1.
Moscow Kremlin
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It is the best known of the kremlins and includes five palaces, four cathedrals, and the enclosing Kremlin Wall with Kremlin towers. Also within this complex is the Grand Kremlin Palace, the complex serves as the official residence of the President of the Russian Federation. It had previously used to refer to the government of the Soviet Union. Kremlinology refers to the study of Soviet and Russian politics, the site has been continuously inhabited by Finno-Ugric peoples since the 2nd century BC. Vyatichi built a structure on the hill where the Neglinnaya River flowed into the Moskva River. Up to the 14th century, the site was known as the grad of Moscow, the word Kremlin was first recorded in 1331. The grad was greatly extended by Prince Yuri Dolgorukiy in 1156, destroyed by the Mongols in 1237, dmitri Donskoi replaced the oak walls with a strong citadel of white limestone in 1366–1368 on the basic foundations of the current walls, this fortification withstood a siege by Khan Tokhtamysh. Dmitris son Vasily I resumed construction of churches and cloisters in the Kremlin, the newly built Annunciation Cathedral was painted by Theophanes the Greek, Andrei Rublev, and Prokhor in 1406. The Chudov Monastery was founded by Dmitris tutor, Metropolitan Alexis, while his widow, Eudoxia and it was during his reign that three extant cathedrals of the Kremlin, the Deposition Church, and the Palace of Facets were constructed. The highest building of the city and Muscovite Russia was the Ivan the Great Bell Tower, built in 1505–08, the Kremlin walls as they now appear were built between 1485 and 1495. Spasskie gates of the wall bear a dedication in Latin praising Petrus Antonius Solarius for the design. After construction of the new walls and churches was complete. The Kremlin was separated from the merchant town by a 30-meter-wide moat. The same tsar also renovated some of his grandfathers palaces, added a new palace and cathedral for his sons, and endowed the Trinity metochion inside the Kremlin. The metochion was administrated by the Trinity Monastery and boasted the graceful tower church of St. Sergius, during the Time of Troubles, the Kremlin was held by the Polish forces for two years, between 21 September 1610 and 26 October 1612. The Kremlins liberation by the army of prince Dmitry Pozharsky. During his reign and that of his son Alexis, the eleven-domed Upper Saviour Cathedral, Armorial Gate, Terem Palace, Amusement Palace, following the death of Alexis, the Kremlin witnessed the Moscow Uprising of 1682, from which czar Peter barely escaped. As a result, both of them disliked the Kremlin, three decades later, Peter abandoned the residence of his forefathers for his new capital, Saint Petersburg
2.
History of Russia
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The History of Russia begins with that of the Eastern Slavs. The traditional beginning of Russian history is 862 A. D. Kievan Rus, the state adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988, beginning with the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Kievan Rus ultimately disintegrated as a state because of the Mongol invasion of Rus in 1237–1240, after the 13th century, Moscow became a cultural center. By the 18th century, the Tsardom of Russia had become the huge Russian Empire, expansion in the western direction sharpened Russias awareness of its separation from much of the rest of Europe and shattered the isolation in which the initial stages of expansion had occurred. Successive regimes of the 19th century responded to such pressures with a combination of halfhearted reform, peasant revolts were common, and all were fiercely suppressed. Russian serfdom was abolished in 1861, but the peasant fared poorly, from its first years, government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Communists, as the Bolsheviks called themselves, beginning in March 1918. The Russian Federation began in January 1992 as the successor to the USSR. Russia retained its nuclear arsenal but lost its superpower status, Russias treatment of Ukraine led to severe economic sanctions imposed by the United States and the European Union. In 2006,1. 5-million-year-old Oldowan flint tools were discovered in the Dagestan Akusha region of the north Caucasus, arctic Russia was reached by 40,000 years ago. During the prehistoric eras the vast steppes of Southern Russia were home to tribes of nomadic pastoralists, in classical antiquity, the Pontic Steppe was known as Scythia. Remnants of these long gone steppe cultures were discovered in the course of the 20th century in places as Ipatovo, Sintashta, Arkaim. In the latter part of the 8th century BCE, Greek merchants brought classical civilization to the trade emporiums in Tanais, gelonus was described by Herodotos as a huge earth- and wood-fortified grad inhabited around 500 BCE by Heloni and Budini. At about the 2nd century CE Goths migrated to the Black Sea, and in the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, a Turkic people, the Khazars, ruled the lower Volga basin steppes between the Caspian and Black Seas through to the 8th century. Noted for their laws, tolerance, and cosmopolitanism, the Khazars were the commercial link between the Baltic and the Muslim Abbasid empire centered in Baghdad. They were important allies of the Byzantine Empire, and waged a series of wars against the Arab Caliphates. In the 8th century, the Khazars embraced Judaism, some of the ancestors of the modern Russians were the Slavic tribes, whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the Pripet Marshes. The Early East Slavs gradually settled Western Russia in two waves, one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod, scandinavian Norsemen, known as Vikings in Western Europe and Varangians in the East, combined piracy and trade throughout Northern Europe. In the mid-9th century, they began to venture along the waterways from the eastern Baltic to the Black, thus, the first East Slavic state, Rus, emerged in the 9th century along the Dnieper River valley
3.
Moscow
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Moscow is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits and 17.8 million within the urban area. Moscow has the status of a Russian federal city, Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific center of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city entirely on the European continent. Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth and it is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe, the Federation Tower, the tallest skyscraper in Europe, and the Moscow International Business Center. Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, the city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basils Cathedral with its brightly colored domes. Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament also sit in the city and it is recognized as one of the citys landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations. In old Russian the word also meant a church administrative district. The demonym for a Moscow resident is москвич for male or москвичка for female, the name of the city is thought to be derived from the name of the Moskva River. There have been proposed several theories of the origin of the name of the river and its cognates include Russian, музга, muzga pool, puddle, Lithuanian, mazgoti and Latvian, mazgāt to wash, Sanskrit, majjati to drown, Latin, mergō to dip, immerse. There exist as well similar place names in Poland like Mozgawa, the original Old Russian form of the name is reconstructed as *Москы, *Mosky, hence it was one of a few Slavic ū-stem nouns. From the latter forms came the modern Russian name Москва, Moskva, in a similar manner the Latin name Moscovia has been formed, later it became a colloquial name for Russia used in Western Europe in the 16th–17th centuries. From it as well came English Muscovy, various other theories, having little or no scientific ground, are now largely rejected by contemporary linguists. The surface similarity of the name Russia with Rosh, an obscure biblical tribe or country, the oldest evidence of humans on the territory of Moscow dates from the Neolithic. Within the modern bounds of the city other late evidence was discovered, on the territory of the Kremlin, Sparrow Hills, Setun River and Kuntsevskiy forest park, etc. The earliest East Slavic tribes recorded as having expanded to the upper Volga in the 9th to 10th centuries are the Vyatichi and Krivichi, the Moskva River was incorporated as part of Rostov-Suzdal into the Kievan Rus in the 11th century. By AD1100, a settlement had appeared on the mouth of the Neglinnaya River. The first known reference to Moscow dates from 1147 as a place of Yuri Dolgoruky. At the time it was a town on the western border of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
4.
Yuri Dolgorukiy
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Yuri I Vladimirovich, known under his soubriquet Yuri Dolgorukiy, was a Rurikid prince and founder of the city of Moscow. He reigned as Velikiy Kniaz of Kiev from September 1149 to April 1151, Yuri played a key role in the transition of political power from Kiev to Suzdal following the death of his elder brother Mstislav the Great in 1132. According to Vasily Tatishchev, Yuri was born in 1090 which would make him a son of Vladimir Monomakhs first wife Gytha of Wessex, a daughter of Harold Godwinson. However, according to the Testament of Vladimir Monomakh Gyurgis mother died on May 7,1107, while Gytha died on March 10, thus, Yuri Vladimirovich could have been a son of his fathers second wife Yefimia and been born between 1095/97 and 1102. Although his birth date is uncertain, some report that Yuris elder brother, Viacheslav, said to him, I am much older than you. Since Viacheslav was born in 1083, this pushes Yuris birth to c, there is also a version that has his son Andrei Bogolyubskiy being born around 1111. It is doubtful that Yuri was at that time younger than 16 or 17, the question of Yuris birthday remains open. The date can be approximated to sometime in the 1090s, in 1108, Yuri was sent by his father to govern in his name the vast Rostov-Suzdal province in the north-east of Kievan Rus. In 1121, he quarreled with the boyars of Rostov and moved the capital of his lands from that city to Suzdal, as the area was sparsely populated, Yuri founded many fortresses there. He established the towns of Ksniatin in 1134, Pereslavl-Zalesski and Yuriev-Polski in 1152, the establishment of Tver, Kostroma, and Vologda is also popularly assigned to Yuri. In 1147, Yuri Dolgoruki had a meeting with Sviatoslav Olgovich in a place called Moscow, in 1156, Yuri fortified Moscow with wooden walls and a moat. Although the settlement probably existed earlier, Dolgoruki is often called The Founder of Moscow, for all the interest he took in fortifying his Northern lands, Yuri still coveted the throne of Kiev. It is his participation in the Southern affairs that earned him the epithet of Dolgorukiy. His elder brother Mstislav of Kiev died in 1132, and the Rus lands fell apart, the Novgorodians, however, betrayed him, and Yuri avenged by seizing their key eastern fortress, Torzhok. In 1147, Dolgorukiy resumed his struggle for Kiev and two later he captured it, but in 1151 he was driven from the capital of Rus by his nephew Iziaslav. In 1155, Yuri regained Kiev once again and his sudden death, however, sparked anti-Suzdalian uprising in Kiev. Yuri Dolgoruki was interred at the Saviour Church in Berestovo, Kiev, the Primary Chronicle records the first marriage of Yuri on 12 January 1108. His first wife was a daughter of Aepa Ocenevich, Khan of the Cumans and her people belonged to the Cumans, a confederation of pastoralists and warriors of Turkic origin
5.
Vladimir-Suzdal
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Vladimir-Suzdal, formally known as the Grand Duchy of Vladimir, was one of the major principalities that succeeded Kievan Rus in the late 12th century, centered in Vladimir-on-Klyazma. With time the principality grew into a duchy divided into several smaller principalities. After being conquered by the Mongol Empire, the principality became a self-governed state headed by its own nobility, a governorship of principality, however, was prescribed by a Khan declaration issued from the Golden Horde to a noble family of any of smaller principalities. Vladimir-Suzdal is traditionally perceived as a cradle of the Great Russian language and nationality, the first notable administrators in the Rostov region presumably were the sons of Vladimir the Great, Boris and Gleb, and later Yaroslav the Wise. The principality occupied a vast territory in the northeast of Kievan Rus, approximately bounded by the Volga, Oka, until the decline of Kievan Rus in the 12th-13th centuries the territory was also commonly called Zalesie, literally depicting a region beyond woodland. Scarce historical information exists for the area during that time, the foundation of the city of Rostov has been lost in the span of time. In the 10th century an eparchy was established in Rostov, one of the first known princes was Yaroslav the Wise and later Boris Vladimirovich. At that time Rostov was the center of the Eastern Orthodox Christianity in the region dominated mostly by shamanism. Until the 11th century Rostov was often associated with the Great Novgorod, evidently the spread of Eastern Orthodox Christianity to the lands of the Great Perm was successfully conducted from Rostov. Rostov was the capital, including other important towns included Suzdal, Yaroslavl. Vladimir Monomakh, son of the Grand Prince of Vsevolod I, during the 11th and 12th centuries when southern parts of Rus were systematically raided by Turkic nomads, their inhabitants began to migrate northward. In the formerly wooded areas, known as Zalesye, many new settlements were established, sometime in 1108 Monomakh strengthened and rebuilt the town of Vladimir on the Klyazma River,31 km south of Suzdal. During the rule of George I the principality gained military strength, later in the 1150s Yuri occupied Kiev a couple of times as well. From that time the lands of the northeastern Rus played an important role in the politics of Kievan Rus, georges son Andrew the Pious significantly increased Vladimirs power at the expense of the nearby princely states, which he treated with contempt. After burning down Kiev, then the seat of Rus, in 1169. For Andrew, his capital of Vladimir was a far greater concern, Prince Andrew was murdered by boyars in his suburban residence at Bogolyubovo in 1174. After a brief interregnum, Andrews brother Vsevolod III secured the throne and he continued most of his brothers policies and once again subjugated Kiev in 1203. After several military campaigns, Ryazan was burnt to the ground, vsevolods death in 1212 precipitated a serious dynastic conflict
6.
Mongol invasion of Rus'
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As part of the Mongol invasion of Europe, the Mongol Empire invaded Kievan Rus in the 13th century, destroying numerous cities, including Ryazan, Kolomna, Moscow, Vladimir, and Kiev. The campaign was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River in May 1223, a full-scale invasion of Rus by Batu Khan followed, from 1237 to 1240. The invasion was ended by the Mongol succession process upon the death of Ögedei Khan, all Rus principalities were forced to submit to Mongol rule and became part of the Golden Horde empire, some of which lasted until 1480. As it was undergoing fragmentation, Kievan Rus faced the unexpected eruption of a foreign foe coming from the mysterious regions of the Far East. For our sins, writes the Rus chronicler of the time, no one knew their origin or whence they came, or what religion they practiced. That is known only to God, and perhaps to wise men learned in books, the princes of Rus first heard of the coming Mongol warriors from the nomadic Cumans. In response to call, Mstislav the Bold and Mstislav Romanovich the Old joined forces and set out eastward to meet the foe. In the Secret History of the Mongols, the reference to this early battle is, Then he sent Dorbei the Fierce off against the city of Merv. He sent Subetei the Brave off to war in the North where he defeated eleven kingdoms and tribes, crossing the Volga and Ural Rivers, finally going to war with Kiev. The vast Mongol hordes of around 35,000 mounted archers, commanded by Batu Khan and Subutai, crossed the Volga River and it took them a year to extinguish the resistance of the Volga Bulgarians, the Cumans-Kipchaks, and the Alani. In November 1237, Batu Khan sent his envoys to the court of Yuri II of Vladimir, a month later, the hordes besieged Ryazan. After six days of battle, the city was totally annihilated. Alarmed by the news, Yuri II sent his sons to detain the invaders, having burnt down Kolomna and Moscow, the horde laid siege to Vladimir on February 4,1238. Three days later, the capital of Vladimir-Suzdal was taken and burnt to the ground, the royal family perished in the fire, while the grand prince retreated northward. Crossing the Volga, he mustered a new army, which was annihilated by the Mongols in the Battle of the Sit River on March 4. Chinese siege engines were used by the Mongols under Tului to raze the walls of Russian cities, the most difficult to take was the small town of Kozelsk, whose boy-prince Vasily, son of Titus, and inhabitants resisted the Mongols for seven weeks, killing 4,000. As the story goes, at the news of the Mongol approach, the town of Kitezh with all its inhabitants was submerged into a lake. The only major cities to escape destruction were Novgorod and Pskov, the Mongols were advancing on Novgorod but unexpectedly turned back at the site mentioned as Ignach Cross, of which the exact location is not known
7.
Knyaz
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The female form transliterated from Bulgarian and Russian is knyaginya, kniahynia in Ukrainian, kneginja in Slovene, Croatian and Serbian. In Russian, the daughter of a knyaz is knyazhna, in Ukrainian is kniazivna, in Russian, the son of a knyaz is knyazhich. The title is pronounced and written similarly in different European languages, in Croatian, Bosnian and West Slavic languages, such as Polish, the word has later come to denote lord, and in Czech, Polish and Slovak also came to mean priest as well as duke. In Sorbian it means simply Mister, today the term knez is still used as the most common translation of prince in Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian literature. Knez is also found as a surname in former Yugoslavia, in Finnish knyaz is translated more like the word ruhtinas. Ruhtinas comes from Proto-Germanic word druhtinaz, what can be translated as warlord, in Finland tsar was officially called as suuriruhtinas after the Grand Principality of Finland. Suuriruhtinas in English means grand prince, in Russian velikiy knyaz, the meaning of the term changed over the course of history. Initially the term was used to denote the chieftain of a tribe, later, with the development of feudal statehood, it became the title of a ruler of a state, and among East Slavs, for example, of Kievan Rus. In medieval Latin sources the title was rendered as either rex or dux, in Bulgaria, Simeon took the title of tsar in 913. In Kievan Rus, as the degree of centralization grew, the acquired the title Velikii Knyaz. He ruled a Velikoe Knyazivstvo, while a ruler of its vassal constituent was called udelny knyaz or simply knyaz, as noted above, the title knyaz or kniaz became a hereditary noble title in the Grand Duchy of Moscow and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Following the union of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, notable holders of the title kniaź include Jeremi Wiśniowiecki. As the Tsardom of Russia gained dominion over much of former Kievan Rus, from the mid-18th century onwards, the title Velikii Kniaz was revived to refer to sons and grandsons of Russian Emperors. See titles for Tsars family for details, Kniaz continued as a hereditary title of Russian nobility patrilineally descended from Rurik or Gediminas. Members of Rurikid or Gedyminid families were called princes when they ruled tiny quasi-sovereign medieval principalities, after their demesnes were absorbed by Muscovy, they settled at the Moscow court and were authorised to continue with their princely titles. After 1801, with the incorporation of Georgia into the Russian Empire, similarly, many petty Tatar nobles asserted their right to style themselves kniazes because they descended from Genghis Khan. See also Velikiy Knyaz article for more details, finally, within the Russian Empire of 1809-1917, Finland was officially called Grand Principality of Finland. In the 19th century, the Serbian term knez and the Bulgarian term knyaz were revived to denote semi-independent rulers of countries, such as Alexander Karađorđević
8.
Ivan I of Moscow
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Ivan I Daniilovich Kalita was Grand Duke of Moscow from 1325 and Vladimir from 1332. Ivan was the son of the Prince of Moscow Daniil Aleksandrovich, after the death of his elder brother Yury, Ivan inherited the Principality of Moscow. Ivan participated in the struggle to get the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir which could be obtained with the approval of a khan of the Golden Horde, all of them were murdered in the Golden Horde. In 1328 Ivan Kalita received the approval of khan Muhammad Ozbeg to become the Grand Duke of Vladimir with the right to taxes from all Russian lands. According to the Russian historian Kluchevsky, the rise of Moscow under Ivan I Kalita was determined by three factors. The first one was that the Moscow principality was situated in the middle of other Russian principalities, thus, it was protected from any invasions from the East, compared to its neighbors, Ryazan principality and Tver principality, Moscow was less often devastated. The third factor was a route from Novgorod to the Volga river. He managed to eliminate all the thieves in his lands, thus insuring the safety of traveling merchants, internal peace and order together with the absence of Mongolian raids to the Moscow principality was mentioned in Russian chronicles as “great peace, silence, and relief of Russian land. Ivan made Moscow very wealthy by maintaining his loyalty to the Horde and he used this wealth to give loans to neighbouring Russian principalities. These cities gradually fell deeper and deeper into debt, a condition that would allow Ivans successors to annex them, the people called Ivan the ‘gatherer of the Russian lands’. He bought lands around Moscow, and very often the owners sold their lands willingly. Some of them kept the right to rule in their lands on behalf of Ivan Kalita, in one way or another a number of cities and villages joined the Moscow principality – Uglich in 1323, the principality of Belozero in 1328–1338, the principality of Galich in 1340. The Head of the Russian Church – Metropolitan Peter, whose authority was extremely high, following a Lithuanian raid on the town of Torzhok in 1335, Ivan retaliated by burning the towns of Osechen and Riasna. Ivan died in Moscow,31 March 1340 or 1341 and he was buried 1 April in the Church of the Archangel Michael. Erection of either wooden or white-stone constructions was started in the Kremlin, between 1339 and 1340, Ivan Kalita erected a new, bigger oaken fortress on the Borovitsky hill. In Ivan’s will “the golden cap” was mentioned for the first time, this cap is identified with the well-known Monomakh’s crown, rulers of Russia family tree V. O. Kluchevsky. Lecture #21 Janet Martin, Medieval Russia 980–1584 The Moscow Kremlin His listing in Medieval lands by Charles Cawley
9.
Oak
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An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter
10.
Spasskaya Tower
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The Spasskaya Tower is the main tower with a through-passage on the eastern wall of the Moscow Kremlin, which overlooks the Red Square. The Spasskaya Tower was built in 1491 by the Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari, initially, it was named the Frolovskaya Tower after the Church of Frol and Lavr in the Kremlin. The Spasskaya Tower was the first one to be crowned with the roof in 1624–1625 by architects Bazhen Ogurtsov. According to a number of accounts, the clock on the Spasskaya Tower appeared between 1491 and 1585. It is usually referred to as the Kremlin chimes and designates official Moscow Time, the tower gate was once the main entrance into the Kremlin. In tsarist times, anyone passing through the gates had to remove their headgear and this tradition was broken in the Soviet era. Cars approached the head on from the place of skulls. In order to pass through the gate, you had to be a head of state, top politburo member, all other traffic was routed through the borovistky gate. The Spassky Gate posed an issue following the collapse of communism, in 1999, the decision was made to finally close the gate to all traffic. The signal lights and guard platforms still remain, the gate is used occasionally when repairs must be made to the borovissky gate. However, in case, all traffic is routed from vasilievsky spusk. Nowadays, the gate opens to receive the presidential motorcades on inauguration day, for the victory parades, in 1935, the Soviet government installed a red star instead of a two-headed eagle on top of the Spasskaya Tower. The height of the tower with the star is 71 m, in August 2010 the icon of Smolensk Saviour was uncovered and restored above the gate. Moscow Kremlin Museum Website of President of Russia Spasskaya Tower on Rusarh. ru Clock of Spasskaya Tower
11.
Dmitry Donskoy
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He was the first prince of Moscow to openly challenge Mongol authority in Russia. His nickname, Donskoy, alludes to his victory against the Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo. He is venerated as a Saint in the Orthodox Church with his feast day on 19 May, Dmitry ascended the throne of the Principality of Moscow at the age of 9. During his minority, Russias Metropolitan Aleksey ran the government, in 1360 Khizr-khan, Khan of the Golden Horde, transferred the title most prized among Russian princes, that of Grand Prince of Vladimir, to Dmitry Konstantinovich of Nizhniy Novgorod. In 1363, after that prince was deposed, Dmitry Ivanovich was crowned at Vladimir, three years later, he made peace with Dmitriy Konstantinovich and married his daughter Eudoxia. In 1376 their joint armies ravaged Volga Bulgaria, the most important event during Dmitrys early reign was start of building the Moscow Kremlin, it was completed in 1367. Thanks to the new fortress, the city withstood two sieges by Algirdas of Lithuania during the Lithuanian–Muscovite War, the war ended with the Treaty of Lyubutsk. In 1375, Dmitry settled, in his own favor, a conflict with Mikhail II of Tver over Vladimir, other princes of Northern Russia acknowledged his authority and contributed troops to the impending struggle against the Horde. By the end of his reign, Dmitry had more than doubled the territory of the Principality of Moscow, Mongol domination of parts of what is now Russia began to crumble during Dmitrys thirty-year reign. The Golden Horde was severely weakened by war and dynastic rivalries. Dmitry took advantage of this lapse in Mongol authority to challenge the Tatars. While he kept the Khans patent to collect taxes for all of Russia, Mamai, a Mongol general and claimant to the throne, tried to punish Dmitry for attempting to increase his power. In 1378 Mamai sent a Mongol army, but it was defeated by Dmitrys forces in the Battle of Vozha River, two years later Mamai personally led a large force against Moscow. Dmitry met and defeated it at the Battle of Kulikovo, the defeated Mamai was presently dethroned by a rival Mongol general, Tokhtamysh. That khan reasserted Mongol rule over parts of now is Russia. Dimitry, however, pledged his loyalty to Tokhtamysh and to the Golden Horde and was reinstated as Mongol principal tax collector, upon his death in 1389, Dimitry was the first Grand Duke to bequeath his titles to his son Vasiliy without consulting the Khan. He was married to Eudoxia of Nizhniy Novgorod and she was a daughter of Dmitry of Suzdal and Vasilisa of Rostov. They had at least twelve children, Daniil Dmitriyevich, married Fyodor Olegovich, Prince of Ryazan
12.
Limestone
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Limestone is a sedimentary rock, composed mainly of skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral, forams and molluscs. Its major materials are the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate, about 10% of sedimentary rocks are limestones. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. The first geologist to distinguish limestone from dolomite was Belsazar Hacquet in 1778, like most other sedimentary rocks, most limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts and these organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind when they die. Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragment, some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i. e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters and this produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular appearance, the primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters. Limestones may also form in lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments, calcite can be dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits a characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. Impurities will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces, Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock, when conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly there are waterfalls. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls, coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the building process, limestone recrystallizes into marble
13.
Grand Duchy of Moscow
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The Grand Duchy of Moscow, or Grand Principality of Moscow, was a late medieval Rus principality centered on Moscow and the predecessor state of the early modern Tsardom of Russia. The state originated with Daniel I, who inherited Moscow in 1283, eclipsing and it later annexed the Novgorod Republic in 1478 and the Grand Duchy of Tver in 1485. After the Mongol invasion of Rus, Muscovy was a vassal to the Mongol ruled Golden Horde until 1480. By his marriage to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, he established Muscovy as the state of the Roman Empire. Ivans successor Vasili III also enjoyed success, gaining Smolensk from Lithuania in 1512. Vasilis son Ivan IV was an infant at his fathers death in 1533 and he was crowned in 1547, assuming the title of tsar together with the proclamation of Tsardom of Russia. As with many states the country had no particular official name. The Duke of Moscow or the Sovereign of Moscow were common short titles, in rivalry with other duchies Moscow dukes also designated themselves as the Grand Dukes, claiming a higher position in the hierarchy of Russian dukes. During the territorial growth and later acquisitions, the title became rather lengthy. Since the 14th century various Moscow dukes added of all Rus to their titles, after the title of Russian metropolitans, Dmitry Shemyaka was the first Moscow duke who minted coins with the title the Sovereign of all Rus. Under the Polish-Lithuanian influence the country began to be called Muscovy in Western Europe, the first appearances of the term were in an Italian document of 1500. Initially Moscovia was the Latinized name of the city of Moscow itself, not of the state, later it acquired its meaning and has been used alongside of the older name. The term Muscovy persisted in the West until the beginning of the 18th century and is used in historical contexts. When the Mongols invaded the lands of Kievan Rus in the 13th century, the first ruler of the principality of Moscow, Daniel I, was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky of Vladimir-Suzdal. He started to expand his principality by seizing Kolomna and securing the bequest of Pereslavl-Zalessky to his family, daniels son Yuriy controlled the entire basin of the Moskva River and expanded westward by conquering Mozhaisk. He then forged an alliance with the overlord of the Rus principalities, Uzbeg Khan of the Golden Horde, the Khan allowed Yuriy to claim the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir-Suzdal, a position which allowed him to interfere in the affairs of the Novgorod Republic to the north-west. Yuriys successor, Ivan I, managed to retain the title of Grand Duke by cooperating closely with the Mongols and by collecting tribute and taxes from other Rus principalities on their behalf. This relationship enabled Ivan to gain regional ascendancy, particularly over Moscows chief rival, the city of Tver
14.
Ivan III of Russia
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Ivan III Vasilyevich, also known as Ivan the Great, was a Grand Prince of Moscow and Grand Prince of all Rus. He was one of the longest-reigning Russian rulers in history, Ivans rule is marked by what subsequent Russophile historians called the Gathering of the Russian Lands. Ivan brought the independent duchies of different Rurikid princes under the control of Moscow, leaving the princes. His first enterprise was a war with the Republic of Novgorod and these wars were waged over Moscows religious and political sovereignty, and over Moscows efforts to seize land in the Northern Dvina region. Ivan visited Novgorod Central several times in the several years, persecuting a number of pro-Lithuanian boyars. In 1477, two Novgorodian envoys, claiming to have been sent by the archbishops and the entire city, Ivan dispossessed Novgorod of more than four-fifths of its land, keeping half for himself and giving the other half to his allies. Subsequent revolts were punished by the en masse of the richest and most ancient families of Novgorod to Moscow, Vyatka. Archbishop Feofil was also removed to Moscow for plotting against the Grand Prince, the rival republic of Pskov owed the continuance of its own political existence to the readiness with which it assisted Ivan against its ancient enemy. The other principalities were eventually absorbed by conquest, purchase, or marriage contract, The Principality of Yaroslavl in 1463, Rostov in 1474, Tver in 1485, the eldest, Iurii, died childless on 12 September 1472. He only had a draft of a will that said nothing about his land, Ivan seized the land, much to the fury of the surviving brothers, who he placated with some land. Boris and Andrei the Elder signed treaties with Vasily in February and they agreed to protect each others land and not to have secret dealings with foreign states, they broke this clause in 1480, fleeing to Lithuania. It is unknown whether Andrei the Younger signed a treaty and he died in 1481, leaving his lands to Ivan. In 1491 Andrei the Elder was arrested by Ivan for refusing to aid the Crimean Tatars against the Golden Horde and he died in prison in 1493, and Ivan seized his land. In 1494 Boris, the only brother able to pass his land to his sons, however, their land reverted to the Tsar upon their deaths in 1503 and 1515 respectively. There was one semi-autonomous prince in Muscovy when Ivan acceded, Prince Mikhail Andreevich of Vereia, in 1478 he was pressured into giving Belozersk to Ivan, who got all of Mikhails land on his death in 1486. The character of the government of Moscow changed significantly under Ivan III and this was a natural consequence of the hegemony of Moscow over the other north-eastern Rus lands, but also to new imperial pretensions. Ivan himself appeared to welcome the idea, and he began to style himself tsar in foreign correspondence, fennell emphasizes Ivans success in centralizing control over local rulers, he adds, however, that his reign was also a period of cultural depression and spiritual barrenness. Freedom was stamped out within the Muscovite lands, by his bigoted anti-Catholicism Ivan brought down the curtain between Muscovy and the west
15.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
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Pietro Antonio Solari
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Pietro Antonio Solari, also known as Pyotr Fryazin, was an Italian architect and sculptor. He was born in Carona, Ticino, and apprenticed under his father Guiniforte Solari, himself an architect, in 1476, he was hired to continue the construction of the Duomo di Milano. Later on, he was in charge of construction projects in Milan. In 1484 he sculpted a tomb in the Cathedral of Alessandria, in 1487, he was invited to Russia by Ivan III to construct the walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin. Within the next two years, Solari built most of the walls and towers of the Kremlin, including the Borovitskaya, Konstantino-Eleninskaya, Spasskaya, Nikolskaya, engineering methods, technique and architectural forms, used by Solari, were reminiscent of the fortifications of Northern Italy. Together with Marco Ruffo, Solari also built the Palace of Facets in the Kremlin and he died in Moscow in May 1493. Arte e artisti dei laghi lombardi
17.
Alexis of Russia
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Aleksey Mikhailovich was the Russian Tsar during some of Russias most eventful decades in the mid-17th century. His reign saw wars with Poland and Sweden, schism in the Russian Orthodox Church, on the eve of his death in 1676, the Tsardom of Russia spanned almost 2,000,000,000 acres. Born in Moscow on 29 March 1629, the son of Tsar Michael and Eudoxia Streshneva and he was committed to the care of his tutor Boris Morozov, a shrewd boyar open to Western ideas. Morozovs pursued a foreign policy, securing a truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. His domestic policy aimed at relieving limiting the privileges of foreign traders and abolishing a useless, on 17 January 1648 Morozov procured the marriage of the tsar with Maria Miloslavskaya, himself marrying her sister, Anna, ten days later, both daughters of Ilya Danilovich Miloslavsky. Morozov was regarded as a corrupt self-seeking 17th-century boyar and accused of sorcery, in May 1648 Muscovites rose against his faction in the Salt Riot, and the young Tsar was compelled to dismiss them and exile Boris to the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery. Four months later, Boris secretly returned to Moscow to regain some of his power, the popular discontent demonstrated by the riot was partially responsible for Alexis 1649 issuance of a new legal code, the Sobornoye Ulozhenie. Throughout his reign, Alexei faced rebellions across Russia, after resolving the 1648 Salt Riot Alexei faced rebellions in 1650 in the cities of Pskov and Great Novgorod. Alexei put down the Novgorod rebellion quickly, but was unable to subdue Pskov, the Metropolitan Nikon distinguished himself at Great Novgorod and in 1651 became the Tsars chief minister. As a result, angry Moscow residents revolted in the 1662 Copper Riot, in 1669, the Cossacks along the Don in southern Russia erupted in rebellion. The rebellion was led by Stenka Razin, a disaffected Don Cossack who had captured the Russian terminus of Astrakhan, from 1670 to 1671, Razin seized multiple towns along the Volga River. The turning point in his campaign was his failed siege of Simbirsk in October 1670, Razin was finally captured on the Don in April 1671, and was drawn and quartered in Moscow. Safavid troops and allies accompanied the troops, in 1653 Alexis, initially thinking about sending the Zaporozhian Cossacks, eventually decided to send an embassy to Persia for a peaceful settlement of the conflict. In August 1653 courtier Prince Ivan Lobanov-Rostov and steward Ivan Komynin traveled from Astrakhan to Isfahan, shah Abbas II agreed to settle the conflict, stating that the conflict was initiated without his consent. In 1653 the weakness and disorder of Poland, which had just emerged from the Khmelnytsky Uprising, encouraged Alexei to attempt to annex from her rival the old Rus’ lands. On 1 October 1653 a national assembly met at Moscow to sanction the war and find the means of carrying it out, and in April 1654 the army was blessed by Nikon, who had been elected patriarch in 1652. The campaign of 1654 was a triumph, and scores of towns, including the important fortress of Smolensk. In the summer of 1655, the invasion by Charles X of Sweden for the moment swept the Polish state out of existence
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Elizabeth of Russia
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Elizabeth Petrovna, also known as Yelisaveta or Elizaveta, was the Empress of Russia from 1741 until her death. She led the country into the two major European conflicts of her time, the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War, on the eve of her death Russia spanned almost 16,200,000 square kilometres. Her domestic policies allowed the nobles to gain dominance in government while shortening their terms of service to the state. She encouraged Mikhail Lomonosovs establishment of the University of Moscow and Ivan Shuvalovs foundation of the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg and she also spent exorbitant sums of money on the grandiose baroque projects of her favourite architect, Bartolomeo Rastrelli, particularly in Peterhof and Tsarskoye Selo. The Winter Palace and the Smolny Cathedral in Saint Petersburg are among the monuments of her reign. She remains one of the most popular Russian monarchs due to her opposition to Prussian policies. Elizabeth was born at Kolomenskoye, near Moscow, on 18 December 1709, Peter valued Catherine and married her again at Saint Isaacs Cathedral in St. Petersburg on 9 February 1712. On this day his two surviving children by Catherine were legitimized by their father and this circumstance would later be used by Elizabeths political opponents to challenge her right to the throne on grounds of illegitimacy. Of the twelve children born to Peter and Catherine only two daughters, Anna and Elizabeth survived to adulthood, both of them were given the title of Tsarevna on 6 March 1711, and of Tsesarevna on 23 December 1721. They had one surviving sibling, crown prince Alexei Petrovich, who was their fathers son by his first wife Eudoxia Lopukhina. As a child Elizabeth was the favorite of her father. She resembled him both physically and temperamentally and she was a bright girl, if not brilliant, but received only an imperfect and desultory formal education. Even though he adored his daughter Peter did not devote time or attention to her education and he had a son from his first marriage to a noblewoman and did not anticipate that a daughter born to his second wife might one day inherit the throne. Indeed, no woman had ever sat upon the throne of Russia yet and it was therefore left to Catherine to raise the girls, but she was herself too uneducated to be able to superintend the formal education of her daughters. Elizabeth had a French governess and grew fluent in Italian, German and she was also an excellent dancer and rider. Like her father Elizabeth was physically active and loved riding, hunting, sledging, skating, from her earliest years she delighted everyone with her extraordinary beauty and vivacity, and was regarded as the leading beauty of the Russian Empire. The wife of the British minister described Elizabeth as fair, with brown hair, large sprightly blue eyes, fine teeth. She is inclinable to be fat, but is very genteel and she speaks German, French and Italian, is extremely gay and talks to everyone
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Alexander I of Russia
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Alexander I reigned as Emperor of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825. He was the son of Paul I and Sophie Dorothea of Württemberg, Alexander was the first Russian King of Poland, reigning from 1815 to 1825, as well as the first Russian Grand Duke of Finland. He was sometimes called Alexander the Blessed and he was born in Saint Petersburg to Grand Duke Paul Petrovich, later Emperor Paul I, and succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered. He ruled Russia during the period of the Napoleonic Wars. As prince and emperor, Alexander often used liberal rhetoric, in the first years of his reign, he initiated some minor social reforms and major, liberal educational reforms, such as building more universities. He promised constitutional reforms and a desperately needed reform of serfdom in Russia, Alexander appointed Mikhail Speransky, the son of a village priest, as one of his closest advisors. The Collegia was abolished and replaced by the The State Council, plans were also made to set up a parliament and sign a constitution. In foreign policy, he changed Russias position relative to France four times between 1804 and 1812 among neutrality, opposition, and alliance and he fought a small-scale naval war against Britain between 1807 and 1812. He and Napoleon could never agree, especially about Poland, the tsars greatest triumph came in 1812 as Napoleons invasion of Russia proved a total disaster for the French. As part of the coalition against Napoleon he gained some spoils in Finland and Poland. He formed the Holy Alliance to suppress revolutionary movements in Europe that he saw as threats to legitimate Christian monarchs. He helped Austrias Klemens von Metternich in suppressing all national and liberal movements, in the second half of his reign he was increasingly arbitrary, reactionary and fearful of plots against him, he ended many earlier reforms. He purged schools of teachers, as education became more religiously oriented as well as politically conservative. Speransky was replaced as advisor with the artillery inspector Aleksey Arakcheyev. Alexander died of typhus in December 1825 while on a trip to southern Russia and he left no children as heirs and both of his brothers wanted the other to become emperor. After a period of confusion that included the failed Decembrist revolt of liberal army officers, he was succeeded by his younger brother. Alexander and his younger brother Constantine were raised by their grandmother, some sources allege that she planned to remove her son Paul I from the succession altogether. From the free-thinking atmosphere of the court of Catherine and his Swiss tutor, Frédéric-César de La Harpe, but from his military governor, Nikolay Saltykov, he imbibed the traditions of Russian autocracy
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Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
21.
Moskva River
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The Moskva River is a river of western Russia. It rises about 140 km west of Moscow, and flows roughly east through the Smolensk and Moscow Oblasts, passing through central Moscow. About 110 km south east of Moscow, at the city of Kolomna, it flows into the Oka River, itself a tributary of the Volga, Moskva and Moscow are two different renderings of the same Russian word Москва. The city is named after the river, the origin of the name is unknown, although several theories exist. The river is 503 km long, with a drop of 155 m. The area of its basin is 17,600 km2. The maximum depth is 3 metres above Moscow city limits, normally, it freezes in November–December and begins to thaw around late March. In Moscow, the river freezes occasionally, during a warm winter in 2006–2007. The absolute water level in downtown Moscow is 120 metres above sea level, the main tributaries are the Ruza, Istra, Yauza, Pakhra, and Severka rivers. Sources of water are estimated as 61% thaw, 12% rain, since completion of the Moscow Canal, the Moskva River has also collected a share of Upper Volga water. This has enabled reliable commercial shipping, which was interrupted by summer droughts. The average discharge, including Volga waters, varies from 38 m3/s near Zvenigorod to 250 m3/s at the Oka inlet, the speed of the current, depending on the season, varies from 0.1 m/s to 1. 5–2.0 m/s. Moscow, the capital of Russia, is situated on its banks, the river also flows through the towns of Mozhaysk, Zvenigorod, Zhukovsky, Bronnitsy, Voskresensk, and — at the confluence of the Moskva and Oka — Kolomna. As of 2007, there are 49 bridges across the Moskva River and its canals within Moscow city limits, within the city, the river is 120–200 metres wide, the narrowest point being under the Kremlin walls. Drinking water for the city of Moscow is collected from five stations on the Moskva River, canals, built within Moscow city limits, have created a number of islands. Some of them have names in Russian, some have none, major, permanent islands are, Serebryany Bor. Separated from the mainland in the 1930s, tatarskaya Poyma, commonly known as Mnyovniki. Separated from the mainland in the 1930s Balchug Island, also known as Bolotny Ostrov, the island was formed by the construction of the Vodootvodny Canal in the 1780s, and has no official name in Russian
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Red Square
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Red Square is a city square in Moscow, Russia. It separates the Kremlin, the royal citadel and currently the official residence of the President of Russia. Red Square is often considered the central square of Moscow since Moscows major streets, the name Red Square neither originates from the pigment of the surrounding bricks nor from the link between the colour red and communism. Rather, the name came about because the Russian word красная, several ancient Russian towns, such as Suzdal, Yelets, and Pereslavl-Zalessky, have their main square named Krasnaya ploshchad. The rich history of Red Square is reflected in paintings by Vasily Surikov, Konstantin Yuon. The square was meant to serve as Moscows main marketplace and it was also the site of various public ceremonies and proclamations, and occasionally a coronation for Russias Tsars would take place. The square has been built up since that point and has been used for official ceremonies by all Russian governments since it was established. The relevant decrees were issued in 1493 and 1495 and they called for the demolition of all buildings within 110 sazhens of the wall. Three square gates existed on this side of the wall, which in the 17th century, were known as, the last two are directly opposite Red Square, while the Konstantino-Elenensky gate was located behind Saint Basils Cathedral. In the early 19th century, the Arch of Konstantino-Elenensky gate was paved with bricks, from this gate, wooden and stone bridges stretched across the moat. Books were sold on this bridge and stone platforms were built nearby for guns – raskats, the Tsar Cannon was located on the platform of the Lobnoye mesto. The square was called Veliky Torg or simply Torg, then Troitskaya by the name of the small Troitskaya Church, after that, the square held the name Pozhar, which means burnt. It was not until 1661–62, when it was first mentioned by its contemporary Krasnaya – Red name, Red Square was the landing stage and trade centre for Moscow. Ivan the Great decreed that trade should only be conducted from person to person, but in time, after a fire in 1547, Ivan the Terrible reorganised the lines of wooden shops on the Eastern side into market lines. The streets Ilyinka and Varvarka were divided into the Upper lines, Middle lines and Bottom lines, after a few years, the Cathedral of Intercession of the Virgin, commonly known as Saint Basils Cathedral, was built on the moat under the rule of Ivan IV. This was the first building which gave the square its present-day characteristic silhouette, in 1595, the wooden market lines were replaced with stone. By that time, a platform for the proclamation of the tsars edicts. Red Square was considered a sacred place, during the expulsion of Poles from Moscow in 1612, Prince Dmitry Pozharsky entered the Kremlin through the square
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Neglinnaya River
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The Neglinnaya River, also known as Neglinka, Neglinna, Neglimna, is a 7. 5-km long underground river in the central part of Moscow and a tributary of the Moskva River. It flows in the tunnels under Samotechnaya Street, Tsvetnoy Boulevard, Neglinnaya Street and Alexander Garden, the Neglinnaya discharges into the Moskva River through two separate tunnels near Bolshoy Kamenny Bridge and Bolshoy Moskvoretsky Bridge. The river in its natural state used to flow openly from the parts of Moscow to the south across the very centre of the city. The Kremlin was built on a hill east of the Neglinnaya, the moat did not stop foreign invasions, but slowed down development of territories west of the Kremlin, initially, the city grew eastward, into Red Square and Kitai-gorod. When Muscovites began settling on the side, territories around the Neglinnaya remained vacant due to frequent flooding. Muscovites constructed a number of dams, creating a chain of six interconnected ponds, used for firefighting, with watermills, forges, workshops, there were four bridges across the Neglinnaya River, Voskresensky Bridge, three-span Kuznetsky Bridge, Troitsky Bridge and Petrovsky Bridge. The first plans to rebuild the Neglinnaya River, presented in 1775, a new masonry canal, one sazhen wide, was laid parallel to the Neglinnaya, after diverting water into the tunnel, builders filled the old river bed with earth. After the Fire of Moscow, the canal was so polluted that the city cleared it and covered with a masonry vault and this also formed present-day Neglinnaya Street and Theatre Square. Before centralised city sewage, the tunnel doubled as a sewer, the first reconstruction replaced part of the tunnel with a larger pipe, but was terminated by World War I. This new pipe, designed by engineer Schekotov, was adequate by any standard, in 1966, the city built a second arm for the Neglinnaya River, cutting the path under Zaryadye. In 1974—1989, after the 1973 flood, the city built a completely new 4-kilometer tunnel,3.47 metres high and 4.90 metres wide, the old tunnel was re-used as a pipe and cable conduit. Present-day ponds on Manezhnaya Square are not the Neglinnaya River, the real river runs too deep to be properly displayed. The area is dotted with statues on subjects taken from Russian fables designed by Zurab Tsereteli. Contractors report with photographs of 1965 flood www. mosinzhproekt. ru Russia Today image gallery
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Alexander Garden
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Alexander Gardens was one of the first urban public parks in Moscow, Russia. The park comprises three separate gardens, which stretch all the length of the western Kremlin wall for 865 metres between the building of the Moscow Manege and the Kremlin. After the Napoleonic Wars, Tsar Alexander I ordered architect Osip Bove to reconstruct parts of the city which had destroyed by French troops. Bove laid out a new garden from 1819-1823, on the site of the riverbed of the Neglinnaya River, towards the main entrance to the park is the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier with an eternal flame brought from the Field of Mars in Leningrad. Post Number One, where the honor sentinels stand on guard, used to be located in front of Lenins Mausoleum, the middle section of the upper garden contains a faux ruined grotto built underneath the Middle Arsenal Tower. Although not constructed until 1841, this was part of Boves original design, the gardens cast iron gate and grille were designed to commemorate the Russian victories over Napoleon, and its rocks are rubble from buildings destroyed during the French occupation of Moscow. In front of the grotto is an obelisk erected on July 101914, the monument made of granite from Finland listed all of the Romanov Tsars and had the coats of arms of the provinces. Originally in the Lower Garden, it was relocated to its present location in 1966, there is discussion to remove Lenins and reinstall an obelisk duplicating the original. The wrought iron grille, enclosing this part of the garden, has a design of fasces, the northern part of the garden is adjacent to the large underground shopping complex at Manege Square. The most prominent feature of the Middle Garden is the outlying Kutafya Tower of the Moscow Kremlin, there is an entrance to the park opposite the tower directly to the Moscow Metro system. Laid out in 1823, the Lower Garden stretches to the leading to the Borovitskaya Tower. Media related to Alexandrovsky Garden, Moscow at Wikimedia Commons
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Kremlin Wall Necropolis
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Burials in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis in Moscow began in November 1917, when 240 pro-Bolshevik victims of the October Revolution were buried in mass graves at Red Square. It is centered on both sides of Lenins Mausoleum, initially built in wood in 1924 and rebuilt in granite in 1929–1930, in 1925–1927 burials in the ground were stopped, funerals were now conducted as burials of cremated ash in the Kremlin wall itself. Burials in the ground only resumed with Mikhail Kalinins funeral in 1946, the practice of burying dignitaries at Red Square ended with the funeral of Konstantin Chernenko in March 1985. The Kremlin Wall Necropolis was designated a landmark in 1974. The moat was lined with a fortress wall, and spanned by three bridges connecting the Kremlin to the posad. From 1776–1787 Matvey Kazakov built the Kremlin Senate that today provides a backdrop for the present-day Necropolis, throughout the 18th century the unused, neglected fortifications deteriorated and were not properly repaired until the 1801 coronation of Alexander I. In one season the moat with bridges and adjacent buildings was replaced with a span of paved square. More reconstruction followed in the 19th century, the stretch of Kremlin wall south from Senate Tower was badly damaged in 1812 by the explosion at the Kremlin Arsenal set off by the retreating French troops. Eventually, the structures of the towers were deemed sound enough to be left in place. Peters bastions were razed, The Kremlin wall facing Red Square was rebuilt shallower than before, in July 1917, hundreds of soldiers of the Russian Northern Front were arrested for mutiny and desertion and locked up in Daugavpils fortress. Later,869 Dvinsk inmates were transported to Moscow, here, the jailed soldiers launched a hunger strike, public support to them threatened to develop in citywide riot. On September 22,593 inmates were released, the rest were left behind bars until the October Revolution, the released soldiers, collectively called Dvintsy, stayed in the city as a cohesive unit, based in Zamoskvorechye District and openly hostile to the ruling Provisional Government. Immediately after the October Revolution in Saint Petersburg, Dvintsy became the force of the Bolsheviks in Moscow. Late at night of October 27–28 a detachment of two hundred men marching north to Tverskaya Street confronted the loyalist forces near the State Historical Museum on the Red Square. In the fighting 70 of the Dvintsy, including their company commander Sapunov, were killed at the barricades, on the following day the loyalists, led by Colonel Konstantin Ryabtsev, succeeded in taking over the Kremlin. They gunned down the surrendered Red soldiers at the Kremlin Arsenal wall, more were killed as the Bolsheviks stormed the Kremlin, finally taking control on the night of November 2–3. Voices reached us across the place, and the sound of picks. Mountains of dirt and rock were piled high near the base of the wall, climbing these we looked down into two massive pits, ten or fifteen feet deep and fifty yards long, where hundreds of soldiers and workers were digging in the light of huge fires
26.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
27.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
28.
Borovitskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
29.
Vodovzvodnaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
30.
Blagoveshenskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
31.
Tainitskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
32.
Pervaya Bezymyannaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
33.
Vtoraya Bezymyannaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
34.
Petrovskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
35.
Beklemishevskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
36.
Konstantino-Eleninskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
37.
Nabatnaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
38.
Tsarskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
39.
Senatskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
40.
Nikolskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
41.
Uglovaya Arsenalnaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
42.
Srednyaya Arsenalnaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
43.
Troitskaya Tower
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The Troitskaya Tower is a tower with a through-passage in the center of the northwestern wall of the Moscow Kremlin, which overlooks the Alexander Garden. The Troitskaya Tower was built in 1495-1499 by an Italian architect Aloisio da Milano, the tower has borne several names, including Rizopolozhenskaya, Znamenskaya, and Karetnaya. It received its current name in 1658 from the Troitskaya Coaching Inn in the Kremlin, the two-story basement of the tower housed a prison in the 16th-17th centuries. There is the Troitsky Bridge, which is protected by the Kutafia Tower, there was also a clock on top of the tower between 1585 and 1812. In 1707, due to a threat of Swedish invasion, the gun slots of the Troitskaya Tower were enlarged to fit heavy cannons, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the Troitskaya Tower. Prior to Soviet rule the tower had an icon of the Holy Trinity atop its outward face, because this tower was the formal entrance for huge Communist Party Congresses the icon was totally removed rather than just plastered over as were those on the Spasskaya and Nikolskaya Towers. The Troitskaya Tower is the tallest tower of the Moscow Kremlin and its current height on the side of the Alexander Garden together with the star is 80 metres. Today, the gate of the tower is the visitors entrance into the Kremlin
44.
Kutafya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
45.
Komendantskaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
46.
Oruzheynaya Tower
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The following is a list of towers of Moscow Kremlin. The Kremlin Wall is a wall that surrounds the Moscow Kremlin, recognizable by the characteristic notches. The original walls were likely a wooden fence with guard towers built in 1156. The Kremlin is flanked by 19 towers with a 20th, the Koutafia Tower, the Borovitskaya Tower is a corner tower with a through-passage on the west side of the Kremlin. It is named after Borovitsky Hill, one of the seven hills Moscow is standing on, the tower was constructed in 1490 on the spot of an old Kremlin gate by Italian architect Pietro Antonio Solari by order of Vasili III of Russia. The new name, however, never became popular, in 1812, the tower was damaged by an explosion staged by the retreating French army. In 1817-19, the tower was restored by architect Osip Bove, in 1935, the Soviets installed a red star on top of the tower. Following the closure of the Spassky Gate in Red Square to all traffic at the end of the 1990s, together with the star, its height is 54.05 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748909°N37. 612520°E /55.748909,37. 612520, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower is a corner tower on the southwestern side of Kremlin, overlooking the Moskva River. It was built in 1488 by an Italian architect Antonio Gislardi, initially, the tower was called the Sviblova Tower after the Sviblov boyar family, who had lived in a house adjacent to the tower from the Kremlins side. The tower was renamed to Vodovzvodnaya in 1633 after the installation of a machine inside the tower. In 1805, the Vodovzvodnaya Tower was dismantled due to its dilapidation, in 1812, the retreating French army blew it up. The tower was restored in 1817-1819 by architect Osip Bove, geographical coordinates,55. 748106°N37. 613647°E /55.748106,37. 613647. The Blagoveschenskaya Tower, known in English as the Annunciation Tower, was erected in 1487-1488, at its foundation are slabs of white limestone that have survived since the time of the white stone Kremlin of the 14th century. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the tower was used as a prison, in the 17th century, the Portomoyniye Gates were built nearby so that palace laundresses could go to the Portomoiny raft on the Moscow River to rinse porty, or underclothes. These gates were bricked up in 1813, the height of the tower is 30.7 metres. Geographical coordinates,55. 748722°N37. 615192°E /55.748722,37. 615192, the Taynitskaya Tower is a middle tower on the south side of the Moscow Kremlin. It was built in 1485 by Antonio Gilardi on the spot of the gates to Dmitry Donskoys whitestone Kremlin, the Taynitskaya Tower had a secret well and an underground tunnel leading to the Moscow River
47.
Kremlin Senate
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The Kremlin Senate is a building within the grounds of the Moscow Kremlin in Russia. Initially constructed from 1776 to 1787, it housed the Moscow branch of the Governing Senate. Currently, it houses the Russian presidential administration and is a secured and restricted area closed to the public. At present, only the southern corner façade, opposite the Tsar Cannon can be viewed, the Kremlin Senate is located in the northern part of the Kremlin grounds, between the Kremlin Arsenal and Kremlin Presidium. It is shaped like a triangle with each side approximately 100 metres in length. The building has three floors and is painted in the yellow color as many other administrative buildings within the Moscow Kremlin. The triangular structure has a courtyard, and is divided by hallways into a central pentahedral portion. In the middle of the main façade is an arched passage fashioned like an arch leading to the inner yard. Inside is Rotunda Hall, once called The Pantheon of Russia and its green dome, carrying the state flag as seen from the Red Square, would later become a Soviet propaganda icon. However, originally it carried a statue of St. George, the exterior styling of the building is an unusual mix of Doric and Ionic order columns. Inside the building, the large “Catherine Hall” is designed as a parade room and this is a circular hall, with a 24.7 meter diameter under extensive bas-relief ornamentation depicting Catherine as the Greek goddess Minerva. The Governing Senate was a created by Tsar Peter the Great in 1711. It had six departments, four of which were in St Petersburg, empress Catherine the Great had been a frequent guest in Moscow at the time when the city, neglected by past monarchs, did not have enough state offices. The site once housed the Trubetskoy family palace and at least three churches, in 1779 Blank was demoted, and Kazakov took the lead. He envisaged Governing Senate as a “Temple of Law”, and designed the structure in a Neoclassical style characterized by symmetry, the building was completed in 1787, with interior work continuing to 1790. According to Ivan Kondratiev, Catherine was so impressed by the building that she gave Kazakov her gloves, saying Ill pay your bills later and she indeed repaid Kazakov with diamonds, promotion and a pension. The building later served as a model for other official buildings in other Russian cities in the late 18th and 19th centuries. Later, in line with reforms of Catherines successors, the building lost its national functions and became the seat of Moscow Regional Court
48.
Kremlin Arsenal
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The Kremlin Arsenal is a former armory built within the grounds of the Moscow Kremlin in Russia. Initially constructed in 1736, it has been several times. It remains in use to date, unlike the Kremlin Armoury, another arsenal within the walls of the Moscow Kremlin. The building is off-limits to tourists, who can view a portion of its short southern façade upon entering the precincts of the Moscow Kremlin, the Kremlin Arsenal is a large elongated trapezoid two-story building with a large courtyard. The two-story building is 24 metres high and 300 metres long on its longest side and its brick walls are painted yellow, as are most other official buildings within the Kremlin. Of note are its two rows of spaced paired arched windows with white limestone frames. Two entrances to the patio on the south and east facades have arched porticos with baroque ornaments, in the Middle Ages, the spot was occupied by granaries. The new building was gutted by a fire in 1737, during Napoleons invasion of Russia, the retreating French soldiers had the central part of the building blown up. It was restored between 1816 and 1828 to a Neoclassical design in order to house a dedicated to the Russian victory over Napoleon. Accordingly, some 875 cannons captured from the retreating Grande Armée were put on display along the walls of the Arsenal. Of these,365 are French,189 are Austrian,123 are Prussian,70 are Italian,40 are Neapolitan,34 are Bavarian, since 1960, Russian carriage-mounted cannons of the 16th and 17th centuries have been displayed along the south wall of the building. The Moscow Kremlin, history of Russias unique monument
