1.
Mount Tongariro
–
Mount Tongariro is a compound volcano in the Taupo Volcanic Zone of the North Island of New Zealand. It is located 20 kilometres to the southwest of Lake Taupo, Mount Tongariro is part of the Tongariro volcanic centre, which consists of four massifs made of andesite, Tongariro, Kakaramea, Pihanga, and Ruapehu. The andesitic eruptions formed Tongariro, a stratovolcano, reaching a height of 1,978 metres. Tongariro is composed of layers of lava and tephra and first erupted 275,000 years ago. Tongariro consists of at least 12 cones, Ngauruhoe, while often regarded as a separate mountain, is geologically a cone of Tongariro. It is also the most active vent, having erupted more than 70 times since 1839, activity has also been recorded at other vents in recent history. Te Māri Craters erupted in 2012, for the first time since 1897, red Crater last erupted ash in 1926 and contains active fumaroles. There are many craters on the massif, water has filled some of these to form the Blue Lake. Unlike nearby Mt. Ruapehu, no glaciers exist on Tongariro today, however, geomorphological evidence in the form of moraines and cirques indicates the former presence of mountain glaciers. Mount Tongariro is in the Tongariro National Park, New Zealands first national park and it was set aside in 1887 by Te Heuheu Tukino IV, paramount chief of the Māori Ngati Tuwharetoa iwi and made a national park in order to preserve its natural beauty. The park also includes the peaks of Ngauruhoe and Ruapehu, both of which lie to the southwest of Tongariro, the national park is a dual World Heritage Site for its outstanding natural and intangible cultural values. The popular hiking route called Tongariro Alpine Crossing passes between Tongariro and Ngauruhoe, Mount Tongariro and its surroundings are also one of the several locations which Peter Jackson chose to shoot the The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. At 11,50 pm on 6 August 2012, Mt Tongariro had what was believed to be a hydrothermal eruption after a month of increased activity. The eruption occurred at the Te Māri Craters, which had dormant since 1897. The eruption occurred in a new vent below the Upper Te Māri crater, an ash cloud 6.1 kilometres high deposited ash into the surrounding area, especially to the east of the volcano. The ash cloud travelled 250 kilometres in four hours, NIWA reported the ash cloud contained about 10,000 cubic metres of ash, and that the ash cloud was 25 kilometres long and 15 kilometres wide 39 minutes after the eruption. Ash and the smell of sulphur was reported in Napier and Hastings, the smell of sulphur was also reported in Wellington, Nelson and Blenheim. A layer of ash 10–15 mm thick settled on farmland 5 to 10 kilometres east of Mount Tongariro, particle sizes were between 2 and 3mm
2.
Summit
–
A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
North Island
–
The North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the slightly larger but much less populous South Island by Cook Strait. The islands area is 113,729 square kilometres, making it the worlds 14th-largest island and it has a population of 3,596,200. Twelve main urban areas are in the North Island, about 77% of New Zealands population lives in the North Island. Although the island has been known as the North Island for many years, in 2009 the New Zealand Geographic Board found that, along with the South Island, after a public consultation, the board officially named the island North Island or Te Ika-a-Maui in October 2013. In prose, the two islands of New Zealand are called the North Island and the South Island, with the definite articles. It is normal to use the preposition in rather than on, for example Hamilton is in the North Island, maps, headings, tables and adjectival expressions use North Island without the. According to Māori mythology, the North and South Islands of New Zealand arose through the actions of the demigod Māui, Māui and his brothers were fishing from their canoe when he caught a great fish and pulled it from the sea. While he was not looking his brothers fought over the fish and this great fish became the North Island and thus a Māori name for the North Island is Te Ika-a-Māui. The mountains and valleys are believed to have formed as a result of Māuis brothers hacking at the fish. Until the early 20th Century, an alternative Māori name for the North Island was Aotearoa, in present usage, Aotearoa is a collective name for New Zealand as a whole. The sub-national GDP of the North Island was estimated at US$102.863 billion in 2003, the island has an extensive flora and bird population, with numerous National Parks and other protected areas. Nine local government regions cover the North Island and all its adjacent islands, healthcare in the North Island is provided by fifteen District Health Boards. Organised around geographical areas of varying sizes, they are not coterminous with the Local Government Regions
5.
New Zealand
–
New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
6.
Stratovolcano
–
A stratovolcano, also known as a composite volcano, is a conical volcano built up by many layers of hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash. Unlike shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a profile and periodic explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions. The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and hardens before spreading far due to high viscosity, the magma forming this lava is often felsic, having high-to-intermediate levels of silica, with lesser amounts of less-viscous mafic magma. Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have travelled as far as 15 km, stratovolcanoes are sometimes called composite volcanoes because of their composite layered structure built up from sequential outpourings of eruptive materials. They are among the most common types of volcanoes, in contrast to the less common shield volcanoes, two famous stratovolcanoes are Krakatoa, best known for its catastrophic eruption in 1883 and Vesuvius, famous for its destruction of the towns Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79 CE. Both eruptions claimed thousands of lives, in modern times, Mount Saint Helens and Mount Pinatubo have erupted catastrophically. Existence of stratovolcanoes has not been proved on other bodies of the solar system with one exception. Their existence was suggested for some isolated massifs on Mars, e. g. Zephyria Tholus, stratovolcanoes are common at subduction zones, forming chains along plate tectonic boundaries where oceanic crust is drawn under continental crust or another oceanic plate. The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed dewatering, and occurs at pressures and temperatures for each mineral. The magma then rises through the crust, incorporating silica-rich crustal rock, when the magma nears the top surface, it pools in a magma chamber under or within the volcano. There, the low pressure allows water and other volatiles dissolved in the magma to escape from solution, as occurs when a bottle of carbonated water is opened. Once a critical volume of magma and gas accumulates, the obstacle of the cone is overcome. In recorded history, explosive eruptions at subduction zone volcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations. Subduction-zone stratovolcanoes, such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Etna and Mount Pinatubo, typically erupt with explosive force, as a consequence, the tremendous internal pressures of the trapped volcanic gases remain in the pasty magma. Following the breaching of the chamber, the magma degasses explosively. The gases and water out with speed and force. Since 1600 CE, nearly 300,000 people have killed by volcanic eruptions. Most deaths were caused by flows and mudflows, deadly hazards that often accompany explosive eruptions of subduction-zone stratovolcanoes
7.
Volcano
–
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. Earths volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, therefore, on Earth, volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging. This type of volcanism falls under the umbrella of plate hypothesis volcanism, Volcanism away from plate boundaries has also been explained as mantle plumes. These so-called hotspots, for example Hawaii, are postulated to arise from upwelling diapirs with magma from the boundary,3,000 km deep in the Earth. Volcanoes are usually not created where two plates slide past one another. Erupting volcanoes can pose hazards, not only in the immediate vicinity of the eruption. Historically, so-called volcanic winters have caused catastrophic famines, the word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology. The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology, at the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot molten rock. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans, therefore, most volcanic activity is submarine, black smokers are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed, for example, subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the plate subducts, or submerges under the continental plate forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the temperature of the overlying mantle wedge. This magma tends to be very viscous due to its high content, so it often does not reach the surface. When it does reach the surface, a volcano is formed, typical examples of this kind of volcano are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant and is eventually re-formed as the plate advances over the postulated plume and this theory is currently under criticism, however. The most common perception of a volcano is of a mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit, however. The features of volcanoes are more complicated and their structure. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have features such as massive plateaus
8.
Volcanic arc
–
A volcanic arc is a chain of volcanoes formed above a subducting plate, positioned in an arc shape as seen from above. Offshore volcanoes form islands, resulting in an island arc. Generally, volcanic arcs result from the subduction of a tectonic plate under another tectonic plate. The oceanic plate is saturated with water, and volatiles such as water drastically lower the point of the mantle. As the oceanic plate is subducted, it is subjected to greater and greater pressures with increasing depth and this pressure squeezes water out of the plate and introduces it to the mantle. Here the mantle melts and forms magma at depth under the overriding plate, the magma ascends to form an arc of volcanoes parallel to the subduction zone. The Hawaiian Islands form a typical hotspot chain, the islands to the northwest are smaller and more lush than the recently created Hawaii island itself. Hotspot volcanoes are known as intra-plate volcanoes, and the islands they create are known as Volcanic Ocean Islands. Volcanic arcs do not generally such a simple age-pattern. There are two types of volcanic arcs, oceanic arcs form when oceanic crust subducts beneath other oceanic crust on an adjacent plate, continental arcs form when oceanic crust subducts beneath continental crust on an adjacent plate, creating an arc-shaped mountain belt. In some situations, a subduction zone may show both aspects along its length, as part of a plate subducts beneath a continent and part beneath adjacent oceanic crust. Volcanoes are present in almost any mountain belt, but this does not make it a volcanic arc, often there are isolated, but impressively huge volcanoes in a mountain belt. For instance, Vesuvius and the Etna volcanoes in Italy are part of separate, the active front of a volcanic arc is the belt where volcanism develops at a given time. Active fronts may move over time, changing their distance from the trench as well as their width. This loss of water is due to the destabilization of the mineral chlorite at approximately 40–60 km depth. On the subducting side of the arc is a deep and narrow oceanic trench. This trench is created by the pull of the relatively dense subducting plate pulling the leading edge of the plate downward. Multiple earthquakes occur along this boundary with the seismic hypocenters located at increasing depth under the island arc
9.
Volcanic belt
–
A volcanic belt is a large volcanically active region. Other terms are used for areas of activity, such as volcanic fields. Volcanic belts are found above zones of high temperature where magma is created by partial melting of solid material in the Earths crust. These areas usually form along tectonic plate boundaries at depths of 10–50 km, the deeply deformed and eroded remnants of ancient volcanic belts are found in volcanically inactive regions such as the Canadian Shield. It contains over 150 volcanic belts that range from 600 to 1200 million years old and these are zones of variably metamorphosed mafic to ultramafic volcanic sequences with associated sedimentary rocks that form what are known as greenstone belts. They are thought to have formed at ancient oceanic spreading centers, the Abitibi greenstone belt in Ontario and Quebec, Canada is one of the worlds largest greenstone belts. Volcanic belts may be formed by multiple tectonic settings, an oceanic plate ordinarily slides underneath a continental plate, this often creates an orogenic zone with many volcanoes and earthquakes. In a sense, subduction zones are the opposite of divergent boundaries, areas where material rises up from the mantle, Volcanic belts may also be formed by hotspots, which is a location on the Earths surface that has experienced active volcanism for a long period of time. These volcanic belts are called volcanic chains, but more recently some geologists, such as Gillian Foulger view upper-mantle convection as a cause. This in turn has re-raised the antipodal pair impact hypothesis, the idea that pairs of opposite hot spots may result from the impact of a large meteor. Geologists have identified some 40-50 such hotspots around the globe, with Hawaii, Réunion, Yellowstone, Galápagos, and Iceland overlying the most currently active. An example of a volcanic belt is the Anahim Volcanic Belt in British Columbia, Canada. Most hotspot volcanoes are basaltic because they erupt through oceanic lithosphere, as a result, they are less explosive than subduction zone volcanoes, which have high water contents. Where hotspots occur under continental crust, basaltic magma is trapped in the less dense continental crust and these rhyolites can be quite hot and form violent eruptions, despite their low water content. For example, the Yellowstone Caldera was formed by some of the most powerful explosions in geologic history. Andean Volcanic Belt Garibaldi Volcanic Belt Taupo Volcanic Zone Plate tectonics
10.
Taupo Volcanic Zone
–
The Taupo Volcanic Zone is a highly active volcanic V-shaped area in the North Island of New Zealand that is spreading east–west at the rate of about 8 mm per year. It is named after Lake Taupo, the caldera of the largest volcano in the zone. There are numerous volcanic vents and geothermal fields in the zone, with Mount Ruapehu, Mount Ngauruhoe, the zones largest eruption since the arrival of Europeans was that of Mount Tarawera in 1886, which killed over 100 people. Early Maori would also have been affected by the much larger Kaharoa eruption from Tarawera around 1300 AD, the last major eruption from Lake Taupo, the Hatepe eruption, occurred in 181 AD. It is believed to have first emptied the lake then followed that feat with a flow that covered about 20,000 square kilometres of land with volcanic ash. A total of 120 km3 of material is believed to have been ejected, the date of this activity is known since the ash expulsion was sufficiently large to turn the sky red over Rome and China. Taupo erupted an estimated 1,170 km3 of material in its Oruanui eruption 26,500 years ago and this was Earths most recent eruption reaching VEI-8, the highest level on the Volcanic Explosivity Index. The Rotorua caldera has been dormant longer, with its main eruption occurring about 240,000 years ago, the Taupo Volcanic Zone is approximately 350 kilometres long by 50 kilometres wide. Mount Ruapehu marks its end, while the submarine Whakatane volcano is considered its northeastern limit. It forms a portion of the active Lau-Havre-Taupo back-arc basin. Although the back-arc basin continues to propagate to the southwest, with the South Wanganui Basin forming an initial back-arc basin, South of Kaikoura the plate boundary changes to a transform boundary with oblique continental collision uplifting the Southern Alps in the South Island. A subduction zone reappears southwest of Fiordland, at the corner of the South Island. Solander Island is an extinct volcano associated with subduction zone. Recent scientific work indicates that the Earths crust below the Taupo Volcanic Zone may be as little as 16 kilometres thick, a film of magma 50 kilometres wide and 160 kilometres long lies 10 kilometres under the surface. The geological record indicates some of the volcanoes in the area erupt infrequently but have large, violent. There is also some possible rifting in the Taupo Volcanic Zone, see also List of volcanoes in New Zealand#Taupo Volcanic Zone. The following Volcanic Centers belong to the Taupo Volcanic Zone, Rotorua, Okataina, Maroa, Taupo, Tongariro and Mangakino. The Okareka Embayment and the Tarawera Volcanic Complex are inside the Haroharo Caldera which in turn is inside the Okataina Ring Structure, from Newhall, the Waikato River course follows roughly the northern Maroa caldera rim on one side
11.
Types of volcanic eruptions
–
Several types of volcanic eruptions—during which lava, tephra, and assorted gases are expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure—have been distinguished by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of behavior has been observed, some volcanoes may exhibit only one characteristic type of eruption during a period of activity, while others may display an entire sequence of types all in one eruptive series. There are three different types of eruptions, the most well-observed are magmatic eruptions, which involve the decompression of gas within magma that propels it forward. Phreatomagmatic eruptions are another type of eruption, driven by the compression of gas within magma. Within these wide-defining eruptive types are several subtypes, the weakest are Hawaiian and submarine, then Strombolian, followed by Vulcanian and Surtseyan. The stronger eruptive types are Pelean eruptions, followed by Plinian eruptions, subglacial and phreatic eruptions are defined by their eruptive mechanism, and vary in strength. An important measure of strength is Volcanic Explosivity Index, an order of magnitude scale ranging from 0 to 8 that often correlates to eruptive types. Explosive eruptions are characterized by gas-driven explosions that propels magma and tephra, effusive eruptions, meanwhile, are characterized by the outpouring of lava without significant explosive eruption. Volcanic eruptions vary widely in strength, on the one extreme there are effusive Hawaiian eruptions, which are characterized by lava fountains and fluid lava flows, which are typically not very dangerous. On the other extreme, Plinian eruptions are large, violent, volcanoes are not bound to one eruptive style, and frequently display many different types, both passive and explosive, even the span of a single eruptive cycle. Volcanoes do not always erupt vertically from a crater near their peak. Some volcanoes exhibit lateral and fissure eruptions, notably, many Hawaiian eruptions start from rift zones, and some of the strongest Surtseyan eruptions develop along fracture zones. Scientists believed that pulses of magma mixed together in the chamber before climbing upward—a process estimated to several thousands of years. But Columbia University volcanologists found that the eruption of Costa Rica’s Irazú Volcano in 1963 was likely triggered by magma that took a route from the mantle over just a few months. The volcanic explosivity index is a scale, from 0 to 8 and it is used by the Smithsonian Institutions Global Volcanism Program in assessing the impact of historic and prehistoric lava flows. It operates in a way similar to the Richter scale for earthquakes, the vast majority of volcanic eruptions are of VEIs between 0 and 2. Volcanic eruptions by VEI index Magmatic eruptions produce juvenile clasts during explosive decompression from gas release, Hawaiian eruptions are a type of volcanic eruption, named after the Hawaiian volcanoes with which this eruptive type is hallmark. Hawaiian eruptions are the calmest types of events, characterized by the effusive eruption of very fluid basalt-type lavas with low gaseous content
12.
First ascent
–
In climbing, a first ascent is the first successful, documented attainment of the top of a mountain, or the first to follow a particular climbing route. First ascents are notable because they entail genuine exploration, with risks, challenges. The person who performs the first ascent is called the first ascensionist, the details of the first ascents of even many prominent mountains are scanty or unknown, sometimes the only evidence of prior summiting is a cairn, artifacts, or inscriptions at the top. Today, first ascents are generally recorded and usually mentioned in guidebooks. Overwhelmingly, the idea of a first ascent is a one, especially in places such as Africa. There may be little or no evidence or documentation about the climbing activities of indigenous peoples living near the mountain. The term is used when referring to ascents made using a specific technique or taking a specific route, such as via the North Face. In rock climbing, some of the earlier first ascents, particularly for difficult routes, involved a mix of free, as a result, purist free climbers have developed the designation first free ascent to acknowledge ascents intentionally made more challenging by using equipment for protection only. Some other first ascents could be recorded for particular mountains or routes, one is the First Winter Ascent, which is, as the name easily suggests, the first ascent made during winter season. This is most important where the climate of winter is a factor in increasing the difficulty grade of the route, in the Northern Hemisphere conventional winter ascents are made between December 21 and March 21 and are not related to the conditions. Also in the Himalayan area, although Nepal and Chinas winter season permits start on December 1, another is the First Solo Ascent, which is the first ascent made by a single climber. This is most important on high-level rock climbing, when the climber has to provide his own security or even when climbing without any protection at all, another type of ascent, also known as FFA is the first female ascent. The term last ascent has been used to refer to an ascent of a mountain or face that has changed to such an extent – often because of rockfall – that the route no longer exists. It can also be used facetiously to refer to a climb that is so unpleasant or unaesthetic that no one would willingly repeat the first ascent partys ordeal. List of first ascents List of first ascents in the Alps List of first ascents in the Himalaya Glossary of climbing terms Alpinist Magazine – Peter Mortimers First Ascent, Issue 17
13.
Botany
–
Botany, also called plant science, plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field, the term botany comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη meaning pasture, grass, or fodder, βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, to feed or to graze. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance and they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden and these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, in the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science, dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties, many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10,000 years ago. This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee, the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC, in archaic Avestan writings. His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to science until the Middle Ages. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years, important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarīs the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassals The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner and these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens, often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject, lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe, the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621, throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine. German physician Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three German fathers of botany, along with theologian Otto Brunfels and physician Hieronymus Bock, Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification, physician Valerius Cordus authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner and herbalist John Gerard published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants, naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants
14.
Scrambling
–
Scrambling is a walk up steep terrain involving the use of ones hands. It is a term that lies somewhere between hiking, hillwalking, mountaineering, and easy rock climbing. Alpine scrambling is a term applied to scrambling in high mountains like the Alps and the Rockies of North America, the Mountaineers climbing organization defines alpine scrambling as follows, Alpine Scrambles are off-trail trips, often on snow or rock, with a non-technical summit as a destination. A non-technical summit is one that is reached without the need for certain types of climbing equipment, however, this can mean negotiating lower angle rock, traveling through talus and scree, crossing streams, fighting ones way through dense brush, and walking on snow-covered slopes. Although ropes may be sensible on harder scrambles, sustained use of rope and belay counts as climbing, typically, for this reason mountain walkers are advised to carry a rope on harder scrambles. Scramblers are also advised to know their limits and to turn back before they get into difficulties, some mountain tops may be reached by walking or scrambling up their least-steep side. The essence of a modern via ferrata is a cable which runs along the route and is periodically fixed to the rock. Using a via ferrata kit, climbers can secure themselves to the cable, the cable can also be used as aid to climbing, and additional climbing aids, such as iron rungs, pegs, carved steps and even ladders and bridges are often provided. Thus via ferratas allow otherwise dangerous routes to be undertaken without the associated with unprotected scrambling and climbing or the need for climbing equipment such as ropes. Many of theses routes include a bad step, where the scrambling suddenly becomes more serious. The bad step on Crib Goch for example, involves only 20 feet or so of climbing, the rock face here is well polished by countless boots, but there are many holds which offer firm support. By contrast, the traverse of the Cuillin Ridge on Skye demands use of a rope at one point at least, the ridge routes of Liathach and Beinn Eighe in Wester Ross are easier to traverse but are extremely exposed. Descent from such ridges is very limited, so once committed, an Teallach to the north offers scrambling, as does Stac Pollaidh further north in Sutherland, which includes a bad step. One resource for scramblers in Britain are the guides by W A Poucher, though these are now dated, a guide to 156 scrambling routes in the Canadian Rockies can be found in Scrambles in the Canadian Rockies by Alan Kane. Backpacker magazine has featured the book as an expedition guide. The Canadian Alpine Journal referred to it as a scree gospel, mount Jefferson is in Coos County, New Hampshire, and is the third highest mountain in the state. Mount Jefferson has a direct ascent along the Caps Ridge Trail, whose base and this route, gaining only 2,700 feet vertically to the summit, makes for the easiest ascent of any Presidential mountain. However, climbing over the caps involves some exposed scrambling and can be steep, many easy scrambles become serious climbs in bad weather
15.
Tephra
–
Tephra is fragmental material produced by a volcanic eruption regardless of composition, fragment size or emplacement mechanism. Volcanologists also refer to airborne fragments as pyroclasts, once clasts have fallen to the ground they remain as tephra unless hot enough to fuse together into pyroclastic rock or tuff. Tephra mixed in with precipitation can also be acidic and cause acid rain, the use of tephra layers, which bear their own unique chemistry and character, as temporal marker horizons in archaeological and geological sites is known as tephrochronology. The word tephra and pyroclast both derive from Greek, τέφρα tephra means ash, while the word pyroclast is derived from the Greek πῦρ, meaning fire, media related to Tephra at Wikimedia Commons How Volcanoes Work Volcanic Materials Identification
16.
Central Plateau, New Zealand
–
The North Island Volcanic Plateau is a volcanic plateau covering much of central North Island of New Zealand with volcanoes, lava plateaus, and crater lakes. The plateau is approximately 100 km east–west and the distance is about 130 km. North of Tongariro is the volcanic Mount Pihanga, the western boundary of the plateau forms an escarpment beside the Mamaku and Kaimai Ranges, but further south is less distinct. In the east, the plateau runs up to the foot of the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, finally, west of the plateau stands the volcano Mount Taranaki. Two of the countrys longest rivers, the Whanganui and the Waikato have their headwaters on the plateau, the tallest mountain Ruapehu, is an Andesite cone that was once twice as high but has been eroded. All of the cones are composite stratovolcanoes made up of layers of lava and they are in the intermediate category meaning they have a moderate amount of silica in the magma. The percentage of silica is the factor in the thickness or viscosity of the lava. This contrasts with ignimbrite which is a gas-rich material ejected from the ground at high speed forming a giant white hot fountain 55 kilometres high. When the ignimbrite falls it flows outwards at high speed and can travel many kilometres even going up and over hills and mountains before it cools, especially around Lake Taupo the eroded ignimbrite includes pieces of pumice, a lightweight rock that floats on water. The top, unwelded layer of the sheet is relatively soft and easily eroded by streams. The lower, welded layers of the sheets are more dense. These lower compressed layers often show the glint of heated silicon specks and this stone, called Hinuera stone, is used for building cladding. The ring plain around the volcanoes is formed from numerous lahars or mudflows that occur when either the crater lake water is ejected from Ruapehu or snow is melted. The water runs down the mountain picking up ash, lapilli, blocks, an old lahar flow is visible from the approach road to Whakapapa ski field. About 30cubic kilometres of material were released making this the biggest volcanic event in the world in the last 5,000 years, the entire area is above 300 metres, with a considerable proportion of it more than 800 metres above sea level. The plateau has a mild climate although the temperature falls below freezing in winter. Of all North Island regions, the Volcanic Plateau is closest to having a continental climate, the period of maximum snow is July to September. Sudden blizzard conditions can be experienced on the volcanoes in winter and these blizzards have killed climbers as recently as the 1980s. The Desert Road on State Highway 1 is often closed by snow in winter for brief periods
17.
Mount Ruapehu
–
Mount Ruapehu, or just Ruapehu, is an active stratovolcano at the southern end of the Taupo Volcanic Zone in New Zealand. It is 23 kilometres northeast of Ohakune and 23 km southwest of the shore of Lake Taupo. The North Islands major skifields and only glaciers are on its slopes, Ruapehu, the largest active volcano in New Zealand, is the highest point on the North Island and has three major peaks, Tahurangi, Te Heuheu and Paretetaitonga. The deep, active crater is between the peaks and fills with Crater Lake between major eruptions, Ruapehu is largely composed of andesite and began erupting at least 250,000 years ago. In recorded history, major eruptions have been about 50 years apart, in 1895,1945, minor eruptions are frequent, with at least 60 since 1945. Some of the eruptions in the 1970s generated small ash falls. Between major eruptions, warm acidic Crater Lake forms, fed by melting snow, major eruptions may completely expel the lake water. In 2000, the ERLAWS system was installed on the mountain to detect such a collapse,1945 eruption and aftermath The 1945 eruption emptied Crater Lake and dammed the outlet with tephra. The crater slowly refilled with water, until on 24 December 1953 the tephra dam collapsed causing a lahar in the Whangaehu River and it was already known that the river had partially undermined one of the bridge piers and the lahar finished the job, causing the bridge to collapse. Although warned of the bridge, the train driver was unable to stop the train in time. 1995-96 eruptions Spectacular eruptions occurred during 1995 and 1996, Ruapehu had been showing signs of increased activity since late November 1994, with elevated Crater Lake temperatures and a series of eruptions that increased in intensity over about nine months. Several lahars were observed, both in the Whangaehu River and other areas of the mountain, between 18 September and 25 September 1995, indicating Crater Lake was being emptied by the eruptions. The Department of Conservation immediately issued warnings and advised people to keep off the mountain. The eruption cloud disrupted air travel, occasionally closing airports and the central North Island airspace, black sand-like ash fell on surrounding farmland and stock had to be moved. The ash also entered streams and was washed into the pen stocks, episodic eruptions continued until the end of November 1995. A web camera, dubbed the worlds first Volcano Cam, was set up, since then Ruapehu has been monitored by at least one and sometimes several volcano cams. Another, smaller, eruption phase began on the morning of 17 June 1996, despite a series of small eruptions that spread thin layers of ash across both Whakapapa and Turoa ski areas, the ski fields opened for the 1996 season. Turoa closed on 29 September – earlier than usual, while Whakapapa stayed open until Labour Weekend, after the 1996 eruption it was recognised that a catastrophic lahar could again occur when Crater Lake bursts the volcanic ash dam blocking the lake outlet
18.
Rangipo Desert
–
The vegetation is low and sparse, consisting of mainly tussock and snow grasses. The headwaters of many streams, which later turn into large rivers, gouge deep serrated valleys through the unconsolidated ash. The climate here is harsh and alpine, with close to 270 ground frosts per year in comparison with less than 30 in the regions of Hawkes Bay,80 km to the east. Heavy snowfalls - rarely seen in the rest of the island - are also an occurrence in winter. Trampers and climbers in the area should be mindful of the extreme chill effect of the south wind which can produce wind chill factors lowering the temperature below zero for days on end. Much of the lies at an altitude of over 600 m. Due to the nature of the land and the extreme winter climate. The town of Waiouru, with its camp, lies to the south. To the north of the lies the Rangipo prison farm. Many of the North Islands largest rivers have their headwaters in the area, particularly around the slopes of Mount Ruapehu and these include the Waikato and Whangaehu Rivers, as well as major tributaries of the Rangitikei and Whanganui Rivers. The desert is bisected by only one sealed road, a section of State Highway 1 known as the Desert Road, the road is closed for short periods most winters with barriers arms due to severe snow storms and icy road conditions. Turangi emergency services monitor the northern part of the Desert Road, the Lord of the Rings films were shot in New Zealand, and the Black Gate of Mordor scenes were shot in the Rangipo Desert in 2000. The Round the Mountain Track, Tongariro National Park New Zealand Small Town travel guide - Waiouru
19.
Lake Taupo
–
Lake Taupo is a lake in the North Island of New Zealand. It is in the caldera of the Taupo Volcano, with a surface area of 616 square kilometres, it is the largest lake by surface area in New Zealand, and the second largest freshwater lake by surface area in geopolitical Oceania after Lake Murray. Motutaiko Island lies in the south east area of the lake, Lake Taupo has a perimeter of approximately 193 kilometres and a deepest point of 186 metres. It is drained by the Waikato River, and its tributaries are the Waitahanui River, the Tongariro River. It is a trout fishery with stocks of introduced brown. Lake Taupo is in a created by a supervolcanic eruption which occurred approximately 26,500 years ago. According to geological records, the volcano has erupted 28 times in the last 27,000 years and it has ejected mostly rhyolitic lava, although Mount Tauhara formed from dacitic lava. The initial event 26,500 years ago is known as the Oruanui eruption, the caldera later filled with water, eventually overflowing to cause a huge outwash flood. It is possible that the Lake Taupo event contributed to starting the Last Glacial Maximum, several later eruptions occurred over the millennia before the most recent major eruption, which is traditionally dated as about 180 CE from Greenland ice-core records. Tree ring data from two studies suggests a date of 232 CE ±5. Known as the Hatepe eruption, it is believed to have ejected 100 cubic kilometres of material, the eruption devastated much of the North Island and further expanded the lake. The area was uninhabited by humans at the time of the eruption, possible climatic effects of the eruption would have been concentrated on the southern hemisphere due to the southerly position of Lake Taupo. Taupos last known eruption occurred around 30 years later, with lava dome forming the Horomatangi Reefs. These springs are the site of occurrence of certain extremophile micro-organisms, the volcano is currently considered to be dormant rather than extinct because of moderate fumarole activity and hot springs along the shores of the lake. Native faunal species in the lake include northern koura or crayfish, the lake is noted for stocks of brown trout and rainbow trout, introduced from Europe and California respectively in the late nineteenth century. There has also been a subsequent introduction of smelt as a food for the trout, a community of sponges and associated invertebrates live around the underwater geothermal vents. Tourism is a component of Taupos commercial sector, and the city attracts over 2 million visitors per year. The busiest time for the industry is the summer season around Christmas
20.
Hawaiki
–
In Polynesian mythology, Hawaiki is the original home of the Polynesian peoples, before dispersal across Polynesia. It also features as the underworld in many Māori stories, linguists have reconstructed the term to Proto-Nuclear Polynesian *sawaiki. The Māori word Hawaiki figures in legends about the arrival of the Māori in Aotearoa, on several island groups including New Zealand and the Marquesas the term has been recorded as associated with the underworld and death. William Wyatt Gill discusses at length the legends about Avaiki as the underworld or Hades of Mangaia in the Cook Islands, Gill records a proverb, Ua po Avaiki, ua ao nunga nei – Tis night now in spirit-land, for tis light in this upper world. Tregear also records the term Avaiki as meaning underworld at Mangaia, there is of course no real contradiction in Hawaiki being the ancestral homeland and the underworld, which is also the dwelling place of the ancestors and the spirits. Other possible cognates of the word Hawaiki include saualii and houeiki, on Easter Island, the name of the mythical home country appears as Hiva. According to Thor Heyerdahl Hiva allegedly lay east of the island, sebastian Englert records, He-kî Hau Maka, He kaiga iroto i te raá, iruga. Ka-oho korua, ka-ûi i te kaiga mo noho o te Ariki OHotu Matua, the island towards the sun, above. Go, see the island where King Hotu Matua will go, Englert puts forward the claim that Hiva lies to the West of the island. The name Hiva is found in the Marquesas Islands, in the names of islands, Nuku Hiva, Hiva Oa. It is also notable that in the Hawaiian Islands, the homeland is called Kahiki. According to various traditions, the Polynesians migrated from Hawaiki to the islands of the Pacific Ocean in open canoes. The Māori people of New Zealand trace their ancestry to groups of people who travelled from Hawaiki in about 40 named canoes. Polynesian oral traditions say that the spirits of Polynesian people return to Hawaiki after death, however, no Polynesian crops were introduced into the Americas, and there is no evidence of Polynesian settlement. This evidence indicates that at least some of the migration occurred using the prevailing winds, austronesian and Polynesian navigators may have deduced the existence of uninhabited islands by observing migratory patterns of birds. Hawai‘iloa Hōkūle‘a Kupe Percy Smith Buse, J. Taringa, R. Cook Islands Maori Dictionary With English Finderlist, edited by Biggs, B. M. Taumoefolau, From *Sau Ariki to Hawaiki. The Journal of the Polynesian Society,105, 385–410, E. R. Tregear, Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary,1891. Hawaiki in Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand
21.
Fumarole
–
A fumarole is an opening in a planets crust, often in areas surrounding volcanoes, which emits steam and gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen sulfide. The steam forms when superheated water vaporizes as its pressure drops when it emerges from the ground, the name solfatara, from the Italian solfo, sulfur, is given to fumaroles that emit sulfurous gases. Fumaroles may occur along tiny cracks or long fissures, in clusters or fields. A fumarole field is an area of springs and gas vents where magma or hot igneous rocks at shallow depth release gases or interact with groundwater. From the perspective of groundwater, a fumarole could be described as a hot spring that boils off all its water before the water reaches the surface. Fumaroles may persist for decades or centuries if located above a persistent heat source, the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, for example, was formed during the 1912 eruption of Novarupta in Alaska. Initially, thousands of fumaroles occurred in the ash from the eruption. An estimated four thousand fumaroles exist within the boundaries of Yellowstone National Park in the United States, in April 2006 fumarole emissions killed three ski-patrol workers east of Chair 3 at Mammoth Mountain Ski Area in California. The workers were overpowered by toxic fumes that had accumulated in a crevasse they had fallen into, another example is an array of fumaroles in the Valley of Desolation in Morne Trois Pitons National Park in Dominica. Boiling Lake Mazuku Mofetta Mudpot Mud volcano USGS Photo Glossary, Fumarole Sulfur Mining on Gunung Welirang Volcano Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Fumarole
22.
Volcanic crater
–
A volcanic crater is a roughly circular depression in the ground caused by volcanic activity. It is typically a bowl-shaped feature within which occurs a vent or vents, a volcanic crater can be of large dimensions, and sometimes of great depth. During certain types of eruptions, a volcanos magma chamber may empty enough for an area above it to subside. In most volcanoes, the crater is situated at the top of a formed from the erupted volcanic deposits such as lava flows. Volcanoes that terminate in such a summit crater are usually of a conical form, other volcanic craters may be found on the flanks of volcanoes, and these are commonly referred to as flank craters. Some volcanic craters may fill either fully or partially with rain and/or melted snow, a crater may be breached during an eruption, either by explosions or by lava, or through later erosion. Breached craters have a lower rim on one side. Some volcanoes, such as maars, consist of a crater alone and these volcanic explosion craters are formed when magma rises through water-saturated rocks and causes a phreatic eruption. Volcanic craters from phreatic eruptions often occur on plains away from other obvious volcanoes
23.
Jean-Claude Killy
–
Jean-Claude Killy also known as Gilette is a former French World Cup alpine ski racer. Born in Saint-Cloud, Hauts-de-Seine, he dominated the sport in the late 1960s and he was a triple Olympic champion, winning the three alpine events at the 1968 Winter Olympics, becoming the most successful athlete there. He also won the first two World Cup titles, in 1967 and 1968. Killy was born in Saint-Cloud, a suburb of Paris, during the German occupation of World War II, but was brought up in Val-dIsère in the Alps, where his family had relocated in 1945 following the war. His father, Robert, was a former Spitfire pilot for the Free French, and opened a ski shop in the Savoie village, and would later operate a hotel. In 1950, his mother Madeline abandoned the family for another man, leaving Robert to raise Jean-Claude, age 7, his older sister, Jean-Claude was sent to boarding school in Chambéry,80 miles down the valley, but he despised being shut up in a classroom. Killy turned his attention to skiing rather than school and his father allowed him to drop out at age 15, and he made the French national junior team a year later. As a young racer, Killy was fast, but did not usually complete his races, in December 1961, at age 18, Killy won his first international race, a giant slalom. The event took place in his village of Val-dIsere. Killy had started 39th, a position that should have been a severe disadvantage, the French coach picked Killy for the giant slalom in the 1962 World Championships in Chamonix, France,50 miles away in the shadow of Mont Blanc. But Killy, unaware of his selection, was attempting to qualify for the downhill event in northeastern Italy at Cortina dAmpezzo. Only three weeks before the championships, he skied in his typical reckless style. About two hundred yards from the finish, Killy hit a stretch of ice in a compression and went down, rose immediately, unfortunately, his other leg was broken, and he watched the 1962 World Championships on crutches. Two years later, at age 20, Killy was entered in all three of the events at the 1964 Olympics, because his coach wanted to prepare him for 1968. Unfortunately, Killy was plagued by recurrences of amoebic dysentery and hepatitis, ailments that he had contracted in 1962 during a summer of compulsory service with the French Army in Algeria. His form was definitely off, and he fell a few yards after the start of the downhill, lost a binding in the slalom, and finished fifth in the giant slalom, in which he had been the heavy favorite. Yet a few later, he dominated a giant slalom race at Garmisch-Partenkirchen, in Bavaria, counting for the prestigious Arlberg-Kandahar events. A year later, he triumphed at another major competition
24.
Mount Doom
–
Mount Doom is a fictional volcano in J. R. R. It is located in the northwest of the Black Land of Mordor, alternative names, in Tolkiens invented language of Sindarin, include Orodruin and Amon Amarth. The Sammath Naur, located high up in the cone, were made by the Dark Lord Sauron in the Second Age. They comprised a tunnel leading to a platform with molten lava below it. It was here Sauron forged the One Ring during the Second Age, the mountain represents the endpoint of Frodo Baggins quest to destroy the Ring, which is recounted in The Lord of the Rings. The mountains chambers are the site where the One Ring was originally forged by Sauron, and he subsequently established his kingdom based around Orodruin and used the fire that welled there from the heart of the earth in his sorceries and his forging. The most famous of Saurons creations forged at Mount Doom is the One Ring, Orodruin is more than just an ordinary volcano, it responds to Saurons commands and his presence, lapsing into dormancy when he is away from Mordor and becoming active again when he returns. When Sauron is defeated at the end of the Third Age, according to Tolkien, Mount Doom corresponds to the volcano of Stromboli in Sicily. However, some writers have compared various 21st century eruptions of Mount Etna to Mount Doom, the phrase crack of doom is the modern English for the Old English term for Ragnarök, the great catastrophe of Norse mythology. The term became used for the Christian Day of Judgement, as by William Shakespeare in Macbeth and this appealed to Tolkien, who was a Professor of Old English. Another possible source of the name is a story by Algernon Blackwood. Reviewer Bart Higgins noted the similarity between Tolkiens Mount Doom and the caverns under Venus depicted in Perelandra by Tolkiens friend C. S. Lewis. In both cases, the book reaches a cataclysmic scene of a struggle in a cavern, ending with an evil being falling into volcanic fire. Since it is known that Tolkien and Lewis frequently shared with each other their respective works in progress. In Peter Jacksons film adaptation of The Lord of the Rings, in long shots the mountain is either a large model or a CGI effect, or a combination. It was not permitted to film the summit of Ngauruhoe because the Māori hold it to be sacred, however, some scenes on the slopes of Mount Doom were filmed on the slopes of Ruapehu. The International Astronomical Union names all mountains on Saturns moon Titan after mountains in Tolkiens work, in 2012, they named a Titanian mountain Doom Mons after Mount Doom. Swedish melodic death metal band Amon Amarth, whose lyrics deal primarily with Viking culture, the Lord of the Rings Location Guidebook
25.
Peter Jackson
–
Sir Peter Robert Jackson ONZ KNZM is a New Zealand film director, screenwriter and film producer. He is best known as the director, writer, and producer of The Lord of the Rings trilogy and The Hobbit trilogy and he also produced District 9, The Adventures of Tintin, The Secret of the Unicorn, and the documentary West of Memphis. Jackson began his career with the horror comedy Bad Taste. He shared a nomination for Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay with his partner Fran Walsh for Heavenly Creatures, Jackson has been awarded three Academy Awards in his career, including the award for Best Director in 2003. He has also received a Golden Globe, four Saturn Awards and his production company is Wingnut Films, and his most regular collaborators are co-writers and producers Walsh and Philippa Boyens. Jackson was made a Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit in 2002 and he was later knighted by Anand Satyanand, the Governor-General of New Zealand, at a ceremony in Wellington in April 2010. In December 2014, Jackson was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, Jackson was born on 31 October 1961 in Wellington and was raised at the nearby coastal town of Pukerua Bay. His parents—Joan, a worker and housewife, and William Bill Jackson. Bill Jackson was a veteran of the Siege of Malta in World War II, as a child, Jackson was a keen film fan, growing up on Ray Harryhausen films, as well as finding inspiration in the television series Thunderbirds and Monty Pythons Flying Circus. After a family gave the Jacksons a Super 8 cine-camera with Peter in mind. Jackson has long cited King Kong as his film. Most notable though was a 20-minute short called The Valley, which won him a prize because of the shots he used. In school, Jackson expressed no interest in sports and his classmates also remember him wearing a duffle coat with an obsession verging on religious. He had no training in film-making, but learned about editing, special effects and make-up largely through his own trial. As a young adult, Jackson discovered the work of author J. R. R. Tolkien after watching The Lord of the Rings, when he was 16 years old, Jackson left school and began working full-time as a photo-engraver for a Wellington newspaper, The Evening Post. For the seven years he worked there, Jackson lived at home with his parents so he could save as much money as possible to spend on film equipment. After two years of work Jackson bought a 16 mm camera, and began shooting a film later became Bad Taste. Jackson has long cited several films as influences and it is well known that Jackson has a passion for King Kong, often citing it as his favourite film and as the film that inspired him early in his life
26.
The Lord of the Rings (film series)
–
The Lord of the Rings is a film series consisting of three high fantasy adventure films directed by Peter Jackson. They are based on the novel The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien, the films are subtitled The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers and The Return of the King. They were distributed by New Line Cinema, each film in the series also had special extended editions released on DVD a year after their respective theatrical releases. While the films follow the general storyline, they do omit some of the novels plot elements and include some additions to. The Fellowship eventually splits up and Frodo continues the quest together with his loyal companion Sam and the treacherous Gollum. Meanwhile, Aragorn, heir in exile to the throne of Gondor, Legolas, Gimli, Merry, and Pippin, the series was a major financial success, with the films collectively being among the highest-grossing film series of all time. The films were acclaimed and heavily awarded, winning 17 out of 30 total Academy Award nominations. The series received praise for its innovative special and visual effects. Director Peter Jackson first came into contact with The Lord of the Rings when he saw Ralph Bakshis 1978 animated film The Lord of the Rings, Jackson enjoyed the film and wanted to know more. Afterwards, he read an edition of the book during a twelve-hour train journey from Wellington to Auckland when he was seventeen. In 1995, Jackson was finishing The Frighteners and considered The Lord of the Rings as a new project, with the new developments in computer-generated imagery following Jurassic Park, Jackson set about planning a fantasy film that would be relatively serious and feel real. Negotiations then stalled when Universal Studios offered Jackson a remake of King Kong, Weinstein was furious, and further problems arose when it turned out Zaentz did not have distribution rights to The Hobbit, United Artists, which was in the market, did. By April 1996, the question was still not resolved. It was also revealed that Jackson originally wanted to finish King Kong before The Lord of the Rings began, but due to location problems, he decided to start with The Lord of the Rings franchise instead. When Universal cancelled King Kong in 1997, Jackson and Walsh immediately received support from Weinstein, Jackson and Walsh asked Costa Botes to write a synopsis of the book and they began to re-read the book. Two to three months later, they had written their treatment, Bilbo attends the Council of Elrond, Sam looks into Galadriels mirror, Saruman is redeemed before he dies and the Nazgûl just make it into Mount Doom before they fall. They presented their treatment to Harvey and Bob Weinstein, the latter of whom they focused on impressing with their screenwriting as he had not read the book and they agreed upon two films and a total budget of $75 million. During mid-1997, Jackson and Walsh began writing with Stephen Sinclair, sinclairs partner, Philippa Boyens, was a major fan of the book and joined the writing team after reading their treatment
27.
Volcanology of New Zealand
–
Volcanology of New Zealand is the scientific study of volcanoes and volcanic phenomena in New Zealand. Volcanism has been responsible for many of the geographical features, especially in the North Island. New Zealands rocks record examples of almost every kind of volcanism observed on Earth, none of the South Islands volcanoes are active. New Zealand has been the site of large explosive eruptions during the last two million years, including several of supervolcano size. These include eruptions from Macauley Island and the Taupo, Whakamaru, Mangakino, Reporoa, Rotorua, two relatively recent eruptions from the Taupo volcano are perhaps the best known. Its Oruanui eruption was the worlds largest known eruption in the past 70,000 years and it occurred around 26,500 years ago and deposited approximately 1,200 km³ of material. Later erosion and sedimentation had long-lasting effects on the landscape, causing the Waikato River to shift from the Hauraki Plains to its current course through the Waikato to the Tasman Sea, New Zealands largest lake, Lake Taupo, fills the caldera formed in this eruption. Taupos most recent major eruption, the Taupo or Hatepe eruption, took place around 180 CE and it ejected some 120 km³ of material, with around 30 km³ ejected in just a few minutes. It is believed that the column was 50 kilometres high. This makes it one of the most violent eruptions in the last 5000 years, the resulting ash turned the sky red over Rome and China. Mount Taraweras eruption around 1310 CE, while not nearly as large, was still substantial, because its deposits, stretching from Gisborne to the Bay of Islands, were emplaced around the time that Māori permanently settled New Zealand, they have provided a useful archaeological marker. Approximately 2 km³ of tephra was erupted, as well as the direct effects of explosions, lava, and pyroclastic flows, volcanoes pose various hazards to the New Zealand populace. These include tsunamis, break-out floods and lahars from volcanically dammed lakes, ashfall, the train could not stop in time, and 151 lives were lost. This was ultimately caused by Ruapehus 1945 eruption, which had emptied the crater lake, effects can be widespread even for eruptions of only moderate size. Ash plumes from Ruapehus 1996 eruption forced the closure of eleven airports, insurance against volcanic damage is provided by the countrys Earthquake Commission. The Māori had many myths and legends regarding the lands volcanic mountains, perhaps the most well known regards the location of Taranaki, Tongariro and Pihanga as they stand today. It is said that the two volcanoes competed for the love of the beautiful Pihanga, and Taranaki lost. Defeated, Taranaki moved to its present location near New Plymouth, another legend recounts the exploits of Ngātoro-i-rangi, a tohunga who arrived from the ancestral Māori homeland, Hawaiki, on the Arawa waka
28.
Tongariro
–
Mount Tongariro is a compound volcano in the Taupo Volcanic Zone of the North Island of New Zealand. It is located 20 kilometres to the southwest of Lake Taupo, Mount Tongariro is part of the Tongariro volcanic centre, which consists of four massifs made of andesite, Tongariro, Kakaramea, Pihanga, and Ruapehu. The andesitic eruptions formed Tongariro, a stratovolcano, reaching a height of 1,978 metres. Tongariro is composed of layers of lava and tephra and first erupted 275,000 years ago. Tongariro consists of at least 12 cones, Ngauruhoe, while often regarded as a separate mountain, is geologically a cone of Tongariro. It is also the most active vent, having erupted more than 70 times since 1839, activity has also been recorded at other vents in recent history. Te Māri Craters erupted in 2012, for the first time since 1897, red Crater last erupted ash in 1926 and contains active fumaroles. There are many craters on the massif, water has filled some of these to form the Blue Lake. Unlike nearby Mt. Ruapehu, no glaciers exist on Tongariro today, however, geomorphological evidence in the form of moraines and cirques indicates the former presence of mountain glaciers. Mount Tongariro is in the Tongariro National Park, New Zealands first national park and it was set aside in 1887 by Te Heuheu Tukino IV, paramount chief of the Māori Ngati Tuwharetoa iwi and made a national park in order to preserve its natural beauty. The park also includes the peaks of Ngauruhoe and Ruapehu, both of which lie to the southwest of Tongariro, the national park is a dual World Heritage Site for its outstanding natural and intangible cultural values. The popular hiking route called Tongariro Alpine Crossing passes between Tongariro and Ngauruhoe, Mount Tongariro and its surroundings are also one of the several locations which Peter Jackson chose to shoot the The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. At 11,50 pm on 6 August 2012, Mt Tongariro had what was believed to be a hydrothermal eruption after a month of increased activity. The eruption occurred at the Te Māri Craters, which had dormant since 1897. The eruption occurred in a new vent below the Upper Te Māri crater, an ash cloud 6.1 kilometres high deposited ash into the surrounding area, especially to the east of the volcano. The ash cloud travelled 250 kilometres in four hours, NIWA reported the ash cloud contained about 10,000 cubic metres of ash, and that the ash cloud was 25 kilometres long and 15 kilometres wide 39 minutes after the eruption. Ash and the smell of sulphur was reported in Napier and Hastings, the smell of sulphur was also reported in Wellington, Nelson and Blenheim. A layer of ash 10–15 mm thick settled on farmland 5 to 10 kilometres east of Mount Tongariro, particle sizes were between 2 and 3mm
29.
Global Volcanism Program
–
The Smithsonian Institutions Global Volcanism Program documents Earths volcanoes and their eruptive history over the past 10,000 years. The GVP reports on current eruptions from around the world as well as maintaining a repository on active volcanoes. In this way, a context for the planets active volcanism is presented. Smithsonian reporting on current volcanic activity dates back to 1968, with the Center for Short-Lived Phenomena, the GVP is housed in the Department of Mineral Sciences, part of the National Museum of Natural History, on the National Mall in Washington, D. C. During the early stages of an eruption, the GVP acts as a clearinghouse of reports, data, the Weekly Volcanic Activity Report is a cooperative project between the Smithsonians Global Volcanism Program and the United States Geological Surveys Volcano Hazards Program. Notices of volcanic activity posted on the Report website are preliminary, detailed reports on various volcanoes are published monthly in the Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network The GVP also documents the last 10,000 years of Earths volcanism. The historic activity can guide perspectives on future events and on volcanoes showing activity. GVPs volcano and eruption databases constitute a foundation for all statements concerning locations, frequencies. Two editions of Volcanoes of the World, a regional directory, and were published based on the GVP data and interpretations
30.
Smithsonian Institution
–
The Smithsonian Institution, established in 1846 for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, is a group of museums and research centers administered by the Government of the United States. Originally organized as the United States National Museum, that ceased to exist as an administrative entity in 1967. Additional facilities are located in Arizona, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York City, Texas, Virginia, more than 200 institutions and museums in 45 states, Puerto Rico, and Panama are Smithsonian Affiliates. The Institutions thirty million annual visitors are admitted without charge and its annual budget is around $1.2 billion with 2/3 coming from annual federal appropriations. Other funding comes from the Institutions endowment, private and corporate contributions, membership dues, and earned retail, concession, Institution publications include Smithsonian and Air & Space magazines. The British scientist James Smithson left most of his wealth to his nephew Henry James Hungerford, Congress officially accepted the legacy bequeathed to the nation, and pledged the faith of the United States to the charitable trust on July 1,1836. The American diplomat Richard Rush was dispatched to England by President Andrew Jackson to collect the bequest, Rush returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. Once the money was in hand, eight years of Congressional haggling ensued over how to interpret Smithsons rather vague mandate for the increase, unfortunately, the money was invested by the US Treasury in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas which soon defaulted. The United States Exploring Expedition by the U. S. Navy circumnavigated the globe between 1838 and 1842, in 1846, the regents developed a plan for weather observation, in 1847, money was appropriated for meteorological research. The Institution became a magnet for young scientists from 1857 to 1866, the Smithsonian played a critical role as the U. S. partner institution in early bilateral scientific exchanges with the Academy of Sciences of Cuba. The Smithsonian Institution Building began construction in 1849, designed by architect James Renwick Jr. its interiors were completed by general contract Gilbert Cameron and the building opened in 1855. The Smithsonians first expansion came with construction of the Arts and Industries Building in 1881, Congress had promised to build a new structure for the museum if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did, and the building was designed by architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze, meigs of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Smithsonians Department of Living Animals and this structure was designed by the D. C. architectural firm of Hornblower & Marshall. More than 40 years would pass before the museum, the Museum of History. It was designed by the firm of McKim, Mead & White. That same year, the Smithsonian signed an agreement to take over the Cooper Union Museum for the Arts of Decoration, the National Portrait Gallery and the Smithsonian American Art Museum opened in the Old Patent Office Building on October 7,1968. The first new building to open since the National Museum of Natural History was the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden
31.
JSTOR
–
JSTOR is a digital library founded in 1995. Originally containing digitized back issues of journals, it now also includes books and primary sources. It provides full-text searches of almost 2,000 journals, more than 8,000 institutions in more than 160 countries have access to JSTOR, most access is by subscription, but some older public domain content is freely available to anyone. William G. Bowen, president of Princeton University from 1972 to 1988, JSTOR originally was conceived as a solution to one of the problems faced by libraries, especially research and university libraries, due to the increasing number of academic journals in existence. Most libraries found it prohibitively expensive in terms of cost and space to maintain a collection of journals. By digitizing many journal titles, JSTOR allowed libraries to outsource the storage of journals with the confidence that they would remain available long-term, online access and full-text search ability improved access dramatically. Bowen initially considered using CD-ROMs for distribution, JSTOR was initiated in 1995 at seven different library sites, and originally encompassed ten economics and history journals. JSTOR access improved based on feedback from its sites. Special software was put in place to make pictures and graphs clear, with the success of this limited project, Bowen and Kevin Guthrie, then-president of JSTOR, wanted to expand the number of participating journals. They met with representatives of the Royal Society of London and an agreement was made to digitize the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society dating from its beginning in 1665, the work of adding these volumes to JSTOR was completed by December 2000. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation funded JSTOR initially, until January 2009 JSTOR operated as an independent, self-sustaining nonprofit organization with offices in New York City and in Ann Arbor, Michigan. JSTOR content is provided by more than 900 publishers, the database contains more than 1,900 journal titles, in more than 50 disciplines. Each object is identified by an integer value, starting at 1. In addition to the site, the JSTOR labs group operates an open service that allows access to the contents of the archives for the purposes of corpus analysis at its Data for Research service. This site offers a facility with graphical indication of the article coverage. Users may create focused sets of articles and then request a dataset containing word and n-gram frequencies and they are notified when the dataset is ready and may download it in either XML or CSV formats. The service does not offer full-text, although academics may request that from JSTOR, JSTOR Plant Science is available in addition to the main site. The materials on JSTOR Plant Science are contributed through the Global Plants Initiative and are only to JSTOR
32.
Brian Sibley
–
Brian David Sibley is an English writer. He is author of over 100 hours of drama and has written and presented hundreds of radio documentaries, features. He is widely known as the author of movie making of books, including those for the Harry Potter series and The Lord of the Rings. David was born in Wandsworth, London, to Eric George Sibley, an architectural draughtsman and his uncle was the philosopher Frank Sibley. His family moved to Chislehurst, Kent when he was five years old and he was educated at St Nicholas Church of England Primary School and Chislehurst Secondary School for Boys. In his spare time, he began submitting scripts to the BBC and, the programme was presented by actor Peter Bull, featured the voices of Norman Shelley and pianist and singer Antony Miall and was directed by John Tydeman, later Head of BBC Drama. As a broadcaster, he was a contributor to and then regular presenter of the former BBC Radio 4 arts programme Kaleidoscope and the BBC World Service arts magazine, Meridian. He also presented the Radio 4 film programme, Talking Pictures, was a presenter of The Afternoon Shift and chaired the radio panel games Break A Leg. He has also contributed to Radio 4s Last Word, Brief Lives, A Good Read, The Radio 2 Arts Show and he also presented several series of the BBC television programme, First Light. Sibleys book, Shadowlands, was serialized on Radio 2, read by Ian Richardson in what was one of the actors last pieces of broadcast work recorded before his death, the Daily Telegraph radio critic, Gillian Reynolds gave him the accolade magician of the airwaves. In 1992, Sibley wrote much of the script for Jeff Waynes Musical Version of Spartacus. Publications Books include The Disney Studio Story and Mickey Mouse, His Life and Times, The Land of Narnia, illustrated by Pauline Baynes, The Treasury of Narnia, Shadowlands, The True Story of C. S. He is also the author of the book, The Frightful Food Feud. In October 2016 he was one of four writers contributing new stories about Winnie-the-Pooh for a 90th birthday collection, the same month saw the publication of Taschen Books The Walt Disney Film Archives. The Animated Movies 1921–1968 to which he contributed five essays on Disney films. He recorded DVD audio commentaries for Around the World in 80 Days, Animal Farm, official website Daily blog site Radio Plays
33.
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
–
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt is an educational and trade publisher in the United States. Headquartered in Bostons Back Bay, it publishes textbooks, instructional materials, assessments, reference works. The company was known as Houghton Mifflin Company but changed its name following the 2007 acquisition of Harcourt Publishing. Prior to March 2010, it was a subsidiary of Education Media and Publishing Group Limited, in 1832, William Ticknor and James Thomas Fields had gathered an impressive list of writers, including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau. The duo formed a relationship with Riverside Press, a Boston printing company owned by Henry Oscar Houghton. Shortly after, Houghton also founded a company with partner George Mifflin. The company still had debt from when it merged from Houghton, Osgood and Company, in 1884, James D. Hurd, the son of Melancthon Hurd became a partner. Three people in 1888 became partners as well, James Murray Kay, Thurlow Weed Barnes, shortly thereafter the company established an Educational Department, and from 1891 to 1908 sales of educational materials increased by 500 percent. Soon after 1916, Houghton Mifflin became involved in publishing standardized tests and testing materials, the company was the fourth-largest educational publisher in the United States in 1921. In 1961, Houghton Mifflin famously passed on Julia Childs Mastering the Art of French Cooking, giving it up to Alfred A. Knopf who later published it in 1962. It went on to become a success and is considered by many to be the bible of French cooking. Houghton Mifflins strategic error was depicted in the 2009 film Julie & Julia, in 1967, Houghton Mifflin became a publicly traded company on the New York Stock Exchange under the stock symbol HTN. Under president Nader F. Darehshori Houghton Mifflin acquired in 1994 for $138 million McDougal Littell, a publisher of secondary school materials. Heath and Company, a publisher of educational resources. In 1996, the company created their Great Source Education Group to combine the supplemental material product lines of their School Division and these two companies. In 1998, HMH announced a sub-brand called LOGAL Software, which was to release a new line of interactive science software called Science Gateways, as of 2017, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt is offering the Logal Science brand as a licensing opportunity on its website. Mergers and acquisitions activities have had effects on this company. In 2001, Houghton Mifflin was acquired by French media giant Vivendi Universal for $2.2 billion including assumed debt, on December 22,2006, it was announced that Riverdeep PLC had completed its acquisition of Houghton Mifflin
34.
Daily Mail
–
The Daily Mail is a British daily middle-market tabloid newspaper owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust and published in London. Its sister paper The Mail on Sunday was launched in 1982, Scottish and Irish editions of the daily paper were launched in 1947 and 2006 respectively. A survey in 2014 found the age of its reader was 58. It had a daily circulation of 1,510,824 copies in November 2016. Its website has more than 100 million unique visitors per month, the Daily Mail has been accused of racism, and printing sensationalist and inaccurate scare stories of science and medical research. The Mail was originally a broadsheet but switched to a format on 3 May 1971. On this date it absorbed the Daily Sketch, which had been published as a tabloid by the same company. The publisher of the Mail, the Daily Mail and General Trust, is currently a FTSE250 company, the paper has a circulation of around two million, which is the fourth largest circulation of any English-language daily newspaper in the world. Circulation figures according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations in March 2014 show gross daily sales of 1,708,006 for the Daily Mail. According to a December 2004 survey, 53% of Daily Mail readers voted for the Conservative Party, compared to 21% for Labour, the main concern of Viscount Rothermere, the current chairman and main shareholder, is that the circulation be maintained. The Mail has been edited by Paul Dacre since 1992, the Daily Mail, devised by Alfred Harmsworth and his brother Harold, was first published on 4 May 1896. It cost a halfpenny at a time when other London dailies cost one penny, and was more populist in tone and more concise in its coverage than its rivals. The planned issue was 100,000 copies but the print run on the first day was 397,215, Lord Salisbury, 19th-century Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, dismissed the Daily Mail as a newspaper produced by office boys for office boys. By 1902, at the end of the Boer Wars, the circulation was over a million, from the beginning, the Mail also set out to entertain its readers with human interest stories, serials, features and competitions. In 1900 the Daily Mail began printing simultaneously in both Manchester and London, the first national newspaper to do so, the same production method was adopted in 1909 by the Daily Sketch, in 1927 by the Daily Express and eventually by virtually all the other national newspapers. Printing of the Scottish Daily Mail was switched from Edinburgh to the Deansgate plant in Manchester in 1968 and, for a while, in 1987, printing at Deansgate ended and the northern editions were thereafter printed at other Associated Newspapers plants. In 1906 the paper offered £1,000 for the first flight across the English Channel, punch magazine thought the idea preposterous and offered £10,000 for the first flight to Mars, but by 1910 both the Mails prizes had been won. Before the outbreak of World War I, the paper was accused of warmongering when it reported that Germany was planning to crush the British Empire
35.
GNS Science
–
GNS Science is a New Zealand Crown Research Institute. It focuses on geology, geophysics, and nuclear science, GNS Science was known as the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences from 1992 to 2005. As part of process, GNS Science became semi-commercial. This change led to autonomy, accompanied by greater emphasis on financial viability. GNS Science has its office in Avalon, with other facilities in Gracefield, Dunedin. GNS Science GeoNet Hazards Monitoring Network
36.
Wikimedia Commons
–
Wikimedia Commons is an online repository of free-use images, sound, and other media files. It is a project of the Wikimedia Foundation, the repository contains over 38 million media files. In July 2013, the number of edits on Commons reached 100,000,000, the project was proposed by Erik Möller in March 2004 and launched on September 7,2004. The expression educational is to be according to its broad meaning of providing knowledge. Wikimedia Commons itself does not allow fair use or uploads under non-free licenses, for this reason, Wikimedia Commons always hosts freely licensed media and deletes copyright violations. The default language for Commons is English, but registered users can customize their interface to use any other user interface translations. Many content pages, in particular policy pages and portals, have also translated into various languages. Files on Wikimedia Commons are categorized using MediaWikis category system, in addition, they are often collected on individual topical gallery pages. While the project was proposed to also contain free text files. In 2012, BuzzFeed described Wikimedia Commons as littered with dicks, in 2010, Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger reported Wikimedia Commons to the FBI for hosting sexualized images of children known as lolicon. Wales responded to the backlash from the Commons community by voluntarily relinquishing some site privileges, over time, additional functionality has been developed to interface Wikimedia Commons with the other Wikimedia projects. Specialized uploading tools and scripts such as Commonist have been created to simplify the process of uploading large numbers of files. In order to free content photos uploaded to Flickr, users can participate in a defunct collaborative external review process. The site has three mechanisms for recognizing quality works, one is known as Featured pictures, where works are nominated and other community members vote to accept or reject the nomination. This process began in November 2004, another process known as Quality images began in June 2006, and has a simpler nomination process comparable to Featured pictures. Quality images only accepts works created by Wikimedia users, whereas Featured pictures additionally accepts nominations of works by third parties such as NASA, the three mentioned processes select a slight part from the total number of files. However, Commons collects files of all quality levels, from the most professional level across simple documental, files with specific defects can be tagged for improvement and warning or even proposed for deletion but there exists no process of systematic rating of all files. The site held its inaugural Picture of the Year competition, for 2006, all images that were made a Featured picture during 2006 were eligible, and voted on by eligible Wikimedia users during two rounds of voting
37.
Tolkien tourism
–
Tolkien tourism is a phenomenon of fans of The Lord of the Rings fictional universe travelling to sites of film- and book-related significance. It is especially notable in New Zealand, site of the trilogy by Peter Jackson. The three films based on the novel The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tourists sometimes travel dressed as characters from the books or films, indulging in what is known throughout fandom as cosplay. Avid fans traveling to both well-known and obscure locations related to The Lord of the Rings are referred to as Tolkien tourists, New Zealand is in a unique position to capitalize on its scenery. Tolkien tourist attention is less geared towards visiting New Zealands national parks, for example, Mount Olympus, dramatic pillars of rock carved out by nature and time, sits in Kahurangi National Park near Nelson in a remote corner of the South Island. Since it featured in The Fellowship of the Ring, the first of The Lord of the Rings trilogy, film NZ—the national film promotion board—advertises that New Zealand offers an English-speaking, largely nonunion work force, along with a kaleidoscope of urban and rural landscapes. Jan Howard Finder, the fiction writer, has organized special hostel-based tours of New Zealand to see places filmed in Lord of the Rings. The annual tourist influx to New Zealand grew 40%, from 1.7 million in 2000 to 2.4 million in 2006, 6% of international visitors cited the film as a reason for traveling to the country. You can argue that Lord of the Rings was the best unpaid advertisement that New Zealand has ever had, said Bruce Lahood, United States, an article published by The New York Times contradicts Lahood, stating that New Zealand subsidized the movie trilogy with $150 million. Many experts and New Zealanders are hoping for a renewed Tolkien effect because The Hobbit was also filmed in New Zealand. The government of New Zealand also saw some criticism for increasing movie subsidies and creating laws tailored for US movie companies, solely out of fear of losing the production. Some have subsequently called the price $25 million that New Zealand had to pay to retain the movie extortionate and argued that the discussion had occurred in a climate of hyperbole, an even higher price of at least $109 million has also been cited. Tolkien tourism has existed to a lesser extent independent from the Jackson movies. In 1992 the centennial was celebrated in Oxford. Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa, Tolkien was born in Bloemfontein on 3 January 1892, the Bank of Africa building site has been recovered, the grave of Tolkiens father has been recovered and a new tombstone erected. In addition, the Anglican church where Tolkien was baptized still stands, Tolkiens fathers last will and testament can also be read at one of the municipal offices. The National Afrikaans Literary Museum also has a number of copies of Die Smid van Groot-Wootton, impact on popular culture of the Lord of the Rings
38.
Waikato
–
Waikato is a local government region of the upper North Island of New Zealand. It covers the Waikato, Hauraki, Coromandel Peninsula, the northern King Country, much of the Taupo District and it is governed by the Waikato Regional Council. It is usually referred to by using the definite article, the Waikato, broadly, the extent of the region is the Waikato River catchment. Other major catchments are those of the Waihou, Piako, Awakino, the region is bounded by Auckland on the north, Bay of Plenty on the east, Hawkes Bay on the south-east, and Manawatu-Wanganui and Taranaki on the south. Waikato Region is the fourth largest region in the country in area and population, It has an area of 25,000 km², the region encompasses all or part of eleven territorial authorities, the most of any region of New Zealand. It is centred on the Waikato which consists of Waikato District, Matamata-Piako District, Waipa District, South Waikato District, the name for the region is taken from the Waikato River, waikato is a Māori word traditionally translated as flowing water. To the west, the region is bounded by the Tasman Sea, the coastal region is largely rough hill country, known locally as the Hakarimata Range, though it is more gently undulating in the north, closer to the mouth of the Waikato River. The coast is punctured by three natural harbours, Raglan Harbour, Aotea Harbour, and Kawhia Harbour. The area around Raglan is noted for its black sand beaches and for its fine surfing conditions at Manu Bay. To the east of the hills lies the broad floodplain of the Waikato River. The area around Cambridge has many thoroughbred stables, the north of the region around Te Kauwhata produces some of New Zealands best wines. Dozens of small lakes lie in this area, the largest of which is Lake Waikare. To the east, the land rises towards the slopes of the Kaimai. The upper reaches of the Waikato River are used for hydroelectricity, the lowest and earliest-created such lake is Lake Karapiro, now developed as a world-class rowing centre, where the world championships were held in 2010. The climate is mild and temperate with rainfall of 1200–1600mm per annum. Summers are drier with maximum temperatures of 25–28 degrees Celsius, summer droughts occur one year in ten. Winter maxima are 12–15 degrees Celsius, the lower areas experience regular morning fog, under anticyclonic conditions, which burns off by late morning to produce many still, clear sunny days. Morning frosts are common during winter anticyclones
39.
Hobbiton Movie Set
–
The Hobbiton Movie Set was a significant location used for The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and The Hobbit film series. The underlying geology of the area is that of the Hinuera Formation, originally largely marshland, it was transformed in the 19th century by a large-scale drainage scheme and is now fertile agricultural land that is also a major racehorse breeding area. The Alexander family moved to the 500-hectare property of rolling grassland where the set is located in 1978, since then it has been a livestock ranch with 13,000 sheep and 300 Angus beef cattle. The main sources of income from farming are mutton, wool, Set Decorator Alan Lee commented that the locations hills looked as though Hobbits had already begun excavations. Part of the site has a lake with an arm that could double as a river. After suitable negotiations with the owners, work commenced in transforming part of the farm into sets for Hobbiton, the New Zealand Army brought in heavy equipment to make 1.5 kilometres of road into the site from the nearest highway and initial ground works. Thatch on the pub and mill roofs was made from rushes growing on the farm, generators were installed and water and sewerage also had to be considered. Catering was made available for up to 400 cast, crew, jackson wrote, I knew Hobbiton needed to be warm, comfortable and feel lived in. By letting the weeds grow through the cracks and establishing hedges and little gardens a year before filming, we ended up with a real place. Lee commented that it was satisfying to see that it had taken on something of the look of the Devonshire countryside Id lived in for the past twenty-five years. Although the set was not built to last, the hobbit hole facades having been constructed from untreated timber, ply and polystyrene, it was evident that the location was of interest to tourists. Guided tours of the 5.5 hectares movie set site commenced in 2002 and continue to be provided on a daily basis, highlights of the tour include Bagshot Row, the Party Tree, and Bilbos Bag End home. There are now 44 hobbit holes on view although it is possible to enter a few of them, all of which have small. Refreshments are available at The Shires Rest Cafe prior to or after tours, Breakfast and indeed Second Breakfast is served. In 2012 the Green Dragon inn was opened on the set, there is now also a store selling merchandise and souvenirs adjacent to the cafe and evening events commenced in 2014. The tours have received good reviews and in 2013 the set welcomed its 500. In 2010, the set was rebuilt in a permanent fashion for The Hobbit, An Unexpected Journey. Ian Brodie The Lord of the Rings Location Guidebook, charles Rawlings-Way, Brett Atkinson, Sarah Bennett, Peter Dragicevich and Errol Hunt Lonely Planet New Zealand
40.
Shire (Middle-earth)
–
The Shire is a region of J. R. R. Tolkiens fictional Middle-earth, described in The Lord of the Rings and other works. The Shire refers to an area settled exclusively by Hobbits and largely removed from the goings-on in the rest of Middle-earth and it is located in the northwest of the continent, in the large region of Eriador and the Kingdom of Arnor. In the languages invented by Tolkien, its name in Westron was Sûza Shire or Sûzat The Shire, while its name in Sindarin was i Drann. According to Tolkien, the Shire measured 40 leagues from the Far Downs in the west to the Brandywine Bridge in the east, and 50 leagues from the northern moors to the marshes in the south. This is confirmed in an essay by Tolkien on translating The Lord of the Rings, the Shire was originally divided into four Farthings. The outlying lands of Buckland and the Westmarch were formally added after the War of the Ring, within the Farthings there are some smaller unofficial clan homelands, the Tooks nearly all live in or near Tuckborough in Tookland, for instance. A Hobbit surname often indicates where the came from, Samwise Gamgees last name derives from Gamwich. Buckland was named for the Oldbucks, the Shire is described as a small but beautiful, idyllic and fruitful land, beloved by its inhabitants. The Hobbits had an agricultural system in the Shire but were not industrialised. The landscape included small pockets of forest, various supplies were produced in the Shire, including cereals, fruit, wood and pipe-weed. The original parts of the Shire were subdivided into four Farthings, the Three-Farthing Stone marked the tripoint where the borders of the Eastfarthing, Westfarthing and Southfarthing of the Shire came together, by the East Road. It is claimed that the Three-Farthing Stone was inspired by the Four shire stone and these were formally given to the hobbits as the East and West Marches of the Shire by King Elessar after the War of the Ring, in S. R. Buckland had been settled by then, Gorhendad Oldbuck led hobbits from the East Farthing across the river in T. A.2340. There is no mention of settlement in the Westmarch until Elessars gift, Sam Gamgees daughter Elanor and her husband Fastred later settled there, the Northfarthing was the least populous part of the Shire. It was where most of the Shires barley crop was grown, the historic Battle of Greenfields was fought here. Bindbole Wood was one of the forests of the Shire. The village of Hardbottle was the home of the Bracegirdle family, Tolkiens unfinished index to The Lord of the Rings places Hardbottle in the Southfarthing. But in Tolkiens more extensive entry in his guide for translators, long Cleeve was the home of a sept of the Took clan, descendants of Bandobras Bullroarer Took known as the North-Tooks, who settled here after the Battle of Greenfields
41.
Manawatu-Wanganui
–
Manawatu-Wanganui is a region in the lower half of the North Island of New Zealand, whose main population centres are the cities of Palmerston North and Whanganui. It is administered by the Manawatu-Wanganui Regional Council, which for trading purposes is known as Horizons Regional Council, although in recent years both the Whanganui River and Whanganui District have been renamed, the region is currently spelled without an h. The region covers all or part of ten territorial authority areas, parts of five of these are covered by five other regions of New Zealand, the most of any region. The largest city is Palmerston North, with a population of 85,300 and it is the only territorial authority in the region to be administered by a city council. It is also responsible for public transport, the region is dominated and defined by two significant river catchments, the Whanganui and the Manawatu. The Whanganui River, in the northwest, is the longest navigable river in New Zealand, the river was extremely important to early Māori as it was the southern link in a chain of waterways that spanned almost two-thirds of the North Island. It was one of the areas of Māori settlement with its easily fortified cliffs. Legends emphasise the importance of the river and it remains sacred to Whanganui iwi, Māori along the coast and lowland plains grew kumara and other crops. The Manawatu River runs across the centre of the region, from rolling hill country in the east to the fertile Manawatu Plains in the west. The main city of Palmerston North is located on these plains and this river is unusual, in that it passes from hill country to plains through a gorge cut into much higher country, an indication that the hills have risen since the river formed. To the southeast, a further, more populated area lies between the sources of the Manawatu River and the Pacific coast. The two river catchments have very different natures, while the open Manawatu Plains became more densely settled by Europeans, inland Ruapehu, Rangitikei and Whanganui remained more Māori-dominated, remote and independent, and is still heavily forested. As late as the 1950s the Whanganui River remained a river of mystery, since then exploitation of the rivers commercial potential has opened up the area, often causing friction with local Māori, who have long-standing grievances. Manawatu-Wanganui as a whole is one of the most important pastoral areas in New Zealand, much of Manawatu-Wanganui was fertile and bush-covered when Europeans arrived and developed the area as a source of timber. Saw milling and flax milling dominated the 19th century, followed by an influx of farmers who exploited the newly cleared ground. Deforestation, burn-offs of timber and scrub and large scale combined with overgrazing. In the early 1900s authorities realised that careful management was needed to maintain this important agricultural area, Manawatu-Wanganui takes up a large proportion of the lower half of the North Island. It is the second-largest local government region in the North Island, the region stretches from north of Taumarunui to south of Levin on the west coast, and across to the east coast from Cape Turnagain to Owhanga
42.
Ithilien
–
In J. R. R. Tolkiens fictional Middle-earth, Ithilien is a region and fiefdom of the kingdom of Gondor. Ithilien, or Moon-land, is the easternmost province of Gondor and it lay between the river and Mordors Mountains of Shadow, and was subdivided by the stream of Morgulduin into North and South Ithilien. Ithilien was a fair and prosperous land during the Second Age and the first part of the Third Age, filled with many woods and gardens, when Gondor was strong and Mordor deserted. Of old its chief city was Minas Ithil, but when this was captured by Mordor in T. A.2002 it was renamed Minas Morgul, after this the population gradually migrated across the Anduin to escape the looming threat of Ringwraiths from Minas Morgul. However the Stewards of Gondor still kept scouts in Ithilien, based at locations such as Henneth Annûn. In 2954 Mount Doom burst into flame and those few farmers who remained fled Westward over the Anduin, in the narrative of The Lord of the Rings, Gollum leads Frodo Baggins and Samwise Gamgee through Ithilien on the way to the pass of Cirith Ungol into Mordor. Samwise leaves a cooking fire burning, and as a result the hobbits are found and taken into custody by the Rangers of Ithilien, under the command of Faramir, the son of the Steward Denethor II. After witnessing a battle with Southrons on the North Road, the hobbits are taken to Henneth Annûn by the Rangers, after the events of the War of the Ring, King Elessar granted to Faramir the Princedom of Ithilien and the Lordship of Emyn Arnen. Emyn Arnen, being the home of the Stewards of Gondor, became the official home of the Steward Faramir. During the Fourth Age, the region was ruled by the Princes of Ithilien, Minas Ithil maybe repopulated after Faramir cleaned the evil-remnants in Morgul Vale, and Faramir ruled as Lord of Emyn Arnen. The Elves played a role in the reconstruction of eastern Gondor. This secret refuge consisted of a cave behind a west-facing waterfall overlooking a pool, during the War of the Ring, Faramir son of Steward Denethor II had his base of operations there, and Frodo Baggins and his companion Samwise Gamgee were taken there by his company. Emyn Arnen, a series of hills at the centre of Ithilien, south of Osgiliath, stood opposite Minas Tirith across Anduin, Emyn Arnen means Hills Beside the Water in Sindarin, referring to its proximity to the Great River, Anduin. From this place originated the line of later Stewards of Gondor and it was home to a family of Númenórean nobles, and from them came Húrin, chosen by King Minardil of Gondor as his Steward. Later kings of Gondor chose their stewards only from among Húrins descendants, after the War of the Ring, the Lordship of the hills was granted to Faramir, Prince of Ithilien and Steward to the King Elessar. The element arnen in the name Tolkien explained as of pre-Númenórean origin, Rangers of Ithilien Cross-roads Tolkien, J. R. R. The Two Towers, The Lord of the Rings, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-395-08254-4 Tolkien, the Return of the King, The Lord of the Rings, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-395-08256-0 Tolkien, J. R. R. Christopher Tolkien, ed. The Peoples of Middle-earth, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-395-82760-4 Tolkien, J. R. R. Christopher Tolkien, the Lost Road and Other Writings, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-395-45519-7 Ithilien
43.
Mordor
–
In J. R. R. Tolkiens fictional world of Middle-earth, Mordor was the region occupied and controlled by Sauron, in the southeast of northwestern Middle-earth to the East of Anduin, the great river. Orodruin, a volcano in Mordor, was the goal of the Fellowship of the Ring in the quest to destroy the One Ring, Mordor has three enormous mountain ranges surrounding it, from the north, from the west and from the south. The mountains both protected the land from an invasion by any of the people living in those directions. Tolkien was reported to have identified Mordor with the volcano of Stromboli off Sicily, three sides of Mordor were bounded by mountain ranges, arranged in a rough rectangle, the Ered Lithui on the north, and the Ephel Dúath on the west and the south. In the northwest the pass of Cirith Gorgor led into the plain of Udûn. Sauron built the Black Gate of Mordor across the pass, joining the Towers of the Teeth, the passage through the inner side of Udûn into the interior of Mordor was guarded by another gate, the Isenmouthe. Outside the Morannon lay the Dagorlad or Battle Plain, in the interior within this mountainous border lay Saurons main fortress Barad-dûr, the arid plateau of Gorgoroth, and Mount Doom. To the east lay the plain of Lithlad, a narrow pass led through the Ephel Dúath, guarded by Minas Morgul. A higher, more difficult pass, Cirith Ungol, just to the north, was guarded by a tower built by Gondor. This pass, the pass of the spider, was blockaded by Torech Ungol. The fortress Durthang lay in the northern Ephel Dúath above Udûn, Núrn, the southern part of Mordor, was less arid and more fertile. Streams here fed the salt Sea of Núrnen, Saurons slaves farmed this region to support his armies. Inside the Ephel Dúath ran a parallel ridge, the Morgai, separated from the Ephel Dúath by a narrow valley that Frodo. Water trickled into this vale from the Ephel Dúath, and the text describes it as a dying land not yet dead. The vegetation included low scrubby trees, coarse grey grass-tussocks, withered mosses, great writhing, tangled brambles, the fauna included maggots, midges, and flies marked with a red eye-shaped blotch. Adjacent to Mordor were, to the west, the land of Ithilien, to the northwest the Dead Marshes, to the northeast Rhûn, to the southeast Khand. The atlas was published before The Peoples of Middle-earth, in which the Sea of Rhûn. Mordor was a relic of the works of Morgoth, apparently formed by massive volcanic eruptions
