, the Potok corporation management announced that in the case of financial problems it can reduce the number of floors of Tower East from 95 to 64 floors. However, in March 2010, the management stated that Tower East would be completed according to the original project design. The tower core was significantly revised, too, and now has a shape rather than hexagonal as in the earlier design. During the construction of the slab on 21–24 February 2007. 14,000 cubic meters of concrete were placed then, the fact that the construction organizers did not clearly comment on the reasons for this decision was also unusual. As of mid-May 2008, the tower was built to a height of about 170 meters, in November 2008, due to the world economic recession and lack of funding, the tower construction was suspended. On July 5,2011, the company Potok announced the construction to be resumed
11.
Mercury City Tower
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Mercury City Tower is a 338.8 meter tall skyscraper in Moscow and one of the tallest buildings in Europe. Located in the Moscow International Business Center, construction started in 2009, the Mercury City Tower is a multipurpose building with housing, offices and shops. The tower is located on plot 14 of the MIBC, the structures height is 339 meters above ground, with five underground floors. The building topped out at 338.8 m on 1 November 2012 and overtook The Shard in London as Europes tallest building
12.
Eurasia (building)
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Eurasia Tower or Steel Peak is a 308.9 m tall skyscraper in Moscow International Business Center Moscow, Russia. The complex will house offices, apartments, a hotel, and it is also one of the 94 supertall skyscrapers in the world. Located on plot 12, is a space with a total area of 207,542 square meters. It will be situated on a podium which will have a fitness centre, entertainment, restaurants. Other areas will be distributed as follows,106,231 square meters will be reserved for office space, on the bottom, there will be parking for more than 1000 cars. The external design of the building is a combination of classical, on the outside of the building, a scenic elevator will run up and down, allowing people to enjoy views of the entire city
13.
City of Capitals
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The City of Capitals is a multifunctional complex, including twin tower skyscrapers, located on plot 9 in the Moscow International Business Center in Moscow. The City of Capitals, symbolising Moscow and St. Petersburg, was completed in 2009, on 1 November 2012 the Mercury City Tower, another skyscraper in development for the Moscow International Business Center, overtook The Shard as Europes tallest building. More than half of the top floors are taken up by an entertainment complex, office suites, the Сity of Capitals consists of two towers—the 76-level Moscow Tower and the 65-level St. Petersburg Tower. Floors 17 and 18 of both towers are offices, the entire complex sits on a main lobby consisting of 6 underground floors and 4 aboveground floors of public space. The upper floors of the structure contain shops, a fitness center, presentation halls. To create the concept for the offices in the City of Capitals, other business complexes, the offices in the City of Capitals are designed under the latest international standards, according to the project developers. The spatial structure of the complex steps of columns 9 metres high enables the organisation of offices with open layouts from 500 up to 3,500 square metres. An entrance to the section of the complex is situated near a quay
14.
Naberezhnaya Tower
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And located on plot 10 in the International Business Centre Moscow City in Moscow. Block A is 85 metres,17 floors tall, block B is 135.7 metres,27 floors tall. Block C was completed in 2007, at 268.4 meters, this 59-story tower remained the tallest skyscraper in Europe until the City of Capitals was completed in 2009. IBM, occupied area 11021 square meters
15.
Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
16.
Quarry
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A quarry is a place from which dimension stone, rock, construction aggregate, riprap, sand, gravel, or slate has been excavated from the ground. A quarry is the thing as an open-pit mine from which minerals are extracted. The only non-trivial difference between the two is that open-pit mines that produce building materials and dimension stone are commonly referred to as quarries, the word quarry can also include the underground quarrying for stone, such as Bath stone. The surfaces are polished and finished with varying degrees of sheen or luster, polished slabs are often cut into tiles or countertops and installed in many kinds of residential and commercial properties. Natural stone quarried from the earth is considered a luxury and tends to be a highly durable surface. Quarries in level areas with shallow groundwater or which are located close to surface water often have engineering problems with drainage, generally the water is removed by pumping while the quarry is operational, but for high inflows more complex approaches may be required. For example, the Coquina quarry is excavated to more than 60 feet below sea level, to reduce surface leakage, a moat lined with clay was constructed around the entire quarry. Ground water entering the pit is pumped up into the moat, as a quarry becomes deeper, water inflows generally increase and it also becomes more expensive to lift the water higher during removal, this can become the limiting factor in quarry depth. Some water-filled quarries are worked from beneath the water, by dredging, many people and municipalities consider quarries to be eyesores and require various abatement methods to address problems with noise, dust, and appearance. One of the effective and famous examples of successful quarry restoration is Butchart Gardens in Victoria, BC. A further problem is pollution of roads from trucks leaving the quarries, to control and restrain the pollution of public roads, wheel washing systems are becoming more common. Many quarries naturally fill with water after abandonment and become lakes, water-filled quarries can be very deep with water, often 50 feet or more, that is often surprisingly cold. Unexpectedly cold water can cause a swimmers muscles to weaken, it can also cause shock. Though quarry water is very clear, submerged quarry stones. Several people drown in quarries each year, however, many inactive quarries are converted into safe swimming sites
17.
Architectural plan
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This effort could also include both the design of new buildings and other structures, as well as the planning for reconstruction of early historic structures. A building is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one place. To better understand the term building compare the list of nonbuilding structures, the gallery below gives an overview of different types of building. The practice of designing, constructing, and operating buildings is most usually a collective effort of different groups of professionals, depending on the size, complexity, and purpose of a particular building project. A design process may include a series of steps followed by designers, depending on the product or service, some of these stages may be irrelevant, ignored in real-world situations in order to save time, reduce cost, or because they may be redundant in the situation. Architectural drawings are made according to a set of conventions, which include particular views, sheet sizes, units of measurement and scales, annotation and cross referencing. Conventionally, drawings were made in ink on paper or a similar material, the twentieth century saw a shift to drawing on tracing paper, so that mechanical copies could be run off efficiently. Architectural design values make up an important part of what influences architects, however, architects and designers are not always influenced by the same values and intentions. Value and intentions differ between different architectural movements and it also differs between different schools of architecture and schools of design as well as among individual architects and designers. One of the tools in architectural design is the floor plan. This diagram shows the relationships between rooms, spaces and other features at one level of a structure. Dimensions are usually drawn between the walls to specify room sizes and wall lengths, floor plans will also include details of fixtures like sinks, water heaters, furnaces, etc. Floor plans will include notes to specify finishes, construction methods, similar to a map in a floor plan the orientation of the view is downward from above, but unlike a conventional map, a plan is understood to be drawn at a particular vertical position. Objects below this level are seen, objects at this level are shown cut in plan-section, plan view or planform is defined as a vertical orthographic projection of an object on a horizontal plane, like a map. A plan is typically any procedure used to achieve an objective and it is a set of intended actions, through which one expects to achieve a goal. Informal or ad-hoc plans are created by individuals in all of their pursuits, building construction is the process of preparing for and forming buildings and building systems. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing and continues until the structure is ready for occupancy, far from being a single activity, large scale construction is a feat of human multitasking. Normally, the job is managed by a manager, and supervised by a construction manager, design engineer
18.
Sparrow Hills
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The observation platform, which gives a good panoramic view of the city, is on a steep bank 85 m above the river, or 200 m above sea level. The Luzhniki Stadium, where the opening and closing ceremonies for the 1980 Summer Olympics took place, is right below, next to it is the Novodevichy Convent, with its Naryshkin Baroque towers. Not far from the platform is the Luzhniki Metro Bridge. The two-level Metro-Bridge traverses the river to link Komsomolsky Prospekt with Vernadsky Prospekt and it serves two urban transport systems, motor vehicles and the Moscow Metro subway. The glass-walled subway station Vorobyovy Gory is at the level of the bridge. Alexander I of Russia wished to build the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour there, his successor had construction works suspended, the main landmarks of the hills are the Moscow State University and the Trinity Church. Собрание государственных грамот и договоров, хранящихся в коллегии иностранных дел, Москва, Издательство, Языки славянской культуры,2003 — ISBN 5-94457-165-9 Satellite picture by Google maps photographs and article by Ask Moscow
19.
Bagration Bridge
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Bagration Bridge is a pedestrian bridge spanning the Moscow River in Moscow. It connects Tower 2000 to the main Moscow International Business Centre, the bridge was opened in September 1997 to celebrate Moscows 850th anniversary of its founding. It is named after the Napoleonic general Pyotr Bagration, Bagration Bridge has a length of 214 metres and a width of 16 metres. It stands 13 metres above the river, supporting pillars in reinforced concrete, bearing structure made of steel. Lower gallery realised in curved compact polycarbonate sheet, double wall, upper gallery in double wall glass. Realised in 1996 by Caoduro S. p. a
20.
Evolution Tower
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The Evolution Tower is a skyscraper on plots 2 and 3 as part of the Moscow International Business Center in Moscow, Russia. In 2016 Transneft bought the Evolution Tower for $1 Billion, the spiraling 246m high Evolution Tower is located on plots 2-3 of Moscow-City high-rise business district on Presnenskaya Embankment of Moscow river. Civic plaza includes 10m high ceremonial stairs as well as landscaped areas with lawns, trees, water features, travellators. The 82, 000m2 office tower has 52 levels rotated 3 degrees each floor with overall twist reaching 156 degrees clockwise, from the very beginning the developer and architects have set an ambitious task to create a recognizable and symbolic tower, the new icon of contemporary Moscow. From spiraling onion domes of St. Basil to the iconic Tatlin Tower concept the Russian architecture was obsessed with idea of spiral and this approach appeared to be both more energy-efficient and more cost-efficient solution in comparison to the stepped curtain wall units previously applied in some twisted unitized facades. The use of innovative TWIN elevators by ThyssenKrupp saved 2 shafts within the core and this turned out to be a major achievement of the design and construction teams. The organic twisting silhouette dominates on its background of extruded glass towers greatly contributing into the composition of the high-rise Moscow-City cluster. Construction of the began in 2011, and was completed in late 2014. Evolution Tower was nominated as a finalist for Best Tall Building in Europe by the Council on Tall Buildings, Evolution Tower is the second place runner-up in Emporis Skyscraper Award 2015. It was recognized by the jury for its expressive design. List of tallest buildings in Russia List of tallest buildings in Europe List of twisted buildings animation evolution tower
21.
Imperia Tower
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Imperia Tower in Moscow, Russia, is a 60-floor building complex that includes offices, a business center, a hotel and private apartments. The design of the tower was created by architects NBBJ and it consists of elliptical and hi-tech elements. Its location is on the first line of the Moscow-City International Business Center, the tower has an exit to the water and access to the city’s main transportation routes. All of the windows have panoramic views of the Moscow River, the Kremlin, the city center. The tower space is in 3 parts, Apartments –45000 m2, hotel -30000 m2 Business space -76,700 m2. Additional space is more than 53000 m2, the territory of the tower also includes a part of the Moscow River embankment for a moorage, cafes, restaurants and infrastructure development. The apartments are private apartments of 45000 m2, on floors 40-60. Two upper floors are two-level penthouses, a separate entrance and elevators separate the apartments from the business space of the tower. The hotel is floors 33 to 41, with 250 rooms, it includes conference-halls, restaurants, a fitness-club and a spa-complex. Business space occupies the three levels from floor 2 to 31, investors, ZAO Fleiner-City, Valtania Holding Ltd Customer, ZAO Aqua City Palace Contractor, Enka Insaat ve Sanayi A. S. Leasing agent, GDO City Properties Ltd Mercury City Tower Eurasia Federation Tower Moscow-City Official website Imperia Tower Mos city group SkyscraperPage database entry Emporis database entry
22.
Central Core
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The Central Core is a complex in the International Business Center in Moscow City. The Central Core is located on plots 6,7 and 8, the Central Core consists of two main sections – the above-ground and underground. In the underground section of the building there are three subway stations, the first is a part of Filyovskaya Line, the second connected with Park Pobedy station will be attached to the Kalininsko-Solntsevskaya Line in the future. The complex will also be connected to Vnukovo and Sheremetyevo airports via a transport system. Underground, parking is provided for up to 2750 vehicles, as well as control rooms for maintenance, security. VIP parking will be available and is located on the side of the Central Core. The hotel is still under construction, and the volume of investments will top USD $50–55 million. The hotel has five blocks of elevators connecting upper floors of the hotel with the parking places. Plans include apartments, restaurants, winter gardens and terraces, as well as technical, the retail-entertainment complex is located in the central part of a building on sites 8b and 7. It is divided into four zones conceptually reflecting the seasons, the complex is formed by four modular units with five floors each and incorporates retail and exhibition zones, entertainment attractions, a park, restaurants, and galleries. A glass dome covers the main recreational space, the film-concert hall is located on plot 6 and will host significant entertainment attractions such as gala concerts, forums, and large celebrations. The total amount of investments is estimated at over USD $120–140 million. The biggest clock in the world decorate the Concert Hall
23.
Northern Tower
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The Northern Tower — one of the smallest buildings of the MIBC, located on plot 19. The Northern Tower was built by Strabag SE, the construction started in 2005 and finished in 2007. The height of the building is 108 m, floor area —135000 м², in the tower there are office suites, restaurants, cafes, a fitness centre and a parking space. Among the largest tenants of the building - Raiffeisenbank, Transtelekom, General Motors, Hyundai Motor and Motorola
24.
Moscow International Business Center
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Moscow International Business Center “Moscow City” is a commercial district in central Moscow, Russia. Located near the Third Ring Road in Presnensky District of Central Administrative Okrug, the construction of the Moscow IBC is taking place on the Presnenskaya embankment of the Moscow River approximately 4 kilometers west of Red Square, and just east of the Third Ring Road. The project occupies an area of 60 hectares, the territory chosen being the area in central Moscow that can accommodate such a project. Before construction began, the area had been an old quarry where most of the buildings were old factories. In order to manage the project, a company, CITY, was created in 1992 in order to oversee the initial creation. CITY is also a contractor and both landlord and leaser. Overall responsibility for the planning and design of Moscow City belongs to the architectural studio No. 6, which is a part of the large Moscow practice Mosproject-2 named after Mikhail Vasilyevich Posokhin, each building lot has its own investor and architect. By 2014 the volume of investments in Moscow City was approximately $12 billion, the Moscow IBC is expected to become the first zone in Russia to combine business activity, living space and entertainment in one single development. The Moscow government first conceived the project in 1992, an estimated 250,000 –300,000 people will be working in, living in, or visiting the complex at any given time. MIBC includes 6 skyscrapers with maximum height of 300 meters or more, europes tallest building, the Federation Tower, is in the Moscow IBC. The complex also includes the second-tallest, third-tallest, fifth-tallest, sixth-tallest, by 2016 twelve of twenty-three planned facilities of MIBC were already built, seven buildings are in construction and four are in the design stage. One of the most difficult structures to build in the MIBC, the Central Core consists of two main sections – the above-ground and underground. The underground part includes three subway stations, one is opened as a part of Filyovskaya Line branch. The second opened in 2014 will be a part of Kalininsko-Solntsevskaya Line in the future, the third station will be opened in 2016 as part of the new line. The complex will also be connected to Vnukovo and Sheremetyevo airports via a transport system. Underground, parking is provided for up to 2750 vehicles, as well as control rooms for maintenance, security. VIP parking will be available and is located on the side of the Central Core
25.
OKO
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OKO is a complex of buildings located on plot 16 in the Moscow International Business Center in Moscow. The site is divided two sections, 16a and 16b. OKO means eye in Russian, and is also abbreviation for united by the foundation crystal, OKO South Tower is the second tallest building in Europe. Moscow Government purchased from Capital Group 55,000 m² in OKO Tower, the highest skating rink in Europe opened on the roof of the OKO South Tower at a height of 354 meter in December 2016. Each building will also have an underground floor, the buildings will house both residential and office space, occupying roughly the same area, for offices rid 122,493 m², residential apartments -122,507 m². On the section 16b a building will be built consisting of a three star hotel, which will house 330 rooms, and a lot for 3740 cars. The hotels height will be 79 meters with 22 floors, the parking lot will have 14 floors, of which 5 will be underground, the other 9 will have a total height of 44 meters. As of October 15,2012, the 49-story building is under construction, and is on the 13th floor above ground, the 85-story building is under construction in Europe and is on the 11th floor above ground. As of May 6,2013, the 49-story building is under construction and is on the 35th floor above ground, the 85-story building is under construction and is on the 40th floor above ground. As of June 22,2013, the 49-story building is under construction and is on the 39th floor above ground, the 85-story building is under construction and is on the 46th floor above ground. As of January 10,2014, the 49-story building is completed and is being glazed, OKO Tower Mercury City Tower Imperia Tower Eurasia List of tallest buildings in Russia Official website
26.
Saint Petersburg
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Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
27.
Storey
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A storey or story is any level part of a building that could be used by people. The plurals are storeys and stories respectively, the terms floor, level, or deck can also be used in this sense, except that one may use ground floor and ground level for the floor closer to what is considered the ground or street level. The words storey and floor also generally exclude levels of the building that have no roof, houses commonly have only one or two floors. Buildings are often classified as low-rise, mid-rise and high-rise according to how many levels they contain, the tallest skyscraper in the world, Burj Khalifa, has 163 floors. As of 2013, the tallest planned skyscraper, Sky City, is planned to have 202 floors, the height of each storey is based on the ceiling height of the rooms plus the thickness of the floors between each pane. Generally this is around 10 feet total, however, it varies widely from just under this figure to well over it, storeys within a building need not be all the same height — often the lobby is more spacious, for example. Additionally, higher levels may be smaller in volume than the ones beneath them, in English, the principal floor or main floor of a house is the floor that contains the chief apartments, it is usually the ground floor, or the floor above. In Italy the main floor of a home is usually above the ground level, the attic or loft is a storey just below the buildings roof, its ceiling is often pitched and/or at a different height than that of other floors. A penthouse is an apartment on the topmost storey of a building. A basement is a storey below the main or ground floor, split-level homes have floors that offset from each other by less than the height of a full storey. A mezzanine, in particular, is typically a floor halfway between the floor and the next higher floor. Homes with a split-level entry have the main floor raised half a storey height above the street entrance level. In Macys Herald Square, there is a one and a floor between the first and second, this can be considered a split level floor. There are also car parks, also known as parking garages. Floor numbering is the scheme used for a buildings floors. There are two major schemes in use across the world, in one system, used in the majority of European countries, the ground floor is the floor literally on the ground and often has no number or is assigned the number 0. Therefore, the floor up is assigned the number 1 and is the first floor. The other system, used primarily in the United States and Canada, counts the bottom floor as the first floor, the existence of two incompatible conventions is a common source of confusion in international communication, sometimes even between communities who speak the same language
28.
Skyscraper
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A skyscraper is a tall, continuously habitable building having multiple floors. When the term was used in the 1880s it described a building of 10 to 20 floors. Mostly designed for office, commercial and residential uses, a skyscraper can also be called a high-rise, for buildings above a height of 300 m, the term supertall can be used, while skyscrapers reaching beyond 600 m are classified as megatall. One common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel framework that supports curtain walls and these curtain walls either bear on the framework below or are suspended from the framework above, rather than resting on load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Some early skyscrapers have a frame that enables the construction of load-bearing walls taller than of those made of reinforced concrete. Modern skyscrapers walls are not load-bearing, and most skyscrapers are characterized by surface areas of windows made possible by steel frames. However, skyscrapers can have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls with a surface area of windows. Modern skyscrapers often have a structure, and are designed to act like a hollow cylinder to resist wind, seismic. To appear more slender, allow less wind exposure, and transmit more daylight to the ground, many skyscrapers have a design with setbacks, a relatively big building may be considered a skyscraper if it protrudes well above its built environment and changes the overall skyline. The maximum height of structures has progressed historically with building methods and technologies, the Burj Khalifa is currently the tallest building in the world. High-rise buildings are considered shorter than skyscrapers, the first steel-frame skyscraper was the Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Illinois in 1885. Even the scholars making the argument find it to be purely academic and this definition was based on the steel skeleton—as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicagos Monadnock Building. What is the characteristic of the tall office building. The force and power of altitude must be in it, the glory and it must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exaltation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line. Some structural engineers define a highrise as any vertical construction for which wind is a significant load factor than earthquake or weight. Note that this criterion fits not only high-rises but some other tall structures, the word skyscraper often carries a connotation of pride and achievement. A loose convention of some in the United States and Europe draws the limit of a skyscraper at 150 m or 490 ft. The tallest building in ancient times was the 146 m Great Pyramid of Giza in ancient Egypt and it was not surpassed in height for thousands of years, the 14th century AD Lincoln Cathedral being conjectured by many to have exceeded it
29.
Exhibition
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An exhibition, in the most general sense, is an organized presentation and display of a selection of items. In practice, exhibitions usually occur within museums, galleries and exhibition halls, the word exhibition is usually, but not always, the word used for a collection of items. Sometimes exhibit is synonymous with exhibition, but exhibit generally refers to an item being exhibited within an exhibition. Exhibitions may be permanent displays or temporary, but in common usage, exhibitions are considered temporary and usually scheduled to open, while many exhibitions are shown in just one venue, some exhibitions are shown in multiple locations and are called travelling exhibitions, and some are online exhibitions. Though exhibitions are common events, the concept of an exhibition is quite wide, exhibitions range from an extraordinarily large event such as a Worlds fair exposition to small one-artist solo shows or a display of just one item. Curators are sometimes involved as the people who select the items in an exhibition, writers and editors are sometimes needed to write text, labels and accompanying printed material such as catalogs and books. Architects, exhibition designers, graphic designers and other designers may be needed to shape the exhibition space, organizing and holding exhibitions also requires effective event planning, management, and logistics. Art exhibitions may focus on one artist, one group, one genre, one theme or one collection, or may be organized by curators, selected by juries, or show any artwork submitted. Fine arts exhibitions typically highlight works of art with generous space, exhibitions may occur in series or periodically, as in the case with Biennales, triennials and quadrennials. Interpretive exhibitions are exhibitions that require more context to explain the items being displayed, interpretive exhibitions generally require more text and more graphics than fine art exhibitions do. The topics of interpretive graphics cover a range including archaeology, anthropology, ethnology, history, science, technology. Some trade fairs are open to the public, while others can only be attended by company representatives, the Eiffel Tower was built for the Exposition Universelle and served as an entrance arch. Exhibition history Online exhibition Philatelic exhibition Trade fair UFI White Cube Worlds fair Media related to Exhibition at Wikimedia Commons
30.
Trade fair
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A few fairs are hybrids of the two, one example is the Frankfurt Book Fair, which is trade only for its first three days and open to the general public on its final two days. They are held on a basis in virtually all markets. Modern trade fairs follow in the tradition of trade fairs established in late medieval Europe, in this era, produce and craft producers visited towns for trading fairs, to sell and showcase products. From the late century, industrial exhibitions in Europe and North America became more common reflecting the technological dynamism of the Industrial Revolution. In the late 19th century, the concept of annual trade shows gained traction. Trade fairs often involve a considerable marketing investment by participating companies, costs include space rental, booth design and construction of trade show displays, telecommunications and networking, travel, accommodations, and promotional literature and items to give to attendees. In addition, costs are incurred at the show for such as electrical, booth cleaning, internet services. Consequently, cities often promote trade shows as a means of economic development, an increasing number of trade fairs are happening online, and these events are called virtual tradeshows. They are increasing in popularity due to their low cost. Large trade fair grounds, List reviewed on March 12,2014, agricultural show Buyers Market of American Craft County fair Lead retrieval List of worlds fairs Rodeo State fair Worlds fair Media related to Trade fairs at Wikimedia Commons Database
31.
Central Europe
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Central Europe lies between Eastern Europe and Western Europe. The concept of Central Europe is based on a historical, social and cultural identity. Central Europe is going through a phase of strategic awakening, with such as the CEI, Centrope. While the regions economy shows high disparities with regard to income, elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were Roman Catholicism and Latin. According to Hungarian historian Jenő Szűcs, foundations of Central European history at the first millennium were in connection with Western European development. The keyword of Western social development after millennium was the spread of liberties and autonomies in Western Europe and these phenomena appeared in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries. There were self-governments of towns, counties and parliaments, in 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary, the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Hungarian monarchs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary. They agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, in the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted Magdeburg rights. Before 1870, the industrialization that had developed in Western and Central Europe, even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained rural and agricultural. The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, an example of that-time vision of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book of 1903. On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany, another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic and cultural domination. The bible of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book Mitteleuropa in which he called for a federation to be established after the war. The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I, the revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era. According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the author to be Central European because they are located mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, the interwar period brought new geopolitical system and economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – the countries that have appeared on the map of Europe, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, however, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium ideas succeeded. The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe, after the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept
32.
World's fair
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A worlds fair, world fair, world exposition, or universal exposition is a large international exhibition designed to showcase achievements of nations. These exhibitions vary in character and are held in varying parts of the world, the next world Expo is Expo 2020 and is to be held in Dubai, UAE. Since the 1928 Convention Relating to International Exhibitions came into force, bIE-approved fairs are of three types, universal, specialized and horticultural. They usually last from three weeks to six months, Worlds fairs originated in the French tradition of national exhibitions, a tradition that culminated with the French Industrial Exposition of 1844 held in Paris. This fair was followed by other exhibitions in continental Europe. The best-known first World Expo was held in The Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, United Kingdom, in 1851, under the title Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations. The Great Exhibition, as it is called, was an idea of Prince Albert, Queen Victorias husband. It influenced the development of aspects of society, including art-and-design education, international trade and relations. This expo was the most obvious precedent for the international exhibitions, later called worlds fairs. Since their inception in 1851, the character of world expositions has evolved, three eras can be distinguished, the era of industrialization, the era of cultural exchange, and the era of nation branding. The first era could be called the era of industrialization and covered, roughly, in these days, world expositions were especially focused on trade, and were famous for the display of technological inventions and advancements. World expositions were the platforms where the state-of-the-art in science and technology from around the world were brought together, inventions such as the telephone were first presented during this era. An important part of the image of worlds fairs stems from this first era, the 1939–40 New York Worlds Fair diverged from the original focus of the worlds fair expositions. From then on, worlds fairs adopted specific cultural themes, they forecasted a future for society. Technological innovations were no longer the primary exhibits at fairs, the fairs encouraged effective intercultural communication for the exchange of innovation. The 1967 International and Universal Exposition in Montreal was promoted under the name Expo 67, event organizers retired the term worlds fair in favor of expo. From Expo 88 in Brisbane onwards, countries started to use world expositions more widely, finland, Japan, Canada, France and Spain are cases in point. A large study by Tjaco Walvis called Expo 2000 Hanover in Numbers showed that improving national image was the primary goal for 73% of the countries at Expo 2000
33.
DNA
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Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates, most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix. The two DNA strands are termed polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases—cytosine, guanine, adenine, or thymine —a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone. The nitrogenous bases of the two polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules, with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037, in comparison the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 trillion tons of carbon. The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage, and both strands of the double-stranded structure store the same biological information and this information is replicated as and when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences, the two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases and it is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes biological information. RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription, under the genetic code, these RNA strands are translated to specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation. Within eukaryotic cells DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes. During cell division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, eukaryotic organisms store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in organelles, such as mitochondria or chloroplasts. In contrast prokaryotes store their DNA only in the cytoplasm, within the eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed, DNA was first isolated by Friedrich Miescher in 1869. DNA is used by researchers as a tool to explore physical laws and theories, such as the ergodic theorem. The unique material properties of DNA have made it an attractive molecule for material scientists and engineers interested in micro-, among notable advances in this field are DNA origami and DNA-based hybrid materials. DNA is a polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides
34.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
35.
University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
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