1.
Peninsula
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A peninsula is a piece of land surrounded by water on the majority of its border, while being connected to a mainland from which it extends out. Examples include the upper and lower peninsulas of the state of Michigan, the surrounding water is usually understood to be continuous, though not necessarily named as a single body of water. Peninsulas are not always named as such, one can also be a headland, cape, island promontory, bill, point, a point is generally considered a tapering piece of land projecting into a body of water that is less prominent than a cape. A river which courses through a very tight meander is also said to form a peninsula within the loop of water. In English, the plural of peninsula is peninsulas or, less commonly, peninsulas can be found on coastlines and in smaller bodies of water throughout the world, ranging in scale from square meters to millions of square kilometers. Theres the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe, and in Southern Europe theres the Iberian Peninsula, the Italian Peninsula, south America has the Brunswick Peninsula, and Antarctica has the Antarctic Peninsula. In Africa, theres the Horn of Africa, and in Australia, asia has the 3 largest peninsulas in the world, the Arabian Peninsula, the Indian Peninsula, and the Indochinese Peninsula
2.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
3.
Glacier National Park (U.S.)
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Glacier National Park is a national park located in the U. S. state of Montana, on the Canada–United States border with the Canadian provinces of Alberta and British Columbia. The park encompasses over 1 million acres and includes parts of two ranges, over 130 named lakes, more than 1,000 different species of plants. This vast pristine ecosystem is the centerpiece of what has been referred to as the Crown of the Continent Ecosystem, the region that became Glacier National Park was first inhabited by Native Americans. Upon the arrival of European explorers, it was dominated by the Blackfeet in the east, under pressure the Blackfoot ceded the mountainous parts of their treaty lands in 1895 to the federal government, it later became part of the park. Soon after the establishment of the park on May 11,1910 and these historic hotels and chalets are listed as National Historic Landmarks and a total of 350 locations are on the National Register of Historic Places. The mountains of Glacier National Park began forming 170 million years ago when ancient rocks were forced eastward up, known as the Lewis Overthrust, these sedimentary rocks are considered to have some of the finest fossilized examples of extremely early life found anywhere on Earth. Of the estimated 150 glaciers which existed in the park in the mid-19th century, scientists studying the glaciers in the park have estimated that all the glaciers may disappear by 2030 if the current climate patterns persist. Glacier National Park has almost all its native plant and animal species. Large mammals such as Grizzly bears, moose, and mountain goats, as well as rare or endangered species like wolverines and Canadian lynxes, hundreds of species of birds, more than a dozen fish species, and a few reptile and amphibian species have been documented. The park has numerous ecosystems ranging from prairie to tundra, notably, the easternmost forests of western redcedar and hemlock grow in the southwest portion of the park. Large forest fires are uncommon in the park, however, in 2003 over 13% of the park burned. Both parks were designated by the United Nations as Biosphere Reserves in 1976, according to archeological evidence, Native Americans first arrived in the Glacier area some 10,000 years ago. The earliest occupants with lineage to current tribes were the Flathead and Kootenai, Shoshone, the Blackfeet arrived around the beginning of the 18th century and soon dominated the eastern slopes of what later became the park, as well as the Great Plains immediately to the east. The park region provided the Blackfeet shelter from the winter winds of the plains. Today, the Blackfeet Indian Reservation borders the park in the east, while the Flathead Indian Reservation is located west, when the Blackfeet Reservation was first established in 1855 by the Lame Bull Treaty, it included the eastern area of the current park up to the Continental Divide. This established the current boundary between the park and the reservation, while exploring the Marias River in 1806, the Lewis and Clark Expedition came within 50 miles of the area that is now the park. A series of explorations after 1850 helped to shape the understanding of the area later became the park. In 1885 George Bird Grinnell hired noted explorer James Willard Schultz to guide him on an expedition into what would later become the park
4.
Perth
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Perth is the capital and largest city of the Australian state of Western Australia. It is the fourth-most populous city in Australia, with a population of 2.06 million living in Greater Perth. The first areas settled were on the Swan River, with the central business district. Perth was founded by Captain James Stirling in 1829 as the centre of the Swan River Colony. It gained city status in 1856, and was promoted to the status of a Lord Mayorality in 1929. The city is named after Perth, Scotland, due to the influence of Sir George Murray, Member of Parliament for Perthshire and Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. The citys population increased substantially as a result of the Western Australian gold rushes in the late 19th century, largely as a result of emigration from the eastern colonies of Australia. During Australias involvement in World War II, Fremantle served as a base for operating in the Pacific Theatre. An influx of immigrants after the war, predominantly from Britain, Greece, Italy and Yugoslavia, Aboriginal people have inhabited the Perth area for 38,000 years, as evidenced by archaeological remains at Upper Swan. The Noongar people occupied the southwest corner of Western Australia and lived as hunter-gatherers, the wetlands on the Swan Coastal Plain were particularly important to them, both spiritually and as a source of food. The Noongar people know the area where Perth now stands as Boorloo, Boorloo formed part of Mooro, the tribal lands of Yellagongas group, one of several based around the Swan River and known collectively as the Whadjuk. The Whadjuk were part of a group of fourteen tribes that formed the south-west socio-linguistic block known as the Noongar. The judgment was overturned on appeal, the first documented sighting of the region was made by the Dutch Captain Willem de Vlamingh and his crew on 10 January 1697. The British colony would be officially designated Western Australia in 1832, Captain James Stirling, aboard Parmelia, said that Perth was as beautiful as anything of this kind I had ever witnessed. On 12 August that year, Helen Dance, wife of the captain of the ship, Sulphur. The only contemporary information on the source of the name comes from Fremantles diary entry for 12 August, Murray was born in Perth, Scotland, and was in 1829 Secretary of State for the Colonies and Member for Perthshire in the British House of Commons. The town was named after the Scottish Perth, in Murrays honour, the racial relations between the Noongar people and the Europeans were strained due to these happenings. Because of the amount of building in and around Boorloo
5.
Noongar
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The Noongar are an Indigenous Australian people who live in the south-west corner of Western Australia, from Geraldton on the west coast to Esperance on the south coast. Although Noongar today still recognise the existence of groups, most Noongar today trace their ancestry to more than one of these groups. Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Noongar population has been estimated at between 6,000 and some tens of thousands. Colonisation by the British resulted in violence and new diseases, taking a heavy toll on the population. The 2001 census figures showed that 21,000 people identified themselves as indigenous in the south-west of Western Australia, in 2004, the community claimed to number over 28,000 people. Today, most of the Noongar live in the Perth Metropolitan Region, by 2016, the Swan Valley Noongar Community estimated the number of Noongars to be 46,000. Nuts of the zamia palm were something of a food, though it required extensive treatment to remove its toxicity. Noongar people utilised quartz, replacing chert flint for spear and knife edges from 12,000 years ago, the Noongar people saw the arrival of Europeans as the returning of deceased people. As they approached from the west, they called the newcomers Djanga, there were a number of reasons for this. Although at first the Noongar traded amicably with the settlers, rifts and misunderstandings developed as land seizures went on, an example of such misunderstandings was the Noongar land-management practice of setting fires in early summer, mistakenly seen as an act of hostility by the settlers. Conversely, the Noongar saw the settlers livestock as fair game to replace the dwindling stocks of animals shot indiscriminately by settlers. He was shot by a boy and is now considered by many to have been one of the first indigenous resistance fighters. Matters escalated with conflicts between the settlement of Thomas Peel and the Binjareb people, resulting in the Pinjarra massacre, similarly struggles with Balardong people in the Avon Valley continued until pacified by Lieutenant Henry William St Pierre Bunbury. From August 1838 ten Aboriginal prisoners were sent to Rottnest Island, to pacify the Aboriginal population, men were rounded up and chained for offences ranging from spearing livestock, burning the bush or digging vegetables on what had been their own land. It has been estimated there may be as many as 369 Aboriginal graves on the island. A significant development for the Noongar People in the Western Australian Colony was the arrival of Rosendo Salvado in 1846. Bishop Salvado was a Benedictine monk from the Spanish region of Galicia, in the early part of the Colony New Norcia could be described as a beacon of hope in a sea of despair for the Noongar people. Bishop Salvado brought many Benedictine monks to New Norcia to assist him build the mission, the Aboriginal people were free to come and go from the mission as they chose
6.
Private property
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Private property is a legal designation for the ownership of property by non-governmental legal entities. Private property is distinguishable from public property, which is owned by an entity, and from collective property. Private property is distinguished from personal property, which refers to property for personal use. Private property is a concept defined and enforced by a countrys political system. Prior to the 18th century, English-speakers generally used the property in reference to land ownership. In England, property did not have a legal definition until the 17th century, private property as commercial property was invented with the great European trading companies of the 17th century. John Locke, in arguing against supporters of monarchy, conceptualized property as a natural right that God had not bestowed exclusively on the monarchy. Influenced by the rise of mercantilism, Locke argued that property was antecedent to. Locke distinguished between common property, by which he meant open-access property, and property in goods and producer-goods. His chief argument for property in land was improved land management, smith confined natural rights to liberty and life. Smith further argued that government could not exist without property. Economic liberals consider private property to be essential for the construction of a prosperous society and they believe private ownership of land ensures the land will be put to productive use and its value protected by the landowner. If the owners must pay property taxes, this forces the owners to maintain a productive output from the land to keep taxes current, private property also attaches a monetary value to land, which can be used to trade or as collateral. Private property thus is an important part of capitalization within the economy, socialist economists are critical of private property as socialism aims to substitute private property in the means of production for social ownership or public property. Socialists generally favor social ownership either to eliminate the distinctions between owners and workers, and as a component of the development of a post-capitalist economic system. According to Mises, this problem would make rational socialist calculation impossible, in Marxian economics and socialist politics, there is distinction between private property and personal property. Prior to the 18th century, private property usually referred to land ownership, private property in the means of production is criticized by socialists, who use the term in a different meaning. The socialist critique of private ownership is heavily influenced by the Marxian analysis of capitalist property forms as part of its critique of alienation and exploitation in capitalism
7.
Aquinas College, Perth
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Aquinas College is a Catholic independent, day and boarding school for boys at Salter Point, Perth, Western Australia. Its sister school is Santa Maria Ladies College in Attadale, Perth, Aquinas opened in 1938, when boarders and day students from Christian Brothers College moved to the new campus at Salter Point. The history of Aquinas begins with CBC Perth which was founded in 1894 in the centre of Perth, Aquinas was the beneficiary of CBC Perth history, honours and achievements for the period 1894-1937. The campus at Aquinas was built on elevated land which is part of the 62-hectare site at Salter Point, Beginning in 2014, Aquinas will progressively add classes from Kindergarten to Year 3, and by 2017 the college will be K-12. School fees range from $5,937 for a Kindergarten day student to $46,404 for a Year 12 international boarding student, the campus includes expansive sporting grounds, and boarding facilities for 210 students. CBC Perth was built on the corner of St Georges Terrace, the college was also commonly called CBC Terrace. CBC Perth was the first Christian Brothers school as well as the second oldest high school, the Brothers were invited to the colony by Bishop Matthew Gibney who knew of the work of the Brothers in Ireland, England, and in the eastern colonies of Australia. At first, CBC Perth was a day school, however, due to the rapid population growth in Western Australia during the gold rush, the Christian Brothers were pressured to allow boarders to live in makeshift conditions at the college. The first boarding students were enrolled in June 1896, accommodation at the site was very limited and overcrowded. In 1917, Brother Paul Nunan, headmaster of the college, at first, the brothers entered into negotiations for the purchase of 8 hectares at Point Heathcote on the Swan River. The negotiations fell through and in 1928 the brothers purchased 95 hectares on the Canning River, just east of the Riverton Bridge, the following year the Great Depression started and plans to develop this site were shelved. In April 1937, builders Snooks and Sons successfully tendered to build the college at a cost of ₤21,350. Earlier that year, the work of clearing the grounds and preparing the site was taken up vigorously with squads of boys from the old college playing a major role, in 1937, CBC Perth began to splinter. Boarders and some day boys started moving to the fast developing Aquinas College campus at Salter Point, in 1937, the PSA committee agreed to transfer PSA membership and records of CBC Perth to Aquinas. Although CBC Perth continued as a day school until 1961, Aquinas inherited the college colours red and black, as well as the honour boards, achievements. The inheritance was largely due to the efforts of Brother C. P. Foley who was headmaster of CBC Perth. Brother Foley was steadfast Aquinas was not a new Christian Brothers school, the brothers obeyed and in the ensuring schism the heritage of CBC Perth was removed. CBC Perth was no longer a member of the PSA, the colours of CBC Perth became blue, light blue, and green, and the college raised new honour boards from 1938 onwards
8.
Western Australia
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Western Australia is a state occupying the entire western third of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Great Australian Bight and Southern Ocean to the south, the state has about 2.6 million inhabitants, around 11% of the national total. 92% of the lives in the south-west corner of the state. The first European visitor to Western Australia was the Dutch explorer Dirk Hartog, the first European settlement of Western Australia occurred following the landing by Major Edmund Lockyer on 26 December 1826 of an expedition on behalf of the New South Wales colonial government. This was followed by the establishment of the Swan River Colony in 1829, including the site of the present-day capital, york was the first inland settlement in Western Australia. Situated 97 kilometres east of Perth, it was settled on 16 September 1831, Western Australia achieved responsible government in 1890, and federated with the other British colonies in Australia in 1901. Today its economy relies on mining, agriculture and tourism. The state produces 46% of Australias exports, Western Australia is the second-largest iron ore producer in the world. The International Hydrographic Organization designates the body of water south of the continent as part of the Indian Ocean, the total length of the states eastern border is 1,862 km. There are 20,781 km of coastline, including 7,892 km of island coastline, the total land area occupied by the state is 2.5 million km2. Most of the state is a low plateau with an elevation of about 400 metres, very low relief. This descends relatively sharply to the plains, in some cases forming a sharp escarpment. The extreme age of the landscape has meant that the soils are remarkably infertile, even soils derived from granitic bedrock contain an order of magnitude less available phosphorus and only half as much nitrogen as soils in comparable climates in other continents. Soils derived from extensive sandplains or ironstone are even less fertile, nearly devoid of soluble phosphate and also deficient in zinc, copper, molybdenum, the infertility of most of the soils has required heavy application by farmers of chemical fertilisers, particularly superphosphate, insecticides and herbicides. These have resulted in damage to invertebrate and bacterial populations, the grazing and use of hoofed mammals and, later, heavy machinery through the years have resulted in compaction of soils and great damage to the fragile soils. Large-scale land clearing for agriculture has damaged habitats for native flora, large areas of the states wheatbelt region have problems with dryland salinity and the loss of fresh water. The southwest coastal area has a Mediterranean climate and it was originally heavily forested, including large stands of karri, one of the tallest trees in the world. This agricultural region is one of the nine most bio-diverse terrestrial habitats, thanks to the offshore Leeuwin Current, the area is one of the top six regions for marine biodiversity and contains the most southerly coral reefs in the world
9.
Canning River (Western Australia)
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The Canning River is a major tributary of the Swan River in south western Western Australia. The crew subsequently named the mouth Entrée Moreau after Charles Moreau, convicts partly constructed and maintained the Canning River Convict Fence. This structure is still a landmark to this day. It was built primarily for the use of barges carrying timber from Masons Timber Mill in the Darling Ranges, the river is home to much wildlife including dolphins, pelicans, swans and many other bird species. Algal blooms occur naturally in the Canning River system, they are caused by a buildup of nutrients in the river, human activities including farming, residential gardens and parklands are the major causes of increases in levels, the blooms are potentially toxic to both mammal and marine life. The Swan River Trust monitors the levels of nutrients and growth of the algae issuing warnings, the Trust also operates cleanup programs to reduce the amount of nutrients reaching the river, as well phosphorus removal and oxygenation in areas were blooms have been identified. However, it is possible that Azolla carpets can cause deoxygenation, head of the River Mount Henry Canning Dam Canning River Regional Park Islands of Perth, Western Australia Brearley, Anne. Ernest Hodgkins Swanland, estuaries and coastal lagoons of South-western Australia, university of Western Australia Press for the Ernest Hodgkin Trust for Estuary Education and Research and National Trust of Australia. Canning River Regional Park, Western Australia, historical survey, Perth, W. A. Dept. of Planning and Urban Development. Along the Canning, A History of the City of Canning Western Australia, Covering its progress from Roads Board to Shire, to Town, to City City of Canning
10.
Mount Henry Bridge
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At 660 metres long, it is the longest road bridge in Western Australia. It spans the river between the Mount Henry Peninsula and the suburb of Brentwood, the bridge was constructed as part of the extension of the Kwinana Freeway carried out in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The bridge was opened in 1982, the construction contractor was Clough, and the project manager for Main Roads WA was Geoff Smith. Between 2004 and 2006, the Mount Henry Bridge was widened and strengthened to accommodate the tracks of the Perth Southern Suburbs Railway, the widening was carried out by adding an independent structure, which overlaps the original bridge. The original bridge is of post-tensioned concrete and it has nine spans with a total length of 660 metres. The deck width is 28.8 metres, in cross section it is a double box-section, with the upper deck carrying traffic, and cantilevers at the bottom of the box carrying pedestrian / cycle paths. The bridge was constructed segmentally, using a cantilever construction method. The original bridge carried three lanes of traffic in each direction, with two pedestrian / cycle paths on cantilevers at the lower level, to accommodate the new Southern Suburbs Railway, the bridge was widened and strengthened between 2004 and 2006. Under the new arrangement, the bridge carries three southbound traffic lanes and the two railway tracks. The new structure carries the three traffic lanes. Because of the requirements, load limitations and limited site space at the approaches. The upper east side cantilever sits above the upper west side cantilever of the original structure, the foundations of the new bridge are independent of the original, with each pier comprising two columns tapering from bottom to top. The new bridge was constructed by incremental launching, the design team comprised Wyche Consultants, GHD and Coffey Geosciences
11.
Salter Point, Western Australia
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Salter Point is a suburb of Perth, Western Australia, located in the City of South Perth local government area. Around 1880, Samuel August Salter worked as a sawyer and timber contractor on the peninsula, at the time, the area was completely undeveloped, surrounded by dense bush with no road access. Salter established a stage on the point known as Salters Landing. To which timber logs could be floated from where they were cut in Kelmscott, Salter operated his business from this location for several years leading to the area being renamed Salter Point. Samuel August Salter son of British migrants Samuel & Sarah Salter, Hannah Buckingham married Thomas Buckingham in 1871 and lived in Kelmscott. The foreshore along the Canning river has been studied for management plans Como high school - public co-educational high school, aquinas College – private boys college, years 4–12. Manning Primary school, co-educational public primary school, ages 5–12 St Pius X – private co-educational primary school, florey, Peninsula city, a social history of the City of South Perth, City of South Perth,1995, p. 125-6. Heritage Council of Western Australia, Page 4 Documentary Evidence City of South Perth Municipal Heritage Inventory Origin and Meaning of Street and Place Names Updated September 2005 Page 87 -88
12.
Hectare
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The hectare is an SI accepted metric system unit of area equal to 100 ares and primarily used in the measurement of land as a metric replacement for the imperial acre. An acre is about 0.405 hectare and one hectare contains about 2.47 acres, in 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the are was defined as 100 square metres and the hectare was thus 100 ares or 1⁄100 km2. When the metric system was further rationalised in 1960, resulting in the International System of Units, the are was not included as a recognised unit. The hectare, however, remains as a non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI units, the metric system of measurement was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government. At the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889 when a new standard metre, manufactured by Johnson Matthey & Co of London was adopted, in 1960, when the metric system was updated as the International System of Units, the are did not receive international recognition. The units that were catalogued replicated the recommendations of the CGPM, many farmers, especially older ones, still use the acre for everyday calculations, and convert to hectares only for official paperwork. Farm fields can have long histories which are resistant to change, with names such as the six acre field stretching back hundreds of years. The names centiare, deciare, decare and hectare are derived by adding the standard metric prefixes to the base unit of area. The centiare is a synonym for one square metre, the deciare is ten square metres. The are is a unit of area, equal to 100 square metres and it was defined by older forms of the metric system, but is now outside of the modern International System of Units. It is commonly used to measure real estate, in particular in Indonesia, India, and in French-, Portuguese-, Slovakian-, Serbian-, Czech-, Polish-, Dutch-, in Russia and other former Soviet Union states, the are is called sotka. It is used to describe the size of suburban dacha or allotment garden plots or small city parks where the hectare would be too large, the decare is derived from deka, the prefix for 10 and are, and is equal to 10 ares or 1000 square metres. It is used in Norway and in the former Ottoman areas of the Middle East, the hectare, although not strictly a unit of SI, is the only named unit of area that is accepted for use within the SI. The United Kingdom, United States, Burma, and to some extent Canada instead use the acre, others, such as South Africa, published conversion factors which were to be used particularly when preparing consolidation diagrams by compilation. In many countries, metrication redefined or clarified existing measures in terms of metric units, non-SI units accepted for use with the International System of Units
13.
Banksia attenuata
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Banksia attenuata, commonly known as the candlestick banksia, slender banksia or biara as known by the Noongar aboriginal people, is a species of plant in the family Proteaceae. Commonly a tree, it reaches 10 m high, but is often a shrub in drier areas 0.4 to 2 m high. It has long serrated leaves and bright yellow inflorescences, or flower spikes, held above the foliage. The flower spikes age to grey and swell with the development of the woody follicles and it is found across much of the southwest of Western Australia, from north of Kalbarri National Park down to Cape Leeuwin and across to Fitzgerald River National Park. Within the genus Banksia, the relationships and exact position of B. attenuata is unclear. The candlestick banksia is pollinated by and provides food for an array of animals in summer months. Several species of honeyeater visit the flower spikes, as does the honey possum and it regenerates from bushfire by regrowing from its woody base known as a lignotuber, or from epicormic buds within its trunk. Plants may have a lifespan of 300 years and it has been widely used as a street tree and for amenities planting in urban Western Australia, though its large size generally precludes use in small gardens. A dwarf form is available in nurseries. Banksia attenuata is generally encountered as a tree up to 10 m tall, in the north of its range as the climate becomes warmer and dryer, it is often a stunted multistemmed shrub 0.4 to 2 m tall. Both forms occur in the vicinity of Hill River but there is otherwise a marked demarcation, in the Wheatbelt and east of the Stirling Range, it is a stunted tree. Tree forms have a trunk, generally wavy or bent. It regenerates from fire via lignotuber or epicormic buds from its fire-tolerant trunk and it has long narrow shiny green linear leaves 4 to 27 cm long and 0.5 to 1.6 cm wide. The leaf margins have v- or u-shaped serrations along their length, the new growth is a pale grey-green, and occurs mainly in the late spring and summer, often after flowering. The brilliant yellow inflorescences occur from spring into summer and are up 5 cm wide, anthesis proceeds up the flower spike over about 10 to 20 days, and is asynchronous. That is, a plant produces flower spikes over a week period. Often bright green in bud stage, they are terminal, occurring at the ends of one- to three-year-old branches, the smell of the open flowers has been likened to a peppery Shiraz wine. Over time, the fade to brown and then grey
14.
Banksia menziesii
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Banksia menziesii, commonly known as firewood banksia, is a species of flowering plant in the genus Banksia. It is a tree up to 10 m tall, or a lower spreading 1–3 m shrub in the more northern parts of its range. The serrated leaves are green with new growth a paler grey green. First described by the botanist Robert Brown in the early 19th century and it is found in Western Australia, from the Perth region north to the Murchison River, and generally grows on sandy soils, in scrubland or low woodland. Banksia menziesii provides food for an array of invertebrate and vertebrate animals, birds. Banksia menziesii is widely used in the cut flower industry both in Australia and overseas, in the shrub form, several stems arise from the woody base known as the lignotuber. The trunk is greyish, sometimes with shades of brown or pink, the new growth is covered in fine brownish hair, which wears away after two or three years, leaving smooth stems and leaves. Stems that will bear flower spikes the following year are generally thicker and longer, oblong in shape and somewhat truncate at the tips, the leaves are grey-green in colour, 8–25 cm long and up to 4 cm wide. The new leaves are paler and finely downy, the leaf margins are serrated with many small 1–2 mm long triangular teeth. The lower surface of the leaf has a midrib covered in pale brown hair. Flowering occurs in autumn and winter, peaking from May to July, overall the inflorescences, or flower spikes, take around eight months to development from the first microscopic changes in late spring. Ovoid to cylindrical in shape, the spikes can be up to 7–8 cm wide. They are particularly striking closeup but can look indistinct from a distance and they are most attractive in late bud, the styles contrasting well to the body of the inflorescence, the whole looking like a red- or pink-and white vertical candy striped bloom. The inflorescences are generally a red after colder weather and further into the winter. Anthocyanin pigments are responsible for the red and pink shades in the flowers, old flowers usually fall off the spikes quickly, with up to 25 large beaked follicles developing. A mottled dark brown and grey in colour, these can be prominent, oval shaped, they are 2. 5–3.5 cm long by 1–1.5 cm high and 1–1.5 cm wide. Overall, only a fraction of flowers develop into follicles. The plant is dependent on fire to reproduce as the only open after being burnt
15.
Congregation of Christian Brothers
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The Congregation of Christian Brothers is a worldwide religious community within the Catholic Church, founded by Edmund Rice. The Christian Brothers, as they are known, chiefly work for the evangelisation and education of youth. Their first school was opened in Waterford, Ireland, in 1802, rices congregation is sometimes called the Irish Christian Brothers or the Edmund Rice Christian Brothers to differentiate the two teaching orders. At the turn of the century, Waterford merchant Edmund Rice considered travelling to Rome to join a religious institute. Instead, with the support of Dr. Thomas Hussey, Catholic bishop of the Diocese of Waterford and Lismore, he decided to found a religious community dedicated to teaching disadvantaged youth. The first school, on Waterfords New Street, was a stable and opened in 1802. Two men from his hometown of Callan, Thomas Grosvenor and Patrick Finn, soon arrived to aid Rice in his makeshift schools, with the intention of living the life of lay brothers. In the same year, Rice used proceeds from the sale of his business to begin building a community house. Bishop Hussey opened the new complex, christened “Mount Sion” on June 7,1803, the reputation of the school spread and across the next few years several men sought to become “Michaels”. On 15 August 1808 seven men, including Edmund Rice, took religious promises under Bishop John Power of Waterford, following the example of Nano Nagles Presentation Sisters, they were called Presentation Brothers. This was one of the first congregations of men to be founded in Ireland, houses were soon opened in Carrick-on-Suir, Dungarvan, and in 1811, in Cork. In 1812 the Archbishop of Dublin established a community in the capital and by 1907 there were ten communities in Dublin. The schools included primary, secondary and technical schools, along with orphanages, a community was founded in Limerick in 1816, followed by establishments in several of Irelands principal towns. The Holy See formally established the congregation in 1820 and this, too, was an unusual event, since the Christian Brothers were the first Irish congregation of men approved by a charter from Rome. Some brothers in Cork chose to remain under the original Presentation rule and continued to be known as Presentation Brothers, the congregation of Irish Christian Brothers spread to Liverpool and other parts of England. These new ventures were not always immediately successful, two brothers had been sent to Gibraltar to establish an institute in 1835. However, despite initial successes they left in August 1837 on account of disagreements with the local priests, in 1878 the Brothers returned to the then Crown colony of Gibraltar. The school eventually flourished supplying education to the twentieth century, the Line Wall College was noted in 1930 for the education that it supplied to well to do children
16.
City of South Perth
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The City of South Perth is a local government area in the inner southern suburbs of the Western Australian capital city of Perth about 4 kilometres south of Perths central business district. The City covers an area of 19.9 square kilometres, maintains 203 kilometres of roads and a little over 4.3 km² of parks and gardens, the area broadly forms a peninsula, being bounded on three sides by the waters of the Swan and Canning rivers. The South Perth Road District was formed on 9 June 1892 and it then reverted to a road district on 1 March 1922, but regained municipality status on 1 March 1956. It was granted city status on 1 July 1959, a poll took place during January–February 2015, with the question, Should the City of South Perth and the Town of Victoria Park be abolished and amalgamated to form a new local government. The informally suggested name for the new entity was City of South Park. At the conclusion of the poll at 6. 00pm on 7 February 2015, although only 38. 02% of the Town of Victoria Parks 20,136 electors voted, of those, a clear majority voted against the proposal. However, with more than 50% poll returns, the City of South Perth response was sufficient to cancel the amalgamation of local governments. The City of South Perth is divided into six wards, each of whom elect two councillors, the following table contains the suburbs and their median house price. The City of South Perth is home to primary schools. The two libraries have in excess of 70,000 items over both locations, a regular events program run throughout the year is designed to educate and entertain all ages. Library Website The City of South Perth Local History Collection is a source of knowledge, ideas, the collection provides and preserves information about the suburbs of South Perth, Como, Kensington, Manning, Karawara and Salter Point. Picture South Perth is a collection of historic images dating back to the 1870s that showcases the people, places. It contains images from the City of South Perths Local History Collection which have been scanned and catalogued by dedicated library staff, picture South Perth The History of South Perth, by F K Crowley. Rigby Limited 1962 Peninsula City, by Cecil Florey, City of South Perth 1995 Official website
17.
Register of the National Estate
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The Register of the National Estate was a heritage register that listed natural and cultural heritage places in Australia that was closed in 2007. It has been replaced by the Australian National Heritage List and the Commonwealth Heritage List, the register was initially compiled between 1976 and 2003 by the Australian Heritage Commission, after which the register was maintained by the Australian Heritage Council. The expression national estate was first used by the British architect Clough Williams-Ellis and it was incorporated into the Australian Heritage Commission Act and is used to describe a collection of buildings and sites that are worthy of preservation for a variety of reasons. It covers natural environments as well as European history and Aboriginal culture, anyone could suggest that a certain site should be listed on the Register of the National Estate. A nomination form was provided and was submitted to an expert group for evaluation. If a place was accepted for listing, the nomination is declared in the Commonwealth Gazette, the Heritage Council eventually made a decision after the public has had time to comment and raise possible objections. The listing, if it took place, was based on an assessment of the values of the place, whether aesthetic, historic, scientific, or social significance. The listing did not impose any legal obligations on private owners, companies, the Australian Heritage Council had to be consulted if any government wanted to take a course of action that might have an adverse effect on a listed subject. The Council itself could not make decisions on a course of action. The Register of the National Estate was frozen in February 2007
18.
Clontarf Aboriginal College
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Clontarf Aboriginal College is the current name of a former orphanage for boys operated by the Christian Brothers organisation in the Perth suburb of Waterford in Western Australia. Opening in 1901, the facility has been used for a number of purposes since, most notably as an orphanage but also as a convent and as a day, during World War II it was used as a training school for the Royal Australian Air Force. Through its history, it has housed and educated day boys and boarders, orphans, vagrants, children from disadvantaged families, child migrants, since 1986 it has been a co-educational Aboriginal College for Indigenous Australian youth aged between 15 and 18 years. From 2000 the College has also been the centre for the Clontarf Football Academy run by the Clontarf Foundation a program of Australian rules football for indigenous youth. The estate is situated on the banks of the Canning River between the river and Manning Road, east of Elderfield Road. Curtin University of Technology is nearby and it was expanded several times over the years through purchases of adjoining land and ultimately occupied over 80 hectares. From 1981 large portions of the property were subdivided and became the suburb of Waterford. Clontarf, Ireland, was the site of the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 which saw the defeat of the Vikings by Brian Boru, in 1897, the Christian Brothers assumed control of the Sisters of Mercy orphanage in Subiaco which housed 81 boys. Shortly after, the Brothers located and acquired land on the banks of the Canning River near present-day Manning, the Bishop of Perth, The Most Rev. Dr. Matthew Gibney, laid the foundation stone for the new building in 1901. Originally named St Josephs Boys Orphanage, the first building was completed in September 1901, the Superior was Brother Kevin Ryan and other Brothers Bodkin and OConnor also assisted. Various other buildings including a bakehouse, laundry, store-room and toilets were soon constructed, sometime later it was renamed to St Peters Intermediate Orphanage. By 1919, Brother Paul Keaney joined the staff and it known as Clontarf Boys Orphanage. In 1927, access to the community was improved after a road from Canning Bridge through to Albany Highway was constructed, originally called Clontarf Road, this is now known as Manning Road. By the 1930s Clontarf was almost self-sufficient with an orchard and vegetable garden as well as a dairy, poultry yard. It housed between 100 and 150 boys, usually aged between six and fourteen years, Boys received a primary school education, religious teaching and training in basic manual skills and farm practices. Government funding for the boys was withdrawn at the age of fourteen which was when most boys left, between 1936 and 1942, Brother Keaney served a second period as Superior during which he introduced an apprenticeship scheme that provided the boys with trade skills. Many buildings were constructed during the period using the boys as labourers and it is estimated that 300,000 bricks were laid by the boys for a new chapel which was built and consecrated in 1941 by Archbishop Redmond Prendiville. Other tasks done by the boys included roof tiling and carpentry work, in 1941 the orphanage was renamed Clontarf Boys Town and around that time started taking orphans from Britain
19.
Banksia
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Banksia is a genus of around 170 species in the plant family Proteaceae. These Australian wildflowers and popular garden plants are easily recognised by their characteristic flower spikes and fruiting cones, Banksias range in size from prostrate woody shrubs to trees up to 30 metres tall. They are found in a variety of landscapes, sclerophyll forest, rainforest, shrubland. Heavy producers of nectar, banksias are a part of the food chain in the Australian bush. They are an important food source for all sorts of animals, including birds, bats, rats, possums, stingless bees. Furthermore, they are of importance to Australias nursery and cut flower industries. However these plants are threatened by a number of processes including land clearing, frequent burning and disease, Banksias grow as trees or woody shrubs. Trees of the largest species, B. integrifolia and B. seminuda, often grow over 15 metres tall, Banksia species that grow as shrubs are usually erect, but there are several species that are prostrate, with branches that grow on or below the soil. The leaves of Banksia vary greatly between species, sizes vary from the narrow, 1–1½ centimetre long needle-like leaves of B. ericifolia, to the very large leaves of B. grandis, which may be up to 45 centimetres long. The leaves of most species have serrated edges, but a few, such as B. integrifolia, leaves are usually arranged along the branches in irregular spirals, but in some species they are crowded together in whorls. Many species have differing juvenile and adult leaves, the character most commonly associated with Banksia is the flower spike, an elongated inflorescence consisting of a woody axis covered in tightly-packed pairs of flowers attached at right angles. A single flower spike generally contains hundreds or even thousands of flowers, thus fewer than half of the currently accepted Banksia taxa possess the elongated flower spike long considered characteristic of the genus. Banksia flowers are usually a shade of yellow, but orange, red, pink, the colour of the flowers is determined by the colour of the perianth parts and often the style. The style is longer than the perianth, and is initially trapped by the upper perianth parts. These are gradually released over a period of days, either from top to bottom or from bottom to top, when the styles and perianth parts are different colours, the visual effect is of a colour change sweeping along the spike. This can be most spectacular in B. prionotes and related species, in most cases, the individual flowers are tall, thin saccate in shape. Occasionally, multiple flower spikes can form and this is most often seen in Banksia marginata and B. ericifolia. As the flower spikes or heads age, the flower parts dry up and may turn shades of orange, tan or dark brown colour, before fading to grey over a period of years
20.
Eucalyptus gomphocephala
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Eucalyptus gomphocephala is a species of tree, also known as Tuart, in the genus Eucalyptus, the Noongar peoples know the tree as Moorun, Mouarn, Tooart or Tuart. Native to the southwest of Western Australia the tree grows to over 35m tall, as a durable hardwood the timber is sought after for scantlings, structural timber, the construction of railway carriages, and boat building. The colouring and grain pattern of the timber also makes it a choice for furniture manufactures. The Tuart has box-like rough bark through the length of the trunk to small twigs, leaves are stalked, alternate, lanceolate or falcate to 12 x 2 cm, slightly discolorous to concolorous, glossy, light green and thin. White flowers appear in mid summer to mid autumn, the distribution range of the species is a narrow coastal corridor within the Swan Coastal Plain, extending inland five to ten kilometres, a continuous strip south from Yanchep to Busselton. Outlying patches of the tree are found to the north of Yanchep, Tuart Forest National Park Bryant, Geoff Australian Native Plants Random House ISBN 978-1-74166-030-2 Johnston, Judith The History of the Tuart Forest - pp. 136–153 in de Garis, B. K. Portraits of the South West, Aborigines, Women and the Environment Nedlands, Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife
21.
Corymbia calophylla
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Corymbia calophylla, also known as Eucalyptus calophylla, is a bloodwood native to Western Australia. Common names include marri and Port Gregory gum, and a long-standing usage has been red gum due to the red gum effusions often found on trunks and it is distinctive among bloodwoods for its very large buds and fruit, colloquially honky nuts, in Western Australia. The Noongar peoples know the tree as gardan, kurrden, mahree, marri, the tree, or rarely mallee, typically grows to a height of 40 metres but can reach as a high as 60 metres. It has rough tessellated grey-brown to red-brown bark that extends over the length of the trunk, adult leaves are disjunct, glossy, green, thick and concolorous with a broad lanceolate to ovate shape that is basally tapered or basally rounded. The leaf blade is 9 to 14 centimetres long and 25 to 40 millimetres wide, the leaf petioles are narrowly flattened or channelled and 15 to 20 mm long. It blooms between December and May producing white to pink flowers, the terminal compound conflorescence composed of three to seven flowered regular umbellasters on terete or angular peduncles. Buds form that are clavate and 7 to 14 mm in length and with a diameter of 7 to 10 mm with a calyptrate calyx, the fruits or gumnuts form later and can remain on the tree for a year or more. They are ovoid to urceolate in shape, pedicellate, and 30 to 50 mm long with a 25 to 40 mm diameter, the large nuts produced carry large seeds which are an important food source for native bird species such as cockatoos. The tree propagates readily from seeds, in 2009, Parra-O and colleagues published a combined analysis of nuclear rDNA and morphological characters published to clarify relationships within the genus Corymbia. C. calophylla was found to form a group with two other Western Australian species C. ficifolia and C. haematoxylon. They classified the group as section Calophyllae within the subgenus Corymbia and it is related and somewhat similar to the red-flowering gum. C. calophylla differs in being larger, having very much larger buds and fruit. However, in some areas hybridisation makes identification difficult, marri is widely distributed in the South West region of Western Australia, from north of Geraldton to Cape Riche, and inland beyond Narrogin. It is found on the Swan Coastal Plain and on the Darling Scarp showing its adaptability to the different environments and it will grow on comparatively poor soil, but good specimens are considered an indicator of the better agricultural soils. Marri timber is increasingly featured in modern household furniture, the timber is honey coloured and has a unique vein structure. However, it is not used in construction as the structure exhibits complex faults. Marri trees played a significant role in Nyoongar culture, the red gum, mayat, which oozes from the tree, contains tannin, which has antiseptic qualities. The marri is used to make a variety of objects like doarks, kitjs, additionally, the blossoms from the marri can be used as a source of honey, which can be sucked directly from the flower or can be dipped into water to make a sweet drink
22.
Eucalyptus marginata
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Jarrah is a tree which sometimes grows to a height of 40 m high with a trunk up to 3 m in diameter. Older specimens have a lignotuber and have roots that extend down as far as 40 m and it is a stringybark with rough, greyish-brown, vertically grooved, fibrous bark which sheds in long flat strips. The leaves are arranged alternately along the branches, narrow lance-shaped, often curved, 8–13 cm long and 1. 5–3 cm broad, shiny green above. There is a distinct midvein, spreading lateral veins and a marginal vein separated from the margin, the stalked flower buds are arranged in umbels of between 4 and 8, each bud with a narrow, conical cap 5–9 mm long. The flowers 1–2 cm in diameter, with white stamens and bloom in spring. The fruit are spherical to barrel-shaped, and 9–20 mm long, Eucalyptus marginata was first formally described in 1802 by James Edward Smith, whose description was published in Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. Smith noted that his specimens had grown from seeds brought from Port Jackson, the specific epithet is a Latin word meaning furnished with a border. Smith did not provide an etymology for the epithet but did note that and it is found inland as far as Mooliabeenee, Clackline and Narrogin and in the south as far east as the Stirling Range. Its northern limit is Mount Peron near Jurien Bay but there are also outliers at Kulin and Tutanning in the Pingelly Shire. The plant often takes the form of a mallee in places like Mount Lesueur and in the Stirling Range but it is usually a tree and it typically grows in soils derived from ironstone and is generally found within its range, wherever ironstone is present. Jarrah is an important element in its ecology, providing habitats for animal life – especially birds and bees – while it is alive. When it falls, it provides shelter to ground-dwellers such as the chuditch, Jarrah has shown considerable adaptation to different ecologic zones – as in the Swan Coastal Plain and further north, and also to a different habitat of the lateritic Darling Scarp. Jarrah is very vulnerable to dieback, the oomycete Phytophthora cinnamomi, in large sections of the Darling Scarp there have been various measures to reduce the spread of dieback by washing down vehicles, and restricting access to areas of forest not yet infected. Jarrah produces a dark, thick, tasty honey, but its wood is its main use and it is a heavy wood, with a specific gravity of 1.1 when green. Its long, straight trunks of richly coloured and beautifully grained termite-resistant timber make it valuable for making, flooring, panelling. The finished lumber has a deep rich colour and an attractive grain. When fresh, jarrah is quite workable but when seasoned it becomes so hard that conventional wood-working tools are near useless on it and it is very durable and water resistant, making it a choice structural material for bridges, wharves, railway sleepers, ship building and telegraph poles. Jarrah wood is similar to that of Karri, Eucalyptus diversicolor
23.
Nuytsia
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Nuytsia floribunda is a hemiparasitic plant found in Western Australia. The species is known locally as the Christmas tree, displaying bright flowers during the Christmas season, the Noongar names for the plant are moojar, moojerool, munjah and mutyal. The habit of the species is a tree up to 10 metres high, flowers are a vivid yellow-orange, appearing between October and January. It is a hemiparasite, is photosynthetic and mainly obtains water. The haustoria arising from the roots of Nuytsia attach themselves to roots of nearby plants and draw water. Almost all species are susceptible to attack, haustoria have even been found attached to underground cables, in natural settings Nuytsia withdraws relatively little from each individual host, but is attached to so many other plants that the benefit to this hemiparasitic tree is likely to be considerable. The botanist Robert Brown published a remark on the species in 1831, the description was published by George Don using Browns name Nuytsia, an epithet that commemorates the seventeenth-century Dutch explorer and colonial official Pieter Nuyts. A member of the Loranthaceae, a family composed almost entirely of epiphytic mistletoes within the Santalales, Nuytsia floribunda is well known in Southwest Australia, where it is named the Christmas tree, the common name outside of this region is Western Australian Christmas tree. The appearance of abundant flowers in summer is a spectacular display and it appears on a variety of soil types throughout Southwest Australia, the distribution of the species extends to the east of the Esperance Plain and to the north on the Geraldton Sandplains. The Nyungar people made use of the species during the season Kambarang, around October to early December, the gum that exudes from the wound can be collected later, it is sweet and eaten raw. The description of the flower as the Christmas tree has long established. Nuytsia – The Western Australian Herbarium journal Metrosideros excelsa, New Zealand Christmas tree Association of Societies for Growing Australian Plants Nuytsia floribunda Nuytsia floribunda, Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife. Thomas Göbel, Heilpflanzen gegen Krebs und Psychose, Nuytsia Floribunda und Viscum Album, verlag Freies Geistesleben, Stuttgart/Germany 2004, ISBN 3-7725-2230-0 Media related to Nuytsia floribunda at Wikimedia Commons
24.
Juncus kraussii
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Juncus kraussii commonly known as salt marsh rush, sea rush, jointed rush, matting rush or dune slack rush, is of the monocot family Juncaceae and genus Juncus. It grows in Salt marshes, estuarine and coastal areas and this species is ideal as a stabilizer in estuary banks and riparian zones that adjoin developed areas it prevents erosion and provides an excellent fibre for weaving. The plant is named after a German naturalist and museum curator, Christian Krauss and this species is a tussock shaped perennial with many rhizomes. The leaves are tough, straw shaped and spine-tipped that grow to be 40 centimetres -150 centimetres in length with a brown or shiny black sheath. The inflorescences or flowers of J. kraussii are reddish brown to brown in colour,4 centimetres -20 centimetres in length and are clustered toward the end of the stem. The flowers occur clusters of three to six and flowering occurs in Summer between October and January, the species occurs in all states of Australia, Southern Africa and South America. J. kraussii is salt tolerant and favours a damp environment and is most often found in such as swamps. The plant is able to grow in a range of soils from sands to alluvium, J. kraussii is harvested and weaved to produce traditional sleeping mats, baskets, beer strainers, and other craftwork items in many Zulu areas of South Africa. The plant is in demand because of its economic value and has been extensively harvested in the wild. It is now cultivated in areas and is harvested yearly for a period of seven years in total
25.
Phytophthora cinnamomi
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Phytophthora cinnamomi is a soil-borne water mould that produces an infection which causes a condition in plants called root rot or dieback. The plant pathogen is one of the worlds most invasive species and is present in over 70 countries around the world, Phytophthora cinnamomi lives in the soil and in plant tissues, can take different shapes and can move in water. During periods of environmental conditions, the organisms become dormant chlamydospores. When environmental conditions are suitable, the chlamydospores germinate, producing mycelia and sporangia, the sporangia ripen and release zoospores, which infect plant roots by entering the root behind the root tip. Zoospores need water to swim through the soil, therefore infection is most likely in moist soils, mycelia grow throughout the root absorbing carbohydrates and nutrients, destroying the structure of the root tissues, rotting the root, and preventing the plant from absorbing water and nutrients. Sporangia and chlamydospores form on the mycelia of the root. Early symptoms of infection include wilting, yellowing and retention of dried foliage, infection often leads to death of the plant, especially in dry summer conditions when plants may be water stressed. Phytophthora cinnamomi is a diploid and heterothallic species with two mating types, A1 and A2, sexual reproduction in heterothallic Phytophthora species ordinarily occurs when gametangia of opposite mating type interact in host tissue. This interaction leads to the formation of oospores that can survive for periods in or outside the host. Phytophthora cinnamomi is also capable of self-fertilization, Phytophthora cinnamomi mating type A2 cultures can be induced to undergo sexual reproduction by exposure to damaging conditions, that is by exposure to hydrogen peroxide or mechanical damage. When phytophthora dieback spreads to native plant communities, it kills many susceptible plants, resulting in a permanent decline in the biodiversity and a disruption of ecosystem processes. It can also change the composition of the forest or native plant community by increasing the number of resistant plants, native animals that rely on susceptible plants for survival are reduced in numbers or are eliminated from sites infested by Phytophthora dieback. Damage to forests suspected to be caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi was first recorded in the United States about 200 years ago, of particular concern is the infection and dieback of large areas of forest and heathland which support threatened species in the south-west corner of Western Australia. Many plants from the genera Banksia, Darwinia, Grevillea, Leucopogon, Verticordia and this in turn will impact on animals reliant on these plants for food and shelter, such as the southwestern pygmy possum and the honey possum. Phytophthora cinnamomi is also a problem in the Mexican state of Colima, killing several native oak species and it is implicated in the die-off of the rare endemic shrub Ione manzanita in California, as well. In addition to damage to native woodlands, Phytophthora cinnamomi can infect fruit trees, nut trees. Research has shown that Phytophthora cinnamomi can infect club mosses, ferns, cycads, conifers, cord rushes, grasses, lilies and this is a remarkable range for a plant pathogen and highlights the effectiveness of Phytophthora cinnamomi as an aggressive primary pathogen. The Invasive Species Specialist Group includes this species in its list of 100 of the Worlds Worst Invasive Alien Species, Phytophthora dieback affects a large number of common garden species, natives and horticultural crops
26.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
27.
Lachenalia reflexa
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Lachenalia reflexa, commonly known as yellow soldier, is species of the genus Lachenalia native to South Africa. The species is a native to South Africa, particularly in the Cape Province, the plant flourishes where there is winter rainfall and becomes dormant during dry seasons. In Australia, the species is an introduced weed, reaching approximately 10 cm when in flower, this weed spreads through two main methods, both of which lend to its common name. The first of two methods is simply dropping the seeds of the plant up to 20 cm away from the base of the original plant. Given that each flower produces between 40 and 60 seeds, and that each plant can produce up to ten flowers, yellow soldier can grow in densities of up to 400 plants per square metre, with each plant capable of reaching full reproductive potential. This density prevents native plants from reclaiming lost ground, the second method of seed dispersal is by clinging to the feet of native animals and humans. The small, black seeds become stuck in between the toes of animals and humans or in the tread of shoes, when the seed is eventually jolted out of its position, it falls to the ground and begins to germinate. Yellow soldier is presenting a problem in Australia where it is considered an introduced weed. Yellow soldier damages not only native flora, but fauna as well and its ability to completely dominate an area prevents native herbs and grasses from growing. In turn, this eliminates food sources for native fauna, lowering fauna levels to the point of non-existence, the reason this weed is so hard to control is its ability to reproduce in such great numbers, and the damage it does when removed. Seeds of the soldier are next to impossible to see in the soil or on the shoes of removalists. Removal by hand is labour-intensive, with only 4m² being removed in a 6-hour period, the ability to grow back from its root system means that the entire plant must be removed from the ground, allowing other weeds to germinate. Controlled burning is also ineffective, it increases the number of yellow soldiers in the area. The yellow soldier also germinates faster after a fire than native plants, the only effective way to remove yellow soldier is through spot-spraying of herbicides. The herbicide developed to kill only yellow soldier is expensive and therefore can only be done through government funding. This prevents most environment and bush care groups from eliminating the species, and thus allowing it the chance to spread further
28.
Weed
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A weed is a plant considered undesirable in a particular situation, a plant in the wrong place. Examples commonly are plants unwanted in human-controlled settings, such as fields, gardens, lawns. Many plants that people widely regard as weeds also are grown in gardens and other cultivated settings. The term weed also is applied to any plant that grows or reproduces aggressively, Weed control is important in agriculture. Methods include hand cultivation with hoes, powered cultivation with cultivators, smothering with mulch, lethal wilting with high heat, burning, certain classes of weeds share adaptations to ruderal environments. The nature of the habitat and its disturbances will affect or even determine which types of weed communities become dominant. In contrast, perennial weeds often have underground stems that spread under the surface or, like ground ivy, have creeping stems that root. In locations where predation and mutually competitive relationships are absent, weeds have increased resources available for growth and these chemicals may limit the growth of established plants or the germination and growth of seeds and seedlings. A number of native or non-native plants are unwanted in a location for a number of reasons. An important one is that they interfere with food and fiber production in agriculture, other important reasons are that they interfere with other cosmetic, decorative, or recreational goals, such as in lawns, landscape architecture, playing fields, and golf courses. Similarly, they can be of concern for environmental reasons whereby introduced species out-compete for resources or space with desired endemic plants, in weed ecology some authorities speak of the relationship between the three Ps, plant, place, perception. These have been variously defined, but the weed traits listed by H. G. Baker are widely cited. Weeds have long been a concern, perhaps as long as humans have cultivated plants, and the Bible, Cursed is the ground because of you, through painful toil you will eat of it all the days of your life. It will produce thorns and thistles for you, and you eat the plants of the field. By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground, While the term weed generally has a negative connotation, many plants known as weeds can have beneficial properties. A number of weeds, such as the dandelion and lambs quarter, are edible, burdock is common over much of the world, and is sometimes used to make soup and medicine in East Asia. Some weeds attract beneficial insects, which in turn can protect crops from harmful pests, Weeds can also prevent pest insects from finding a crop, because their presence disrupts the incidence of positive cues which pests use to locate their food. Weeds may also act as a mulch, providing ground cover that reduces moisture loss
29.
Bandicoot
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Bandicoots are a group of about 20 species of small to medium-sized, terrestrial marsupial omnivore in the order Peramelemorphia. They are endemic to the Australia–New Guinea region, the bandicoot is a member of the order Peramelemorphia, and the word bandicoot is often used informally to refer to any peramelemorph, such as the bilby. The term originally referred to the unrelated Indian bandicoot rat, the word is adopted from a Telugu language word pandi kokku. Marsupials, including bandicoots, are among the few groups of species that have a bifurcated penis, the embryos of bandicoots, unlike other marsupials, form a placenta-like organ that connects them to the uterine wall. The function of this organ is probably to transfer nutrients from the mother, however the structure is small, bandicoots may serve as a primary reservoir for Coxiella burnetii. Infection is transmitted among them by ticks and these are then transmitted to domestic animals. The infected domestic animals shed them in urine, faeces, and it is transmitted to humans causing Q fever by inhalation of aerosols of these materials. Main symptoms may be pneumonia and/or hepatitis, classification within the Peramelemorphia used to be simple. There were thought to be two families in the order—the short-legged and mostly herbivorous bandicoots, and the longer-legged, nearly carnivorous bilbies, in recent years, however, it has become clear that the situation is more complex. First, the bandicoots of the New Guinean and far-northern Australian rainforests were deemed distinct from all other bandicoots and were grouped together in the separate family Peroryctidae, the only exception is the now extinct Pig-footed bandicoot, which has been given its own family, Chaeropodidae. Paleontologists have named an extinct bandicoot from the Miocene of Australia after the character, although somewhat unusual for the scientific community, the name was used in an entirely unaltered form, without attempting to return to Latin or Greek roots. The dictionary definition of bandicoot at Wiktionary
30.
Legless lizard
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Legless lizard may refer to any of several groups of lizards that have independently lost limbs or reduced them to the point of being of no use in locomotion. It is the name for the family Pygopodidae, but often refers to other groups, such as limbless anguids. Cordylidae – an African family of 66 species, with one virtually legless genus Chamaesaura, Pygopodidae – all 44 species, they belong to the genera Aprasia, Delma, Lialis, Ophidiocephalus, Paradelma, Pletholax and Pygopus. All are endemic to Australia, except the two species of Lialis, which occur in New Guinea, one of which is endemic to that island. The pygopodids are considered an advanced evolutionary clade of the Gekkota, dibamidae – all 23 species in the family, which comprises the monotypic Mexican genus Anelytropsis and the Southeast Asian genus Dibamus. All are limbless burrowers that are nearly or completely blind, anniellidae – comprising the single genus Anniella, which contains six legless lizards that inhabit central / southern California and Baja California, Mexico. The 190 species of worm-lizards in the Amphisbaenia belong to a different suborder of the Squamata to the lizards and are not included here
31.
Dugite
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The dugite /ˈdjuːɡaɪt/ is a species of venomous, potentially lethal, snake native to Western Australia, a member of the family Elapidae. The local Nyungar name for the dugite is dobitj, the dugite is a venomous snake, considered dangerous. The dugite is coloured grey, green, or brown, the colours vary widely between individuals and are an unreliable means of identifying the species. Black scales can be scattered over the body, their scales are large with a semi-glossy appearance. The most distinguishing characteristic is the head that can be rather small, a dugites body is long and slender in build and can grow up to 2 m in total length, but the average size is roughly 1.5 metres. P. affinis is found in parts of Western Australia. As can be seen on the map, the Dugite is found between southern parts of Western Australia and in parts of western South Australia. The Dugite occupies a variety of habitats ranging from coastal dunes, heathlands. The Dugite also appears to thrive in degraded habitats such as golf courses, industrial areas. In the Perth metropolitan area, the Dugite is one of the most common snakes found next to buildings and they are also a snake species that burrows during the winter period. In the wild they may be sheltering beneath logs or rocks, when disturbed, Dugites are very shy and will often slither away, however they will defend themselves if cornered. On hot days, activity occurs mainly in the morning, as with all brown snakes, mating normally occurs between early September and late November. The Dugite is an egg laying snake, and will typically deposit around 30 eggs, the eggs will hatch after approximately 65 days. Under optimal environmental conditions the Dugite has been known to lay two clutches during the same season, the venom of P. affinis is potentially one of the most lethal in the world, causing coagulopathic and procoagulant effects. Dugites generally avoid biting humans, but risks of encounters rise when they are most active during the season through October and November. The last death attributed to a dugite was in Fremantle on 15 August 2015, a woman was bitten on her heel mid-afternoon while walking alone. She walked home and later collapsed whilst her husband was taking her to her car in order to transport her to the hospital, the ambulance was called, arriving five minutes later, but medics were unable to revive her. It is a member of the genus Pseudonaja, sometimes referred to as brown snakes, Dugites are protected under the Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 and to kill or injure one attracts a fine of up to A$4000
32.
Osprey
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The osprey —also called fish eagle, sea hawk, river hawk, and fish hawk—is a diurnal, fish-eating bird of prey with a cosmopolitan range. It is a raptor, reaching more than 60 cm in length and 180 cm across the wings. It is brown on the upperparts and predominantly greyish on the head, the osprey tolerates a wide variety of habitats, nesting in any location near a body of water providing an adequate food supply. It is found on all continents except Antarctica, although in South America it occurs only as a non-breeding migrant, as its other common names suggest, the ospreys diet consists almost exclusively of fish. It possesses specialised physical characteristics and exhibits unique behaviour to assist in hunting and catching prey, as a result of these unique characteristics, it has been given its own taxonomic genus, Pandion and family, Pandionidae. Four subspecies are recognized, one of which has recently been given full species status. Despite its propensity to nest near water, the osprey is not classed as a sea eagle, the osprey was one of the many species described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th-century work, Systema Naturae, and named as Falco haliaeetus. The genus, Pandion, is the member of the family Pandionidae, and used to contain only one species. The genus Pandion was described by the French zoologist Marie Jules César Savigny in 1809, the osprey differs in several respects from other diurnal birds of prey. Its toes are of length, its tarsi are reticulate. The osprey and owls are the only raptors whose outer toe is reversible and this is particularly helpful when they grab slippery fish. The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy has placed it together with the diurnal raptors in a greatly enlarged Ciconiiformes. The osprey is unusual in that it is a living species that occurs nearly worldwide. Even the few subspecies are not unequivocally separable, there are four generally recognised subspecies, although differences are small, and ITIS lists only the first two. P. h. carolinensis –, North America and this form is larger, darker bodied and has a paler breast than nominate haliaetus. P. h. ridgwayi – Maynard,1887, Caribbean islands and this form has a very pale head and breast compared with nominate haliaetus, with only a weak eye mask. Its scientific name commemorates American ornithologist Robert Ridgway, P. h. cristatus –, coastline and some large rivers of Australia and Tasmania. The smallest and most distinctive subspecies, also non-migratory, recently, P. h. cristatus has been given full species status as eastern osprey
33.
Tiliqua rugosa
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Tiliqua rugosa is a short-tailed, slow moving species of blue-tongued skink found in Australia. Three of the four recognised subspecies are only in Western Australia. The name shingleback is also used, especially for T. rugosa asper, T. rugosa has a heavily armoured body and can be found in various colours, ranging from dark brown to cream. It has a short, wide, stumpy tail that resembles its head, the tail also contains fat reserves, which are drawn upon during brumation in winter. This skink is an omnivore, it eats snails and plants and it is often seen sunning on roadsides or other paved areas. Apart from bobtail and shingleback, a variety of common names are used, including stump-tailed skink, bogeye, pinecone lizard. The species was first described by John Edward Gray in 1825 as Trachydosaurus rugosus and it now classified as Tiliqua rugosa. Some herpetologists claim this species has common names than any other lizard. The range extends from Shark Bay, Western Australia, across the southern-most regions of the country to the coast, four subspecies are found in Western Australia, including one at Rottnest Island. It also occurs in the states of Victoria and New South Wales. The habitat of the species includes shrublands and desert grasslands to sandy dunes and these skinks are well known, due to a preference for sun basking in open areas, and are often seen along roadsides or other cleared areas in its range. T. rugosa has an armoured body and can be found in various colours. Its snout to vent length varies from 260 to 310 mm and it has a triangular head and a bright blue tongue. Its short, stumpy tail is similar in shape to its head and this possibly evolved as a defence mechanism against predators, and has led to the common name of two-headed skink. Its short tail also contains fat reserves, which the lizard lives upon during brumation in winter, unlike many skinks, shinglebacks do not exhibit autotomy and cannot shed their tails. Tiliqua rugosa is an omnivore that eat snails, insects, carrion, vegetation and they have also been known to eat human food, such as sausage and chicken, as well as fruits such as banana and passionfruit. The shingleback skink has become a popular pet among Australian enthusiasts, T. rugosa is a viviparous skink, giving birth to broods of one to four relatively large offspring. Soon after birth, the young immediately consume their afterbirth and they stay with their parents for several months before moving on, but they remain in close proximity, forming a colony of closely related skinks
34.
Australian raven
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The Australian raven is a passerine bird in the genus Corvus native to much of southern and northeastern Australia. Measuring 46–53 centimetres in length, it has all-black plumage, beak and mouth, as well as strong grey-black legs, the upperparts are glossy, with a purple, blue or green sheen, and its black feathers have grey bases. The Australian raven is distinguished from the Australian crow species by its throat hackles, Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield described the Australian raven in 1827, its species name highlighting its similarity with the carrion crow. Two subspecies are recognised, which differ slightly in calls and are quite divergent genetically, the preferred habitat is open woodland and transitional zones. It has adapted well to urban environments and is a common city bird in Sydney, Canberra, an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder, it eats a wide variety of plant and animal material, as well as food waste from urban areas. In eastern Australia its range is strongly correlated with the presence of sheep, however, this is very rare, and the raven most often scavenges for afterbirth and stillborn animals as well as newborn lamb faeces. The Australian raven is territorial, with pairs generally bonding for life, breeding takes place between July and September, with almost no variation across its range. The nest is a structure of sticks sited high in a tree. The Australian raven was first described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827 and its specific epithet coronoides crow-shaped is derived from the Greek corone/κορόνη crow and eidos/είδος shape or form. The two naturalists regarded the Australian raven as very similar in appearance to the crow of Europe. They did not give it a common name, the location where the type specimen was collected is not recorded, but thought to be in the Parramatta district. Christian Ludwig Brehm described Corvus affinis in 1845, later determined to be this species, in his 1865 Handbook to the Birds of Australia, John Gould recognised only one species of corvid in Australia, Corvus australis, which he called the white-eyed crow. He used Johann Friedrich Gmelins 1788 name, which predated Vigors, in 1877 Richard Bowdler Sharpe recognised two species, but recorded that the feather bases of the type specimen of C. coronoides were white. He named C. coronoides as the crow and C. australis the raven, scottish naturalist William Robert Ogilvie-Grant corrected this in 1912 after re-examining the type specimen, clarifying the species as C. coronoides and C. cecilae. Gregory Mathews described the western subspecies perplexus in 1912, naming it the southwestern crow, in the same work he listed the raven as Corvus marianae, with a type specimen from Gosford and listing its range as New South Wales. He listed the raven and forest raven as subspecies. Mathews had erected C. australis as a junior homonym—in 1788 and this has been followed by later authors. This was hotly disputed by Mathews, the official RAOU checklist listed three species, with the little raven recognised as a fourth species in 1967 and forest raven in 1970
35.
Gull
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Gulls, often referred to as seagulls, are seabirds of the family Laridae in the suborder Lari. They are most closely related to the terns and only related to auks, skimmers. Until the 21st century, most gulls were placed in the genus Larus, an older name for gulls is mew, cognate with German Möwe, Danish måge, Dutch meeuw, and French mouette, this term can still be found in certain regional dialects. Gulls are typically medium to large birds, usually grey or white and they typically have harsh wailing or squawking calls, stout, longish bills, and webbed feet. Most gulls, particularly Larus species, are ground-nesting carnivores, which take food or scavenge opportunistically. Live food often includes crabs and small fish, gulls have unhinging jaws which allow them to consume large prey. Apart from the kittiwakes, gulls are typically coastal or inland species, the large species take up to four years to attain full adult plumage, but two years is typical for small gulls. Large white-headed gulls are typically long-lived birds, with an age of 49 years recorded for the herring gull. Gulls nest in large, densely packed noisy colonies and they lay two or three speckled eggs in nests composed of vegetation. The young are precocial, being born with dark mottled down, gulls—the larger species in particular—are resourceful, inquisitive and intelligent birds, demonstrating complex methods of communication and a highly developed social structure. For example, many gull colonies display mobbing behaviour, attacking and harassing would-be predators, certain species have exhibited tool use behaviour, using pieces of bread as bait with which to catch goldfish, for example. Many species of gulls have learned to coexist successfully with humans and have thrived in human habitats, others rely on kleptoparasitism to get their food. Gulls have been observed preying on live whales, landing on the whale as it surfaces to peck out pieces of flesh. Gulls range in size from the gull, at 120 g and 29 cm, to the great black-backed gull. They are generally uniform in shape, with bodies, long wings. The tails of all but three species are rounded, the exceptions being Sabines gull and swallow-tailed gulls, which have forked tails, and Rosss gull, gulls have moderately long legs, especially when compared to the similar terns, with fully webbed feet. The bill is heavy and slightly hooked, with the larger species having stouter bills than the smaller species. The bill colour is yellow with a red spot for the larger white-headed species and red
36.
Blue-tongued skink
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Blue-tongued skinks comprise the Australasian genus Tiliqua, which contains some of the largest members of the skink family. They are commonly called blue-tongued lizards or simply blue-tongues in Australia, as suggested by these common names, a prominent characteristic of the genus is a large blue tongue that can be bared as a bluff-warning to potential enemies. Blue-tongued skinks are also bred in captivity and sold as house pets and they are relatively shy in comparison to other lizards, and also significantly slower due to their short legs. Blue-tongued skinks are closely related to the genus Cyclodomorphus and Hemisphaeriodon, all species are found on mainland Australia with the exception of Tiliqua gigas, which occurs in New Guinea and various islands of Indonesia. One subspecies of Tiliqua scincoides is also found on several small Indonesian islands between Australia and New Guinea, Tiliqua nigrolutea is the only species present in Tasmania. With the exception of the pygmy blue-tongue, they are large lizards, light-bodied, short-limbed, broad with distinct heads. Most species are diurnal, ground-foraging omnivores, feeding on a variety of insects, gastropods, flowers, fruits. The pygmy blue-tongue is again the exception, being primarily a predator of terrestrial arthropods. All are viviparous, with sizes ranging from one to four in the pygmy blue-tongue. Using ancient and recent DNA to explore relationships of extinct and endangered Leiolopisma skinks in the Mascarene islands, molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 39, 503–511. Mate fidelity in an Australian lizard Trachydosaurus rugosus, comparison of displaced and retained partners in a monogamous lizard Tiliqua rugosa. A prey record of the Eastern Blue-tongue Tiliqua scincoides for the brown snake Pseudonaja textilis. Bluetongue fact file Blue-tongued Lizards in New South Wales Mating wild Blotched Blue-tongue lizards video
37.
Honeyeater
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The honeyeaters are a large and diverse family, Meliphagidae, of small to medium-sized birds. The family includes the Australian chats, myzomelas, friarbirds, wattlebirds, miners, bali, on the other side of the Wallace Line, has a single species. In total there are 182 species in 42 genera, roughly half of them native to Australia, although honeyeaters look and behave very much like other nectar-feeding passerines around the world, they are unrelated, and the similarities are the consequence of convergent evolution. The extent of the partnership between honeyeaters and Australasian flowering plants is unknown, but probably substantial. A great many Australian plants are fertilised by honeyeaters, particularly the Proteaceae, Myrtaceae and it is known that the honeyeaters are important in New Zealand as well, and assumed that the same applies in other areas. Honeyeaters can be either nectarivorous, insectivorous, frugivorous, or a combination of nectar-, in general, honeyeaters prefer to flit quickly from perch to perch in the outer foliage, stretching up or sideways or hanging upside down at need. Many genera have a highly developed brush-tipped tongue, frayed and fringed with bristles which soak up liquids readily, the tongue is flicked rapidly and repeatedly into a flower, the upper mandible then compressing any liquid out when the bill is closed. In addition to nectar, all or nearly all honeyeaters take insects and other creatures, usually by hawking. A few of the species, notably the white-eared honeyeater. Many species supplement their diets with a fruit, and a small number eat considerable amounts of fruit, particularly in tropical rainforests and, oddly. The painted honeyeater is a mistletoe specialist, most, however, exist on a diet of nectar supplemented by varying quantities of insects. The movements of honeyeaters are poorly understood, most are at least partially mobile but many movements seem to be local, possibly between favourite haunts as the conditions change. Fluctuations in local abundance are common, but the number of definitely migratory honeyeater species aside. Many follow the flowering of food plants. Arid zone species appear to further and less predictably than those of the more fertile areas. It seems probable that no single explanation will emerge, the rule for honeyeater movements is that there is no general rule. The genera Cleptornis and Apalopteron, formerly treated in the Meliphagidae, have recently been transferred to the Zosteropidae on genetic evidence, the genus Notiomystis, formerly classified in the Meliphagidae, has recently been removed to the newly erected Notiomystidae of which it is the only member. The Macgregors bird-of-paradise, historically considered a bird-of-paradise, was found to be a honeyeater
38.
Charitable organization
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A charitable organization is a type of non-profit organization. It differs from types of NPOs in that it centers on philanthropic goals as well as social well-being. The legal definition of charitable organization varies according to the country, the regulation, tax treatment, and the way in which charity law affects charitable organizations also varies. Financial figures are important indicators to assess the sustainability of a charity. This information can impact a charitys reputation with donors and societies, and thus, Charitable organizations often depend partly on donations from for-profit-organizations. Such donations to charitable organizations represent a form of corporate philanthropy. Until the mid-18th century, charity was mainly distributed through parish relief, churches, almshouses, Charities were also responsible for education, health, housing and even prisons. It was in the Enlightenment era that charitable and philanthropic activity among voluntary associations, societies, gentlemans clubs, and mutual associations began to flourish in England and the upper-classes increasingly adopted a philanthropic attitude toward the disadvantaged. This new social activism was channeled into the establishment of charitable organizations and this emerging upper-class fashion for benevolence resulted in the incorporation of the first charitable organizations. This was the first such charity in the world and served as the precedent for incorporated associational charities everywhere. Jonas Hanway, another notable philanthropist of the era established The Marine Society in 1756 as the first seafarers charity, by 1763, the Society had recruited over 10,000 men and it was incorporated by an Act of Parliament in 1772. Hanway was also instrumental in establishing the Magdalen Hospital to rehabilitate prostitutes and these organizations were funded by subscription and run as voluntary associations. Charities also began to adopt campaigning roles, where they would champion a cause, the process was however a lengthy one being finally concluded when Saudi Arabia abolished slavery in 1962. This period also saw growing philosophical debate between those who championed state intervention and those who believed that private charities should provide welfare, thomas Malthus, the political economist, criticized poor relief for paupers on economic and moral grounds and proposed leaving charity entirely to the private sector. His views were influential and informed the Victorian laissez-faire attitude toward state intervention for the poor. During the 19th century, a profusion of charitable organizations were set up to alleviate the conditions of the working class in the slums. The Labourers Friend Society, chaired by Lord Shaftesbury in the United Kingdom in 1830, was set up to working class conditions. This included the promotion of allotment of land to labourers for cottage husbandry that later became the allotment movement and this was one of the first housing associations, a philanthropic endeavour that flourished in the second half of the nineteenth century brought about by the growth of the middle class
39.
Corporation
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A corporation is a company or group of people authorized to act as a single entity and recognized as such in law. Early incorporated entities were established by charter, most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Corporations chartered in regions where they are distinguished by whether they are allowed to be for profit or not are referred to as for profit and not-for-profit corporations, there is some overlap between stock/non-stock and for profit/not-for-profit in that not-for-profit corporations are always non-stock as well. A for profit corporation is almost always a stock corporation, registered corporations have legal personality and are owned by shareholders whose liability is limited to their investment. Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation, shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity, in American English, the word corporation is most often used to describe large business corporations. In British English and in the Commonwealth countries, the company is more widely used to describe the same sort of entity while the word corporation encompasses all incorporated entities. In American English, the company can include entities such as partnerships that would not be referred to as companies in British English as they are not a separate legal entity. Despite not being human beings, corporations, as far as the law is concerned, are legal persons. Corporations can exercise human rights against real individuals and the state, Corporations can be dissolved either by statutory operation, order of court, or voluntary action on the part of shareholders. Corporations can even be convicted of offenses, such as fraud. However, corporations are not considered living entities in the way humans are. While not a corporation, this new type of entity became very attractive as an alternative for corporations not needing to issue stock, in Germany, the organization was referred to as Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung or GmbH. In the last quarter of the 20th Century this new form of organization became available in the United States and other countries. Since the GmbH and LLC forms of organization are technically not corporations they will not be discussed in this article, the word corporation derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a body of people. By the time of Justinian, Roman law recognized a range of corporate entities under the names universitas and these included the state itself, municipalities, and such private associations as sponsors of a religious cult, burial clubs, political groups, and guilds of craftsmen or traders. Such bodies commonly had the right to own property and make contracts, to receive gifts and legacies, to sue and be sued, private associations were granted designated privileges and liberties by the emperor. Entities which carried on business and were the subjects of rights were found in ancient Rome. In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the Pope, the point was that the incorporation would survive longer than the lives of any particular member, existing in perpetuity
40.
Government
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A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled. In the Commonwealth of Nations, the government is also used more narrowly to refer to the collective group of people that exercises executive authority in a state. This usage is analogous to what is called an administration in American English, finally, government is also sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance. In the case of its broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. A form of government, or form of governance, refers to the set of political systems. Government of any kind currently affects every human activity in many important ways, in political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities. as typologies of political systems are not obvious. It is especially important in the science fields of comparative politics. On the surface, identifying a form of government appears to be simple, the United States is a constitutional republic, while the former Soviet Union was a socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, for example, elections are a defining characteristic of an electoral democracy, but in practice elections in the former Soviet Union were not free and fair and took place in a one-party state. Voltaire argued that the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, many governments that officially call themselves a democratic republic are not democratic, nor a republic, they are usually a dictatorship de facto. Communist dictatorships have been prone to use this term. For example, the name of North Vietnam was The Democratic Republic of Vietnam. China uses a variant, The Peoples Republic of China, thus in many practical classifications it would not be considered democratic. Experience with those movements in power, and the ties they may have to particular forms of government. For example, The meaning of conservatism in the United States has little in common with the way the words definition is used elsewhere, as Ribuffo notes, what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism. Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been associated with the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives, values are sorted from 1–100 based on level of democracy and political accountability
41.
Swan River (Western Australia)
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The Swan River is a river in the south west of Western Australia. Its Aboriginal Noongar name is the Derbarl Yerrigan, the river runs through the metropolitan area of Perth, Western Australias capital and largest city. The Swan River estuary flows through the city of Perth and its lower reaches are relatively wide and deep, with few constrictions, while the upper reaches are usually quite narrow and shallow. The Swan River drains the Avon and coastal plain catchments, which have an area of about 121,000 square kilometres. It has three tributaries, the Avon River, Canning River and Helena River. The latter two have dams which provide a part of the potable water requirements for Perth and the regions surrounding. The Avon River contributes the majority of the freshwater flow, the climate of the catchment is Mediterranean, with mild wet winters, hot dry summers, and the associated highly seasonal rainfall and flow regime. The Canning River rises not far from North Bannister,100 kilometres southeast of Perth and joins the Swan at Applecross, the river then narrows into Blackwall Reach, a narrow and deep stretch leading the river through Fremantle Harbour to the sea. The Noongar people believe that the Darling Scarp is said to represent the body of a Wagyl – a snakelike being from Dreamtime that meandered over the land creating rivers, waterways and it is thought that the Wagyl/Waugal created the Swan River. The estuary is subject to a regime, with a maximum tidal amplitude of about 1 metre. In doing so, it carved a gorge about the size of the Grand Canyon, now known as Perth Canyon, this feature still exists as a submarine canyon near the edge of the continental shelf. The Swan River drains the Swan Coastal Plain, a catchment area of over 100,000 square kilometres in area. The river is located in a Mediterranean climate, with hot dry summers and cool wet winters, the Swan is located on the edge of the Darling Scarp, flowing downhill across the coastal plain to its mouth at Fremantle. The Swan begins as the Avon River, rising near Yealering in the Darling Range, the Avon flows north, passing through the towns of Brookton, Beverley, York, Northam and Toodyay. It is joined by tributaries including the Dale River, the Mortlock River, the Avon becomes the Swan as Wooroloo Brook enters the river near Walyunga National Park. Between Perth and Guildford the river goes through several loops, originally, areas including the Maylands Peninsula, Ascot and Burswood, through Claise Brook and north of the city to Herdsman Lake were swampy wetlands. Most of the wetlands have since been reclaimed for land development, Heirisson Island, upon which The Causeway passes over, was once a collection of small islets known as the Hierrison Islands. Perth Water, between the city and South Perth, is separated from the estuary by the Narrows
42.
Alcoa
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Alcoa Inc. is an American industrial corporation, it ranks as the worlds third largest producer of aluminum, behind Rio Tinto Alcan and Rusal, with corporate headquarters in New York City. It is the worlds largest Aluminium company by revenue, from its operational base in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in the United States, Alcoa conducts operations in 31 countries. Aluminum and alumina represent more than three-fourths of Alcoa’s revenue, non-aluminum products include precision castings and aerospace and industrial fasteners. Alcoa’s products are used worldwide in aircraft, automobiles, commercial transportation, packaging, building and construction, oil and gas, defense, in May 2007 Alcoa made a US$27 billion hostile takeover bid for Alcan in an attempt to form the worlds largest aluminum producer. The bid was withdrawn when Alcan announced a takeover by Rio Tinto in July 2007. Among Alcoas other businesses are fastening systems, building products, the sale of the packaging unit was announced on December 21,2007, and closed in the first quarter of 2008. On November 1,2016, Alcoa split into two new entities, Alcoa Corporation and Arconic Inc, the split completed a process that was initiated by the company in September 2015. In 1886, Charles Martin Hall, a graduate of Oberlin College, discovered the process of smelting aluminum and he realized that by passing an electric current through a bath of cryolite and aluminum oxide, the then semi-rare metal aluminum remained as a byproduct. This discovery, now called the Hall-Héroult process, is still the only used to make aluminum. Probably fewer than ten sites in the United States and Europe produced any aluminum at the time. In 1887, Hall made an agreement to try his process at the Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company plant in Lockport, New York, but it was not used and Hall left after one year. On Thanksgiving Day 1888, with the help of Alfred E. Hunt, he started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company with an experimental smelting plant on Smallman Street in Pittsburgh, in 1891, the company went into production in New Kensington, Pennsylvania. In 1895, a third site opened at Niagara Falls, by about 1903, after a settlement with Halls former employer, and while its patents were in force, the company was the only legal supplier of aluminum in the United States. By 1902 New Kensington consisted of 173,000 sq. Louis, the Aluminum Company of America became the firms new name on January 1,1907. The acronym Alcoa was coined in 1910, given as a name to two of the locales where major corporate facilities were located, and in 1999 was adopted as the corporate name. In 1907 it created the town of Pine Grove, New York. In Baden, Alcoa, Maryville and elsewhere the company funded the construction of schools, parks, playgrounds and medical facilities. By the end of World War I Alcoas New Kensington facility accounted for 3,292 workers—a fifth of the local population—and covered over 1 million square feet of manufacturing space on 75 acres
