1.
Summit
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A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
2.
Topographic prominence
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It is a measure of the independence of a summit. A peaks key col is a point on this contour line. By convention, the prominence of Mount Everest, the Earths highest mountain, is taken to equal the elevation of its summit above sea level, if the peaks prominence is P metres, to get from the summit to any higher terrain one must descend at least P metres. Together with the convention for Mount Everest, this implies that the prominence of any island or continental highpoint is equal to its elevation above sea level, for every ridge connecting the peak to higher terrain, find the lowest point on the ridge. The key col is defined as the highest of these cols, the prominence is the difference between the elevation of the peak and the elevation of the key col. The following mental exercise may illustrate the meaning of topographic prominence, imagine you are standing at the top of a peak and imagine that an imaginary sea level rises to your feet. Now slowly lower the sea level and an imaginary island appears beneath your feet. Your island will grow and will merge with other islands that emerge, the parent peak may be either close or far from the subject peak. The summit of Mount Everest is the parent peak of Aconcagua at a distance of 17,755 km, the key col may also be close or far from the subject peak. The key col for Aconcagua is the Bering Strait at a distance of 13,655 km, the key col for the South Summit of Mount Everest is about 100 m distant. Prominence is interesting to many mountaineers because it is a measurement that is strongly correlated with the subjective significance of a summit. Peaks with low prominences are either subsidiary tops of some higher summit or relatively insignificant independent summits, peaks with high prominences tend to be the highest points around and are likely to have extraordinary views. Only summits with a sufficient degree of prominence are regarded as independent mountains, for example, the worlds second-highest mountain is K2. While Mount Everests South Summit is taller than K2, it is not considered an independent mountain because it is a subsummit of the main summit, many lists of mountains take topographic prominence as a criterion for inclusion, or cutoff. John and Anne Nuttalls The Mountains of England and Wales uses a cutoff of 15 m, in the contiguous United States, the famous list of fourteeners uses a cutoff of 300 ft /91 m. Also in the U. S.2000 feet of prominence has become a threshold that signifies that a peak has major stature. This generates lists of peaks ranked by prominence, which are different from lists ranked by elevation. Such lists tend to emphasize isolated high peaks, such as range or island high points, one advantage of a prominence-ranked list is that it needs no cutoff, since a peak with high prominence is automatically an independent peak
3.
Topographic isolation
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The topographic isolation of a summit is the minimum great-circle distance to a point of equal elevation, representing a radius of dominance in which the peak is the highest point. It can be calculated for small hills and islands as well as for major mountain peaks, the following sortable table lists the Earths 40 most topographically isolated summits. The nearest peak to Germanys highest mountain, the 2, 962-metre-high Zugspitze, the distance between the Zugspitze and this contour is 25.8 km, the Zugspitze is thus the highest peak for a radius of 25.8 km around. Its isolation is thus 25.8 km, because there are no higher mountains than Mount Everest, it has no definitive isolation. Many sources list its isolation as the circumference of the earth over the poles or – questionably, after Mount Everest the Aconcagua, highest mountain of the American continents, has the greatest isolation of all mountains. There is no land for 16,534 kilometres when its height is first exceeded by Tirich Mir in the Hindu Kush. Mont Blanc is the highest mountain of the Alps, the geographically nearest higher mountains are all in the Caucasus. The Kukurtlu, which rises near the Elbrus, is the peak for Mont Blanc. com Canadian Mountain Encyclopedia peakbagger. com peaklist. org peakware. com World Mountain Encyclopedia summitpost. org
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Yakutat, Alaska
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The City and Borough of Yakutat is a borough in the U. S. state of Alaska. Incorporated as a non-unified Home Rule Borough on September 22,1992, the name is Tlingit, Yaakwdáat but it originally derives from an Eyak name diyaʼqudaʼt and was influenced by the Tlingit word yaakw. The borough covers an area six times the size of the U. S. state of Rhode Island. As of the 2010 census, the population was 662, the U. S. Census Bureau has defined the former City of Yakutat as a census-designated place within the borough. The only other significant population center in the borough is the community of Icy Bay, the original settlers in the Yakutat area are believed to have been Eyak-speaking people from the Copper River area. Tlingits migrated into the area and assimilated the Eyaks before the arrival of Europeans in Alaska, Yakutat was only one of a number of Tlingit and mixed Tlingit-Eyak settlements in the region, although all the others have been depopulated or abandoned. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, English, French, Spanish, the Shelikhov-Golikov company, precursor of the Russian-American Company, built a fort in Yakutat in 1795 to facilitate trade in sea otter pelts. It was known as New Russia, Yakutat Colony, or Slavorossiya, when the Russians cut off access to the fisheries nearby, a Tlingit war party attacked and destroyed the fort. By 1886, after the Alaska Purchase by the United States, in 1889 the Swedish Free Mission Church opened a school and sawmill in the area. A cannery, another sawmill, a store and a railroad were constructed from 1903 by the Stimson Lumber Company, many people moved to the current site of Yakutat to be closer to the Stimson cannery, which operated through 1970. During World War II, the USAAF stationed a large aviation garrison near Yakutat, the troops were withdrawn after the war but the runway is still in use as Yakutat Airport, which offers scheduled airline service. Fishing is currently the largest economic activity in Yakutat, Yakutat Tlingit Tribe received a Language Preservation Grant from the Administration for Native Americans in 2004. With this, they have reinvigorated their efforts to teach the Tlingit language to middle-aged, YTT received another ANA grant in 2007 and is expanding its role in the schools. All the YTT Tlingit language revitalization work focuses on using communicative approaches to language teaching, such as TPR. While working at a cannery from 1912 to 1941, Seiki Kayamori extensively photographed Yakutat. A large set of prints of his work is held by Yakutat City Hall. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the borough has an area of 9,463 square miles. The 2010 census also defines a smaller census-designated place named Yakutat which hasa total area of 104.1 square miles, yakutats population center is located at 59°32′49″N 139°43′38″W, at the mouth of Yakutat Bay
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
Yukon
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Yukon is the smallest and westernmost of Canadas three federal territories. The territory has the smallest population of any province or territory in Canada, Whitehorse is the territorial capital and Yukons only city. The territory was split from the Northwest Territories in 1898 and was named the Yukon Territory, though officially bilingual, the Yukon Government also recognizes First Nations languages. At 5,959 m, Yukons Mount Logan, in Kluane National Park and Reserve, is the highest mountain in Canada, most of Yukon has a subarctic climate, characterized by long cold winters and brief warm summers. The Arctic Ocean coast has a tundra climate, notable rivers include the Yukon River, after which the territory was named, as well as the Pelly, Stewart, Peel, White and Tatshenshini rivers. Long before the arrival of Europeans, central and southern Yukon was populated by First Nations people, sites of archeological significance in Yukon hold some of the earliest evidence of the presence of human occupation in North America. The sites safeguard the history of the first people and the earliest First Nations of the Yukon, the volcanic eruption of Mount Churchill in approximately 800 AD in what is now the U. S. Coastal and inland First Nations had extensive trading networks, European incursions into the area only began early in the 19th century with the fur trade, followed by missionaries. By the 1870s and 1880s gold miners began to arrive and this drove a population increase that justified the establishment of a police force, just in time for the start of the Klondike Gold Rush in 1897. The increased population coming with the gold led to the separation of the Yukon district from the Northwest Territories. Its northern coast is on the Beaufort Sea and its ragged eastern boundary mostly follows the divide between the Yukon Basin and the Mackenzie River drainage basin to the east in the Mackenzie mountains. Most of the territory is in the watershed of its namesake, the southern Yukon is dotted with a large number of large, long and narrow glacier-fed alpine lakes, most of which flow into the Yukon River system. The larger lakes include Teslin Lake, Atlin Lake, Tagish Lake, Marsh Lake, Lake Laberge, Kusawa Lake, bennett Lake on the Klondike Gold Rush trail is a lake flowing into Nares Lake, with the greater part of its area within Yukon. Canadas highest point, Mount Logan, is in the territorys southwest, Mount Logan and a large part of the Yukons southwest are in Kluane National Park and Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Other national parks include Ivvavik National Park and Vuntut National Park in the north, other watersheds include the Mackenzie River, the Peel Watershed and the Alsek–Tatshenshini, and a number of rivers flowing directly into the Beaufort Sea. The two main Yukon rivers flowing into the Mackenzie in the Northwest Territories are the Liard River in the southeast, notable widespread tree species within Yukon are the black spruce and white spruce. Many trees are stunted because of the growing season and severe climate. The capital, Whitehorse, is also the largest city, with about three-quarters of the population, the second largest is Dawson City, which was the capital until 1952
8.
Mountain range
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A mountain range is a geographic area containing numerous geologically related mountains. A mountain system or system of ranges, sometimes is used to combine several geological features that are geographically related. Mountain ranges are usually segmented by highlands or mountain passes and valleys, individual mountains within the same mountain range do not necessarily have the same geologic structure or petrology. They may be a mix of different orogenic expressions and terranes, for example thrust sheets, uplifted blocks, fold mountains, most geologically young mountain ranges on the Earths land surface are associated with either the Pacific Ring of Fire or the Alpide Belt. The Andes is 7,000 kilometres long and is considered the worlds longest mountain system. The Alpide belt includes Indonesia and southeast Asia, through the Himalaya, the belt also includes other European and Asian mountain ranges. The Himalayas contain the highest mountains in the world, including Mount Everest, mountain ranges outside of these two systems include the Arctic Cordillera, the Urals, the Appalachians, the Scandinavian Mountains, the Altai Mountains and the Hijaz Mountains. If the definition of a range is stretched to include underwater mountains. The mountain systems of the earth are characterized by a tree structure, the sub-range relationship is often expressed as a parent-child relationship. For example, the White Mountains of New Hampshire and the Blue Ridge Mountains are sub-ranges of the Appalachian Mountains, equivalently, the Appalachians are the parent of the White Mountains and Blue Ridge Mountains, and the White Mountains and the Blue Ridge Mountains are children of the Appalachians. The position of mountains influences climate, such as rain or snow, when air masses move up and over mountains, the air cools producing orographic precipitation. As the air descends on the side, it warms again and is drier. Often, a shadow will affect the leeward side of a range. Mountain ranges are constantly subjected to forces which work to tear them down. Erosion is at work while the mountains are being uplifted and long after until the mountains are reduced to low hills, rivers are traditionally believed to be the principle erosive factor on mountain ranges, with their ability of bedrock incision and sediment transport. The rugged topography of a range is the product of erosion. The basins adjacent to a mountain range are filled with sediments which are buried and turned into sedimentary rock. The early Cenozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado provides an example and this mass of rock was removed as the range was actively undergoing uplift
9.
Saint Elias Mountains
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Elias National Park and Preserve in the USA and Kluane National Park and Reserve in Canada and includes all of Glacier Bay National Park in Alaska. In Alaska, the range includes parts of the city/borough of Yakutat and this mountain range was named after Mount Saint Elias which had been named in 1741 by the Danish explorer Vitus Bering. The St. Elias Mountains is the highest coastal mountain range on Earth and it formed due to the subduction of the Yakutat plate underneath the North American plate. The Yakutat microplate is a wedge shaped oceanic plateau with 20–30 km thickness, similar to the adjacent Pacific plate the Yakutat plate is currently moving northwestward with a rate of ~50 mm/year with respect to stable North America. The Yakutat plate is transported northwards along the active Fairweather Fault, the St. Elias Mountains formed at the plate boundary between the Yakutat and North American plate. In contrast the high elevated regions of the divide and north of it comprise rocks that are part of the North American plate. The highest peaks of the St. Elias Mountains are located in the ice field region of the Kluane National Park and north of the Malaspina Glacier. At the syntaxis region the tectonic style changes from strike-slip motion along the Fairweather Fault to collision west of Malaspina, the mountains are divided by the Duke Depression, with the shorter, more rounded Kluane Ranges to the east, and the higher Icefield Ranges to the west. Sub-ranges of the Saint Elias include the Alsek Ranges, the Fairweather Range, the highest mountains of the range include, Richter, Donald H. Preller, Cindi C. Labay, Keith A. Shew, Nora B, Geologic Map of the Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park and Preserve, Alaska. A Geologic Guide to Wrangell—Saint Elias National Park and Preserve, Alaska, wood, Charles A. Kienle, Jürgen, eds
10.
Topographic map
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Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and man-made features. A topographic map is published as a map series, made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A contour line is a line connecting places of equal elevation, however, in the vernacular and day to day world, the representation of relief is popularly held to define the genre, such that even small-scale maps showing relief are commonly called topographic. The study or discipline of topography is a broader field of study. Topographic maps are based on topographical surveys, performed at large scales, these surveys are called topographical in the old sense of topography, showing a variety of elevations and landforms. This is in contrast to older cadastral surveys, which primarily show property, the first multi-sheet topographic map series of an entire country, the Carte géométrique de la France, was completed in 1789. Topographic surveys were prepared by the military to assist in planning for battle, as such, elevation information was of vital importance. As they evolved, topographic map series became a resource in modern nations in planning infrastructure. Excluding borders, each sheet was 44 cm high and up to 66 cm wide, although the project eventually foundered, it left an indexing system that remains in use. TIGER was developed in the 1980s and used in the 1990, digital elevation models were also compiled, initially from topographic maps and stereographic interpretation of aerial photographs and then from satellite photography and radar data. Since all these were government projects funded with taxes and not classified for security reasons. Initial applications were mostly professionalized forms such as innovative surveying instruments, by the mid-1990s, increasingly user-friendly resources such as online mapping in two and three dimensions, integration of GPS with mobile phones and automotive navigation systems appeared. As of 2011, the future of standardized, centrally printed topographical maps is left somewhat in doubt, the various features shown on the map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads and these signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet. Topographic maps are commonly called contour maps or topo maps. In the United States, where the national series is organized by a strict 7. 5-minute grid. Topographic maps conventionally show topography, or land contours, by means of contour lines, contour lines are curves that connect contiguous points of the same altitude. In other words, every point on the line of 100 m elevation is 100 m above mean sea level
11.
United States Geological Survey
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The United States Geological Survey is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its resources. The organization has four science disciplines, concerning biology, geography, geology. The USGS is a research organization with no regulatory responsibility. The USGS is a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior, the USGS employs approximately 8,670 people and is headquartered in Reston, Virginia. The USGS also has major offices near Lakewood, Colorado, at the Denver Federal Center, the current motto of the USGS, in use since August 1997, is science for a changing world. The agencys previous slogan, adopted on the occasion of its anniversary, was Earth Science in the Public Service. Prompted by a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the USGS was created, by a last-minute amendment and it was charged with the classification of the public lands, and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain. This task was driven by the need to inventory the vast lands added to the United States by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the legislation also provided that the Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler surveys be discontinued as of June 30,1879. Clarence King, the first director of USGS, assembled the new organization from disparate regional survey agencies, after a short tenure, King was succeeded in the directors chair by John Wesley Powell. Administratively, it is divided into a Headquarters unit and six Regional Units, Other specific programs include, Earthquake Hazards Program monitors earthquake activity worldwide. The National Earthquake Information Center in Golden, Colorado on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines detects the location, the USGS also runs or supports several regional monitoring networks in the United States under the umbrella of the Advanced National Seismic System. The USGS informs authorities, emergency responders, the media, and it also maintains long-term archives of earthquake data for scientific and engineering research. It also conducts and supports research on long-term seismic hazards, USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast. The USGS National Geomagnetism Program monitors the magnetic field at magnetic observatories and distributes magnetometer data in real time, the USGS operates the streamgaging network for the United States, with over 7400 streamgages. Real-time streamflow data are available online, since 1962, the Astrogeology Research Program has been involved in global, lunar, and planetary exploration and mapping. USGS operates a number of related programs, notably the National Streamflow Information Program. USGS Water data is available from their National Water Information System database
12.
First ascent
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In climbing, a first ascent is the first successful, documented attainment of the top of a mountain, or the first to follow a particular climbing route. First ascents are notable because they entail genuine exploration, with risks, challenges. The person who performs the first ascent is called the first ascensionist, the details of the first ascents of even many prominent mountains are scanty or unknown, sometimes the only evidence of prior summiting is a cairn, artifacts, or inscriptions at the top. Today, first ascents are generally recorded and usually mentioned in guidebooks. Overwhelmingly, the idea of a first ascent is a one, especially in places such as Africa. There may be little or no evidence or documentation about the climbing activities of indigenous peoples living near the mountain. The term is used when referring to ascents made using a specific technique or taking a specific route, such as via the North Face. In rock climbing, some of the earlier first ascents, particularly for difficult routes, involved a mix of free, as a result, purist free climbers have developed the designation first free ascent to acknowledge ascents intentionally made more challenging by using equipment for protection only. Some other first ascents could be recorded for particular mountains or routes, one is the First Winter Ascent, which is, as the name easily suggests, the first ascent made during winter season. This is most important where the climate of winter is a factor in increasing the difficulty grade of the route, in the Northern Hemisphere conventional winter ascents are made between December 21 and March 21 and are not related to the conditions. Also in the Himalayan area, although Nepal and Chinas winter season permits start on December 1, another is the First Solo Ascent, which is the first ascent made by a single climber. This is most important on high-level rock climbing, when the climber has to provide his own security or even when climbing without any protection at all, another type of ascent, also known as FFA is the first female ascent. The term last ascent has been used to refer to an ascent of a mountain or face that has changed to such an extent – often because of rockfall – that the route no longer exists. It can also be used facetiously to refer to a climb that is so unpleasant or unaesthetic that no one would willingly repeat the first ascent partys ordeal. List of first ascents List of first ascents in the Alps List of first ascents in the Himalaya Glossary of climbing terms Alpinist Magazine – Peter Mortimers First Ascent, Issue 17
13.
Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi
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Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi was an Italian mountaineer and explorer, member of the royal House of Savoy and cousin of the Italian King Victor Emmanuel III. He is known for his Arctic explorations and for his expeditions, particularly to Mount Saint Elias. He also served as an Italian admiral during World War I and he was born in Madrid, Spain as the third oldest son of Prince Amadeo of Savoy, Duke of Aosta and his first wife Donna Maria Vittoria dal Pozzo della Cisterna. Prince Luigi Amedeo was a grandson of King Vittorio Emanuele II of Italy and he was born during his fathers brief reign as King Amadeo of Spain. His siblings are Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Prince Vittorio Emanuele, shortly after his birth his father, who had reigned in Spain since 1870, abdicated and returned to Italy in 1873. Prince Luigi Amedeo was a member of the House of Savoy and his uncle became King Umberto I of Italy in 1878, and his cousin became King Vittorio Emanuele III in 1900. The title Duke of the Abruzzi was created by King Umberto I in 1890 for Luigi Amedeo and his ducal title referred to the central Italian region of Abruzzo. From 1893 to 1896, Luigi Amedeo traveled around the world, including Eritrea, then an Italian possession and he had begun to train as a mountaineer in 1892 on Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa, in 1897 he made the first ascent of Mount Saint Elias. There the expedition searched for a mirage, known as the Silent City of Alaska, another witness wrote in The New York Times, We could plainly see houses, well-defined streets, and trees. Here and there rose tall spires over huge buildings which appeared to be ancient mosques or cathedrals, in 1899, Prince Luigi Amedeo organized an expedition towards the North Pole. In spring he arrived in the Norwegian capital Christiania with 10 companions, the duke acquired the Jason, a steam whaler of 570 tons. Renamed Stella Polare the ship took the expedition through the frozen sea, on 12 June they headed for Archangel. On 30 June the Stella Polare dropped anchor in the docks of Arkhangel’sk, the same day, Prince Luigi Amedeo was invited to meet the local authorities and the present foreign diplomats. On 7 July, a newspaper wrote, The city theatre arranged an extraordinary spectacle in the presence of the Duke of the Abruzzi. The drama The princess of Baghdad, consisting of three acts, was performed, before the curtain was raised the orchestra had played the Italian royal anthem… Later the duke himself wrote about his stay in Arkhangel’sk, Our departure was set for July 12. Early in the morning the church was open to us and we, in the afternoon all the dogs were brought back on board to their kennels. In the evening the Stella Polare put out and was escorted by two steamers down the Dvina, I still remained on shore, as well as Doctor Cavalli, in order to spend the evening together with our Italian friends. During the whole journey we saw flags being hoisted to welcome us… Twenty men took part in the expedition, among them Captain Umberto Cagni, Lieutenant F. Querini and Doctor A. Cavalli Molinelli
14.
Mount Carmel
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Mount Carmel is a coastal mountain range in northern Israel stretching from the Mediterranean Sea towards the southeast. The range is a UNESCO biosphere reserve and a number of towns are located there, most notably the city of Haifa, Israels third largest city, located on the northern slope. The phrase Mount Carmel has been used in three ways, To refer to the 39 km-long mountain range, stretching as far in the southeast as Jenin. To refer to the northwestern 19 km of the mountain range, to refer to the headland at the northwestern end of the range. The Carmel range is approximately 6.5 to 8 kilometres wide, sloping gradually towards the southwest, the Jezreel Valley lies to the immediate northeast. The mountain formation is an admixture of limestone and flint, containing many caves, the sloped side of the mountain is covered with luxuriant vegetation, including oak, pine, olive, and laurel trees. There is also a small kibbutz called Beit Oren, which is located on one of the highest points in the range to the southeast of Haifa. As part of a 1929–1934 campaign, between 1930 and 1932, Dorothy Garrod excavated four caves, and a number of shelters, in the Carmel mountain range at el-Wad, el-Tabun. Garrod discovered Neanderthal and early human remains, including the skeleton of a Neanderthal female, named Tabun I. The excavation at el-Tabun produced the longest stratigraphic record in the region, the four caves and rock-shelters together yield results from the Lower Paleolithic to the present day, representing roughly a million years of human evolution. Taken together, these emphasize the paramount significance of the Mount Carmel caves for the study of cultural and biological evolution within the framework of palaeo-ecological changes. In 2012, UNESCOs World Heritage Committee added sites of human evolution at Mount Carmel to the List of World Heritage Sites, the World Heritage Site includes four caves on the southern side of the Nahal Me’arot/Wadi El-Mughara Valley. The site fulfils criteria in two categories, natural and cultural. According to the Books of Kings, Elisha travelled to Carmel straight after cursing a group of men because they had mocked him. After this, bears out of the forest and mauled 42 of them. During World War I, Mount Carmel played a significant strategic role, the Battle of Megiddo took place at the head of a pass through the Carmel Ridge, which overlooks the Valley of Jezreel from the south. General Allenby led the British in the battle, which was the point in the war against the Ottoman Empire. Archaeologists have discovered ancient wine and oil presses at various locations on Mt. Carmel, according to the Books of Kings, there was an altar to God on the mountain, which had fallen into ruin by the time of Ahab, but Elijah built a new one
15.
Mountain
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A mountain is a large landform that stretches above the surrounding land in a limited area, usually in the form of a peak. A mountain is steeper than a hill. Mountains are formed through tectonic forces or volcanism and these forces can locally raise the surface of the earth. Mountains erode slowly through the action of rivers, weather conditions, a few mountains are isolated summits, but most occur in huge mountain ranges. High elevations on mountains produce colder climates than at sea level and these colder climates strongly affect the ecosystems of mountains, different elevations have different plants and animals. Because of the less hospitable terrain and climate, mountains tend to be used less for agriculture and more for resource extraction and recreation, the highest mountain on Earth is Mount Everest in the Himalayas of Asia, whose summit is 8,850 m above mean sea level. The highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System is Olympus Mons on Mars at 21,171 m, there is no universally accepted definition of a mountain. Elevation, volume, relief, steepness, spacing and continuity have been used as criteria for defining a mountain, whether a landform is called a mountain may depend on local usage. The highest point in San Francisco, California, is called Mount Davidson, notwithstanding its height of 300 m, similarly, Mount Scott outside Lawton, Oklahoma is only 251 m from its base to its highest point. Whittows Dictionary of Physical Geography states Some authorities regard eminences above 600 metres as mountains, in addition, some definitions also include a topographical prominence requirement, typically 100 or 500 feet. For a while, the US defined a mountain as being 1,000 feet or taller, any similar landform lower than this height was considered a hill. However, today, the United States Geological Survey concludes that these terms do not have technical definitions in the US, using these definitions, mountains cover 33% of Eurasia, 19% of South America, 24% of North America, and 14% of Africa. As a whole, 24% of the Earths land mass is mountainous, there are three main types of mountains, volcanic, fold, and block. All three types are formed from plate tectonics, when portions of the Earths crust move, crumple, compressional forces, isostatic uplift and intrusion of igneous matter forces surface rock upward, creating a landform higher than the surrounding features. The height of the feature makes it either a hill or, if higher and steeper, major mountains tend to occur in long linear arcs, indicating tectonic plate boundaries and activity. Volcanoes are formed when a plate is pushed below another plate, at a depth of around 100 km, melting occurs in rock above the slab, and forms magma that reaches the surface. When the magma reaches the surface, it builds a volcanic mountain. Examples of volcanoes include Mount Fuji in Japan and Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, the magma does not have to reach the surface in order to create a mountain, magma that solidifies below ground can still form dome mountains, such as Navajo Mountain in the US
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Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
17.
Alaska
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Alaska is a U. S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas–the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area, the 3rd least populous, approximately half of Alaskas residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaskas economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy. The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30,1867, the area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11,1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U. S. on January 3,1959, the name Alaska was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U. S. state on continental North America and it is technically part of the continental U. S. but is sometimes not included in colloquial use, Alaska is not part of the contiguous U. S. often called the Lower 48. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. Alaskas territorial waters touch Russias territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island, Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U. S. states combined. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at 663,268 square miles, over twice the size of Texas, Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the area of the next three largest states, Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the area of the 22 smallest U. S. states. Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States, as such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest and it contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaskas largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital transportation link throughout the area. The Interior is the largest region of Alaska, much of it is uninhabited wilderness, Fairbanks is the only large city in the region
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Mount Logan
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Mount Logan /ˈloʊɡən/ is the highest mountain in Canada and the second-highest peak in North America, after Denali. The mountain was named after Sir William Edmond Logan, a Canadian geologist, Mount Logan is located within Kluane National Park and Reserve in southwestern Yukon, less than 40 kilometres north of the Yukon/Alaska border. Mount Logan is the source of the Hubbard and Logan Glaciers, Logan is believed to have the largest base circumference of any non-volcanic mountain on Earth, including a massif with eleven peaks over 5,000 metres. Due to active tectonic uplifting, Mount Logan is still rising in height, before 1992, the exact elevation of Mount Logan was unknown and measurements ranged from 5,959 to 6,050 metres. In May 1992, a GSC expedition climbed Mount Logan and fixed the current height of 5,959 metres using GPS, temperatures are extremely low on and near Mount Logan. On the 5,000 m high plateau, air temperature hovers around −45 °C in the winter, minimal snow melt leads to a significant ice cap, reaching almost 300 m in certain spots. An international team of Canadian, British and American climbers was assembled and initially they had planned their attempt in 1924 but funding, the international team of climbers began their journey in early May, crossing the mainland from the Pacific coast by train. They then walked the remaining 200 kilometres to within 10 kilometres of the Logan Glacier where they established base camp, in the early evening of June 23,1925, Albert H. MacCarthy, H. F. Lambart, Allen Carpé, W. W. Foster, Norman H. Read and Andy Taylor stood on top for the first time and it had taken them 65 days to approach the mountain from the nearest town, McCarthy, summit and return, with all climbers intact. Don Monk, Gil Roberts and 3 others reached the summit on July 19, dick Long, Allen Steck, Jim Wilson, John Evans, Franklin Coale Sr. and Paul Bacon over 30 days, mid-July to Mid-August. Fred Beckey remarked, When they got back we just couldnt believe that they had climbed that thing and we didnt think they had a chance. Featured in Fifty Classic Climbs of North America, dave Jones, Frank Baumann, Fred Thiessen, Jay Page and Rene Bucher in 22 days. Michael Down, Paul Kindree, John Howe, Reid Carter and John Wittmayer climbed to the summit over 22 days, raymond Jotterand, Alan Burgess, Jim Elzinga and John Laughlan reached the summit after 15 days of climbing on June 30 and July 1. 1992 June 6, an expedition sponsored by the Royal Canadian Geographic Society confirmed the height of Mount Logan using GPS, the leader was Michael Schmidt, with Lisel Currie, Leo Nadeay, Charlie Roots, J-C. Lavergne, Roger Laurilla, Pat Morrow, Karl Nagy, Sue Gould, Alan Björn, Lloyd Freese, Kevin McLaughlin, a mountain in British Columbias Premier Range was named Mount Pierre Elliott Trudeau instead. During the last few days of May 2005, three climbers from the North Shore Search and Rescue team of North Vancouver became stranded on the mountain, a joint operation by Canadian and American forces rescued the three climbers and took them to Anchorage, Alaska for treatment of frostbite. London, J. M. Dent & Sons, Fifty Classic Climbs of North America. San Francisco, CA, USA, Sierra Club Books, pushing the Limits, The Story of Canadian Mountaineering
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Kluane National Park and Reserve
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Kluane National Park and Reserve are two units of Canadas national park system, located in the extreme southwestern corner of the territory of Yukon. Kluane National Park Reserve was established in 1972, covering 22,013 square kilometers, the park includes the highest mountain in Canada, Mount Logan of the Saint Elias Mountains. Mountains and glaciers dominate the landscape, covering 83% of its area. The rest of the land in the park is forest and tundra—east of the largest mountains, trees grow only at the parks lowest elevations. The primary tree species are spruce, balsam poplar and trembling aspen. The park contains about 120 species of birds, including the rock ptarmigan, a day-use area with boat launch, picnic facilities and campground is located at Kathleen Lake, and is operated from mid-May to mid-September. Hiking is an activity on trails such as St. The park was the subject of a film in 2011s National Parks Project, directed by Louise Archambault and scored by Graham Van Pelt, Ian DSa. In August 2013, Robert F. Kennedy, Jr. visited the park to see Mount Kennedy, in a 2009 census of the Kluane herd, there were 181 northern mountain caribou, a distinct ecotype of the woodland caribou. Kluane National Park lies within the territories of the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations. Through their respective Final Agreements with the Canadian Government, they have made into law their rights to harvest in this region, National Parks of Canada List of National Parks of Canada List of Yukon parks List of World Heritage Sites in the Americas Lee, Douglas. Canadas Icy Wilderness Park — Kluane, Parks Canada website for Kluane NP World Heritage site Kluane — a National Film Board of Canada documentary - Kluane a Pbase Gallery - Champagne and Aishihik First Nations - Kluane First Nation
20.
Tlingit
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The Tlingit are an indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America. Their language is Lingít, meaning People of the Tides, the Russian name Koloshi or the related German name Koulischen may be encountered referring to the people in older historical literature, such as Shelikhovs 1796 map of Russian America. The Tlingit have a kinship system, with children considered born into the mothers clan. Their culture and society developed in the temperate rainforest of the southeast Alaska coast, the Tlingit maintained a complex hunter-gatherer culture based on semi-sedentary management of fisheries. An inland group, known as the Inland Tlingit, inhabits the far part of the province of British Columbia. With regular travel up rivers, the Tlingit developed extensive trade networks with Athabascan tribes of the interior. They also overlap in territory with various Athabascan peoples, such as the Tahltan, Kaska, in Canada, the modern communities of Atlin, British Columbia, Teslin, Yukon, and Carcross, Yukon have reserves and are the representative Interior Tlingit populations. The territory occupied by the modern Tlingit people in Alaska is not restricted to particular reservations, the corporation in the Tlingit region is Sealaska Corporation, which serves the Tlingit as well as the Haida and Tsimshian in Alaska. Tlingit people as a participate in the commercial economy of Alaska. As a consequence, they live in typically American nuclear family households with private ownership of housing, many also possess land allotments from Sealaska or from earlier distributions predating ANCSA. Despite the legal and political complexities, the territory occupied by the Tlingit can be reasonably designated as their modern homeland. Tlingit people today consider the land from around Yakutat south through the Alaskan Panhandle, and including the lakes in the Canadian interior, as being Lingít Aaní, the Land of the Tlingit. Northern Tinglit live north of Frederick Sound to Cape Spencer, and including Glacier Bay and their territory can be battered by Pacific storms. These academic classifications are supported by similar self-identification among the Tlingit, the Tlingit culture is multifaceted and complex, a characteristic of Northwest Pacific Coast people with access to easily exploited rich resources. In Tlingit culture a heavy emphasis is placed upon family and kinship, wealth and economic power are important indicators of rank, but so is generosity and proper behavior, all signs of good breeding and ties to aristocracy. Tlingit society is divided into two moieties, the Raven and the Eagle and these in turn are divided into numerous clans, which are subdivided into lineages or house groups. They have a kinship system, with descent and inheritance passed through the mothers line. These groups have heraldic crests, which are displayed on poles, canoes, feast dishes, house posts, weavings, jewelry
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Tlingit clans
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The Tlingit clans of Southeast Alaska, in the United States, are one of the indigenous cultures within Alaska. The Tlingit people also live in the Northwest Interior of British Columbia, Canada, there are two main Tlingit lineages or moieties within Alaska, which are subdivided into a number of clans and houses. The Tlingit people of Southeast Alaska have two moieties in their society, each of which is divided into a number of clans. Each clan has its own history, songs, and totems, the two moieties of the Tlingit society are the Raven and Eagle/Wolf. Each moiety is further subdivided into clans, and each clan is subdivided into houses, the Tlingit clans have names whose meaning typically reflects the foundation story of the clan. The clans are usually referred to in English by the name of their primary crest and this is not accurate since some crests may be held by multiple clans. In the list below the Tlingit name of the clan is not given with its primary crest in parentheses, known houses are listed beneath each clan. It is a system, children are born to the mothers clan and gain their status within her family. The parents are required to be from differing clans, the children are born from the father, but he has a lesser role in their rearing than does the mothers brothers. Not all clans listed below are extant today, some have been absorbed into other clans, others have died out due to the lack of descendants. Not all the clans listed may be independent, since clans formed in a long, for instance, the Kakweidí descend from the Deisheetaan. Some members claim that they are a house within the Deisheetaan clan, others claim that they are a small, volume 70 in Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. Edited with additions by Frederica De Laguna, new York, American Museum of Natural History. Traditional Tlingit Country – Map and Tribal List, juneau, Alaska, Alaska Native Knowledge Network
22.
Copper River (Alaska)
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The Copper River or Ahtna River, Ahtna Athabascan ‘Atna’tuu, river of the Ahtnas, Tlingit Eeḵhéeni, river of copper, is a 290-mile river in south-central Alaska in the United States. It drains a region of the Wrangell Mountains and Chugach Mountains into the Gulf of Alaska. It is known for its extensive delta ecosystem, as well as for its runs of wild salmon. The river is the tenth largest in the United States, as ranked by average discharge volume at its mouth, the Copper River rises out of the Copper Glacier, which lies on the northeast side of Mount Wrangell, in the Wrangell Mountains, within Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park. It continues to turn southeast, through a marshy plain to Chitina. The Copper River is approximately 290 miles long and it drops an average of about 12 feet per mile, and drains more than 24,000 square miles —an area the size of West Virginia. The river runs at an average of 7 miles per hour, downstream from its confluence with the Chitina it flows southwest, passing through a narrow glacier-lined gap in the Chugach Mountains within the Chugach National Forest east of Cordova Peak. There is an area of linear sand dunes up to 250 feet in height radiating from the mouth of the Copper River. Both Miles Glacier and Childs Glacier calve directly into the river, the Copper enters the Gulf of Alaska southeast of Cordova where it creates a delta nearly 50 miles wide. Extraction of the resources was problematic due to navigation difficulties at the rivers mouth. The mine was abandoned in 1938 and is now a ghost town tourist attraction, Copper River Highway runs from Cordova to the lower Copper River near Childs Glacier, following the old railroad route and ending at the reconstructed Million Dollar Bridge across the river. The Tok Cut-Off follows the Copper River Valley on the side of the Chugach Mountains. The rivers famous salmon runs arise from the use of the watershed by over 2 million salmon each year for spawning. The extensive runs result in many varieties, prized for their fat content. The rivers commercial salmon season is brief, beginning in May for chinook salmon. Sport fishing by contrast is open all year long, but peak season on the Copper River lasts from August to September when the salmon runs. The fisheries are co-managed by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, management data are obtained primarily by ADF&G at the Miles Lake sonar station and the native village of Eyak at the Baird Canyon and Canyon Creek research stations. The Copper River Delta, which extends for 700,000 acres is the largest contiguous wetlands along the Pacific coast of North America and it is used annually by 16 million shorebirds, including the worlds entire population of western sandpipers and dunlins
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Mount Fairweather
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It is also designated as Boundary Peak 164 or as US/Canada Boundary Point #164. The mountain was named on May 3,1778 by Captain James Cook, the name has been translated into many languages. It was called Mt. Beautemps by La Perouse, Mte, buen-tiempo by Galiano, Gor-Khoroshy-pogody on Russian Hydrographic Dept. Chart 1378 in 1847, and G Fayerveder by Captain Tebenkov and it was called Schönwetterberg by Constantin Grewingk in 1850 and Schönwetter Berg by Justus Perthes in 1882. Fairweather was first climbed in 1931 by Allen Carpé and Terris Moore, Mount Fairweather is located right above Glacier Bay in the Fairweather Range of the Saint Elias Mountains. Mount Fairweather also marks the northwest extremity of the Alaska Panhandle, like many peaks in the St. Elias Mountains, Mount Fairweather has great vertical relief due to its dramatic rise from Glacier Bay. However, due to weather in the area, this effect is usually obscured with the clouds which often hides the summit from view. Known in the Tlingit language as Tsalxhaan, it is said this mountain and Yaaséitaa Shaa were originally next to each other but had an argument and separated. Their children, the mountains in between the two peaks, are called Tsalxhaan Yatxi Despite its name, Mount Fairweather has generally harsh weather conditions, summit reached on 10 July 1973. New York, NY, USA, American Alpine Club
24.
Southeast Alaska
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The majority of Southeast Alaskas area is part of the Tongass National Forest, the United States largest national forest. In many places, the border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains. The region is noted for its scenery and mild rainy climate, Southeast Alaska is the northern terminus of the Inside Passage, a protected waterway of convoluted passages between islands and fjords, beginning in Puget Sound in Washington state. This was an important travel corridor for Tlingit and Haida Native peoples, in modern times it is an important route for Alaska Marine Highway ferries as well as cruise ships. Southeast Alaska has an area of 35,138 square miles comprising seven entire boroughs. Although it has only 6.14 percent of Alaskas land area, it is larger than the state of Maine, the Southeast Alaskan coast is roughly as long as the west coast of Canada. The 2010 census population of Southeast was 71,616 inhabitants, the largest islands are, from North to South, Chichagof Island, Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, Kupreanof Island, Revillagigedo Island and Prince of Wales Island. Major bodies of water of Southeast Alaska include Glacier Bay, Lynn Canal, Icy Strait, Chatham Strait, Stephens Passage, Frederick Sound, Sumner Strait, and Clarence Strait. On August 20,1902, President Theodore Roosevelt established the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park Sitka National Historical Park Wrangell-St. The most common species are sitka spruce and western hemlock. Major cities are Juneau, Ketchikan, and Sitka, other towns are Petersburg, Wrangell, Metlakatla, Haines, Hoonah, Angoon, Kake, Craig, Klawock, Thorne Bay, Yakutat, Skagway, and Gustavus. This region is home to the easternmost town in Alaska. This area is the homeland of the Tlingit, and home of a historic settling of Haida as well as a modern settlement of Tsimshian. The region is connected to Seattle and the American Pacific Northwest economically and culturally. In modern times, southeastern Alaskans can often be identified by their choices, notably Xtratuf boots. Major industries in Southeast Alaska include commercial fishing and tourism and its members include Alcan Forest Products and Viking Lumber, which had been founded in Maine. Debates over whether to expand logging in the federally owned Tongass are not uncommon, mining remains important in the northern area with the Juneau mining district and Admiralty mining district hosting active mines as of 2015. Gold was discovered in 1880 and played an important part in the history of the region
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Vitus Bering
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Vitus Jonassen Bering, also known as Ivan Ivanovich Bering, was a Danish cartographer and explorer in Russian service, and an officer in the Russian Navy. The Bering Strait, the Bering Sea, Bering Island, the Bering Glacier, taking to the seas at the age of 18, Bering travelled extensively over the next eight years, as well as taking naval training at Amsterdam. In 1704, he enrolled with the rapidly expanding Russian navy of Tsar Peter I, Bering was permitted to keep the rank as he rejoined the Russian navy later the same year. Bering departed from St. Petersburg in February 1725 as the head of a 34-man expedition, aided by the expertise of Lieutenants Martin Spangberg, the party took on men as it headed towards Okhotsk, encountering many difficulties before arriving at the settlement. From there, the men sailed to the Kamchatka peninsula, preparing new ships there, in August 1728, Bering decided that they had sufficient evidence that there was clear sea between Asia and America, which he did not sight during the trip. For the first expedition, Bering was rewarded with money, prestige, and he immediately started preparations for a second trip. Having returned to Okhotsk with a larger, better prepared. While doing so, the expedition spotted Mount Saint Elias, a storm separated the ships, but Bering sighted the southern coast of Alaska, and a landing was made at Kayak Island or in the vicinity. Adverse conditions forced Bering to return, but he documented some of the Aleutian Islands on his way back, one of the sailors died and was buried on one of these islands, and Bering named the island group Shumagin Islands after him. Bering himself became too ill to command his ship, which was at last driven to refuge on an uninhabited island in the Commander Islands group in the southwest Bering Sea. On 19 December 1741 Vitus Bering died on the island, which was given the name Bering Island after him, near the Kamchatka Peninsula, reportedly from scurvy, along with 28 men of his company. Vitus Bering was born in the town of Horsens in Denmark to Anne Pedderdatter and her husband Jonas Svendsen. He was named after a maternal great-uncle, Vitus Pedersen Bering, who had been a chronicler in the royal court, the family enjoyed reasonable financial security, with two of Vitus elder half-brothers both attending the University of Copenhagen. Vitus, however, did not, and instead signed on at age 15 as a ships boy, between 1696 and 1704, Bering travelled the seas, reaching India and the Dutch East Indies, whilst also finding time to complete naval officer training in Amsterdam. He would also later to have served on Danish whalers in the North Atlantic, visiting European colonies in the Caribbean. It was in Amsterdam, however, that in 1704 and under the guidance of Norwegian-born Russian admiral Cornelius Cruys, Bering enlisted with the Russian navy and he would be repeatedly promoted in Peter the Greats rapidly evolving navy, reaching the rank of second captain by 1720. His work in the stages of the Great Northern War. On 8 October 1713, Bering married Anna Christina Pülse, the took place in the Lutheran church at Vyborg
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Cape Saint Elias
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Cape Saint Elias is a cape in the U. S. state of Alaska. It is located at the southwest end of Kayak Island,104 km southeast of Cordova and it is commonly believed that Mount Saint Elias, the second highest mountain in the United States and Canada, is named for this landform. The cape was named by Russian explorer Vitus Bering on July 20,1741 for St. Elias, whose saints day is July 20. This feature was also called Santa Rosa in 1779 by Don Ignacio Artega, Español in 1791 by Alessandro Malaspina, george Vancouver named it Hamond Point in 1794 for Sir Andrew Snape Hamond. U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Cape Saint Elias
27.
Terrain
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Terrain or relief is the vertical and horizontal dimension of the land surface. When relief is described underwater, the term bathymetry is used, the Latin Word Terra, is Earth. Terrain is used as a term in physical geography, referring to the lay of the land. This is usually expressed in terms of the elevation, slope, terrain affects surface water flow and distribution. Over a large area, it can affect weather and climate patterns, complex arrays of relief data are used as input parameters for hydrology transport models to allow prediction of river water quality. Understanding terrain also supports soil conservation, especially in agriculture, contour ploughing is an established practice enabling sustainable agriculture on sloping land, it is the practice of ploughing along lines of equal elevation instead of up and down a slope. Terrain is militarily critical because it determines the ability of armed forces to take and hold areas, an understanding of terrain is basic to both defensive and offensive strategy. Terrain is important in determining weather patterns, two areas geographically close to each other may differ radically in precipitation levels or timing because of elevation differences or a rain shadow effect. Precise knowledge of terrain is vital in aviation, especially for low-flying routes and maneuvers, terrain will also affect range and performance of radars and terrestrial radio navigation systems. Furthermore, a hilly or mountainous terrain can strongly impact the implementation of a new aerodrome, relief refers specifically to the quantitative measurement of vertical elevation change in a landscape. It is the difference between maximum and minimum elevations within an area, usually of limited extent. The relief of a landscape can change with the size of the area over which it is measured, making the definition of the scale over which it is measured very important. Because it is related to the slope of surfaces within the area of interest and to the gradient of any streams present, the relief of a landscape is a useful metric in the study of the Earths surface. Relief energy, which may be defined inter alia as the height range in a regular grid, is essentially an indication of the ruggedness or relative height of the terrain. Geomorphology is in part the study of the formation of terrain or topography. Terrain is formed by intersecting processes, Geological processes, Migration of tectonic plates, faulting and folding, volcanic eruptions, erosional processes, water and wind erosion, landslides. Tectonic processes such as orogenies cause land to be elevated, land surface parameters are quantitative measures of various morphometric properties of a surface. The most common examples are used to derive slope or aspect of a terrain or curvatures at each location and these measures can also be used to derive hydrological parameters that reflect flow/erosion processes
28.
Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
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Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
30.
K2
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K2, also known as Mount Godwin-Austen or Chhogori, is the second highest mountain in the world, after Mount Everest, at 8,611 metres above sea level. K2 is the highest point of the Karakoram range and the highest point in both Kashmir and Xinjiang, K2 is known as the Savage Mountain due to the extreme difficulty of ascent. It has the second-highest fatality rate among the eight thousanders, with around 300 successful summits and 77 fatalities, about one person dies on the mountain for every four who summit. It is more difficult and hazardous to reach the peak of K2 from the Chinese side, thus, unlike Annapurna, the mountain with the highest fatality-to-summit rate, or the other eight thousanders, K2 has never been climbed during winter. The name K2 is derived from the used by the Great Trigonometric Survey of British India. Thomas Montgomerie made the first survey of the Karakoram from Mount Haramukh, some 210 km to the south, the policy of the Great Trigonometric Survey was to use local names for mountains wherever possible and K1 was found to be known locally as Masherbrum. K2, however, appeared not to have acquired a local name, the name Chogori, derived from two Balti words, chhogo and ri has been suggested as a local name, but evidence for its widespread use is scant. It may have been a name invented by Western explorers or simply a bemused reply to the question Whats that called. It does, however, form the basis for the name Qogir by which Chinese authorities officially refer to the peak, other local names have been suggested including Lamba Pahar and Dapsang, but are not widely used. The surveyors mark, K2, therefore continues to be the name by which the mountain is commonly known and it is now also used in the Balti language, rendered as Kechu or Ketu. Just the bare bones of a name, all rock and ice and storm and it makes no attempt to sound human. It has the nakedness of the world before the first man – or of the planet after the last. Andre Weil named K3 surfaces in mathematics partly after the mountain K2, K2 lies in the northwestern Karakoram Range. It is located in the Baltistan region of Gilgit–Baltistan, Kashmir, the Tarim sedimentary basin borders the range on the north and the Lesser Himalayas on the south. Melt waters from vast glaciers, such as south and east of K2, feed agriculture in the valleys. Many other peaks that are far lower than K2 are more independent in this sense and it is, however, the most prominent peak within the Karakoram range. K2 is notable for its local relief as well as its total height and it stands over 3,000 metres above much of the glacial valley bottoms at its base. It is a steep pyramid, dropping quickly in almost all directions
31.
Vittorio Sella
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Vittorio Sella was an Italian photographer and mountaineer, who took photographs of mountains which are regarded as some of the finest ever made. Sella was born in Biella in the foothills of the Alps and acquired his interest in Alpinism from his uncle, Quintino Sella. He made a number of significant climbs in the Alps, including the first winter ascents of the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa, and the first winter traverse of Mont Blanc. He took part in several expeditions further afield, including three to the Caucasus, to Mount Saint Elias in Alaska, to the Rwenzori in Africa, and the 1909 expedition to K2, the latter three expeditions were in the company of Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi. Sella continued to climb into his old age, and made his last attempt on the Matterhorn at seventy six, the attempt failed when one of his guides was injured in an accident. The high quality of Sellas photography was in due to his use of 30×40 cm photographic plates, in spite of the difficulty of carrying bulky. He had to invent equipment, including modified pack saddles and rucksacks and his photographs were widely published and exhibited, and highly praised, Ansel Adams, who saw thirty-one that Sella had presented to the US Sierra Club, said they inspired a definitely religious awe. Sella died in Biella in 1943 and his collection of photographs is now managed by the Sella Foundation in Biella. Some pictures of Sella are exhibited in the Museo Nazionale della Montagna Duca degli Abruzzi in Turin, summit, Vittorio Sella, Pioneer Mountaineering Photographer, 1879-1909. Aperture Foundation, U. S,1999, ISBN 978-0-89381-808-1 Vittorio Sellas photographs can be purchased through Panopticon Gallery
32.
Harvard Mountaineering Club
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The Harvard Mountaineering Club is an undergraduate organization of Harvard College. Founded in 1924, the HMC is one of the oldest college mountaineering clubs in the USA, the club was founded in November 1924, by Henry S. Hall Jr. In its early days the club would meet at the home of Mr. Hall, who specialized in the Canadian Rockies, in 1927 the HMC, as it is known to its members, published its first journal, Harvard Mountaineering. This journal would go on to be published biannually for much of the life of the club, chronicling the climbs, in 1929, a recent Groton graduate by the name of Henry Bradford Washburn arrived at the college. Washburn was already a mountaineer of some distinction, having climbed numerous peaks in the Alps with his brother and publishing books, the royalties from this book and others allowed Washburn to purchase a Ford Model A, which was instrumental for the club. He managed to convince the USFS to issue the HMC a special use permit for a hut on Mount Washington. Using the Model A, workers from the managed to build a small cabin at the base of Boott Spur on Mount Washington. The cabin functioned as a ground for the clubs mountaineering training. Up until the start of the Second World War, Washburns passion for mountaineering and he would use aerial photography to scout for new routes, and then convince Alaskan airplane pilots to drop HMC climbers off on a glacier. Another prominent club member in that era was Robert L. M. Underhill, a Harvard faculty member, who completed significant first ascents in the Alps, the Grand Tetons and he is credited with introducing modern Alpine belaying and rope handling techniques to mountaineering in the American west. Although club activities, per se, ceased, many members continued mountaineering in support of the U. S. Army and this included testing mountain equipment for the famed 10th Mountain Division, and instructing and serving in its ranks. After the war, a lieutenant from the division, William Lowell Putnam, the post-war years saw a second boom in activity by the club. In the 50s, HMC alumni took part in major Himalayan expeditions, Robert Bob Hicks Bates and Dr. Charles Houston took part in the 1953 American Expedition to K2. It was on this expedition that Pete Schoening famously rescued six other climbers with his legendary ice-axe belay, Bates and Houston wrote The Savage Mountain about this climb. In the 60s the club was no active, building, in 1963. These climbs include the unrepeated first ascent of the Harvard Route on the Wickersham Wall on Denali and it was also in this period that HMC president David Roberts was involved in the tragic climb of Mount Huntington, resulting in the death of HMCer Ed Bernd. Roberts subsequently wrote about the expedition in The Mountain of My Fear, the 1970s saw a refocusing of the clubs activities from large mountains and expeditions to more local technical climbs. Through the 1980s, members of the continued to publish the journal and climb throughout New England
33.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
34.
Denali
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Denali is the highest mountain peak in North America, with a summit elevation of 20,310 feet above sea level. With a topographic prominence of 20,156 feet and an isolation of 4,629 miles, Denali is the third most prominent and third most isolated peak after Mount Everest. Located in the Alaska Range in the interior of the U. S. state of Alaska, Denali is the centerpiece of Denali National Park, the Koyukon people who inhabit the area around the mountain have referred to the peak as Denali for centuries. In August 2015, following the 1975 lead of the state of Alaska, prior to this, most Alaskans already referred to the mountain as Denali. In 1903, James Wickersham recorded the first attempt at climbing Denali, in 1906, Frederick Cook claimed the first ascent, which was later proven to be false. The first verifiable ascent to Denalis summit was achieved on June 7,1913, by climbers Hudson Stuck, Harry Karstens, Walter Harper, and Robert Tatum, who went by the South Summit. In 1951, Bradford Washburn pioneered the West Buttress route, considered to be the safest and easiest route, and therefore the most popular currently in use. On September 2,2015, the U. S. Geological Survey announced that the mountain is 20,310 feet high, not 20,320 feet, the forces that lifted Denali also cause many deep earthquakes in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. The Pacific Plate is seismically active beneath Denali, a region that is known as the McKinley cluster. Denali has an elevation of 20,310 feet above sea level, making it the highest peak in North America. Measured from base to peak at some 18,000 ft, Denali rises from a sloping plain with elevations from 1,000 to 3,000 ft, for a base-to-peak height of 17,000 to 19,000 ft. By comparison, Mount Everest rises from the Tibetan Plateau at a higher base elevation. Denali has two significant summits, the South Summit is the one, while the North Summit has an elevation of 19,470 ft. The North Summit is sometimes counted as a peak and sometimes not, it is rarely climbed. Five large glaciers flow off the slopes of the mountain, the Peters Glacier lies on the northwest side of the massif, while the Muldrow Glacier falls from its northeast slopes. Just to the east of the Muldrow, and abutting the eastern side of the massif, is the Traleika Glacier, the Ruth Glacier lies to the southeast of the mountain, and the Kahiltna Glacier leads up to the southwest side of the mountain. With a length of 44 mi, the Kahiltna Glacier is the longest glacier in the Alaska Range, the Koyukon Athabaskans who inhabit the area around the mountain have for centuries referred to the peak as Dinale or Denali. The name is based on a Koyukon word for high or tall, during the Russian ownership of Alaska, the common name for the mountain was Bolshaya Gora, which is the Russian translation of Denali
35.
Pico de Orizaba
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Pico de Orizaba, also known as Citlaltépetl, is a stratovolcano, the highest mountain in Mexico and the third highest in North America, after Denali of the United States and Mount Logan of Canada. It rises 5,636 metres above sea level in the end of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The volcano is currently dormant but not extinct, with the last eruption taking place during the 19th century and it is the second most prominent volcanic peak in the world after Africas Mount Kilimanjaro. Pico de Orizaba overlooks the valley and city of Orizaba, from which it gets its name, the name Citlaltépetl is not used by Nahuatl speakers of the Orizaba area, who instead call it Istaktepetl, or White Mountain. In the earliest mention of the volcano, it was referred to by the natives during the Pre-Columbian Era as Poyautécatl, Citlaltépetl was the common name in the Náhuatl language when the Spanish arrived in Mexico. Citlaltépetl comes from the Náhuatl citlalli and tepētl and thus means Star Mountain and this name is thought to be based on the fact that the snow-covered peak can be seen year round for hundreds of kilometers throughout the region. A legend from the city of Coscomatepec tells of how the planet Venus can be seen settling into the crater of Citlaltépetl, during the colonial era, the volcano was also known as Cerro de San Andrés due to the nearby settlement of San Andrés Chalchicomula at its base. A third name, Poyauhtecatl, which means the one that colors or illuminates, has also been recorded and this name was given by the Tlaxcaltecas in memory of their lost country. The peak of Citlaltépetl rises dramatically to an elevation of 5,636 m above sea level, it has a topographic prominence of 4,922 m. Regionally dominant, Pico de Orizaba is the highest peak in Mexico, Orizaba is ranked 7th in the world in topographic prominence. It is the second most prominent volcanic peak in the world after Africas Mount Kilimanjaro, the topography of Pico de Orizaba is asymmetrical from the center of the crater, the eastern face is the steepest side of the volcano and the northwestern face the most gradual side. The gradual slopes of the face of the volcano allows for the presence of large glaciers and is the most traveled route to take for hikers traveling to the summit. Pico de Orizaba is one of three volcanoes in México that continue to support glaciers and is home to the largest glacier in Mexico. Orizaba has nine known glaciers, Gran Glaciar Norte, Lengua del Chichimeco, Jamapa, Toro, Glaciar de la Barba, Noroccidental, Occidental, Suroccidental, the equilibrium line altitude is not known for Orizaba. Snow on the south and southeast sides of the volcano melts quickly because of solar radiation, the insolation angle and wind redeposition on the northwest and north sides allow for constant accumulation of snow providing a source for the outlet glaciers. On the north side of Orizaba, the Gran Glaciar Norte fills the elongated highland basin and is the source for seven outlet glaciers. The main glacier extends 3.5 km north of the rim, has a surface area of about 9.08 km2 descending from 5,650 m to about 5,000 m. It has an irregular and stepped profile that is caused in part by the configuration of the bedrock
36.
Mount Foraker
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Mount Foraker is a 17, 400-foot mountain in the central Alaska Range, in Denali National Park,14 mi southwest of Denali. It is the second highest peak in the Alaska Range, and it rises almost directly above the standard base camp for Denali, on a fork of the Kahiltna Glacier also near Mount Hunter in the Alaska Range. Its north peak was first climbed on August 6,1934, graham Brown, and Chychele Waterston, via the west ridge. Mount Foraker was named in 1899 by Lt. J. S. Herron after Joseph B, the mountain, along with Denali, was called Bolshaya Gora in Russian. The Tanana Indians in the Lake Minchumina area, however, had a view of the mountains. According to Hudson Stuck, these Indians had two names for Mount Foraker, Sultana meaning the woman and Menlale meaning Denalis wife,1934 West Ridge FA of Mount Foraker by Charles Houston, T. 1968 Talkeetna Ridge, South Ridge FA by Alex Bertulis, Warren Bleser, the summit was reached on July 26,1968. 1974 Southwest Toe of Southeast Ridge, variation to the South Ridge, ascent by Peter Reagan, Joe Davidson, Bob Fries, Jim Given, Mark Greenfield, Pippo Lionni, Eric Morgan and Frank Uher. 1975 Archangel Ridge, the ridge, FA by Gerard and Barbara Roach, Brad Johnson, David Wright, Stewart Krebs. Summit reached on July 14,1975,1976 French Ridge, the South/Southeast Ridge, FA by Henri Agresti, Jean-Marie Galmiche, Gerard Creton, Herve Thivierge, Isabelle Agresti and Werner Landry. Summit reached on June 3 and 4,1976,1977 Infinite Spur, on the south face by Michael Kennedy and George Lowe. 1977 Southwest Ridge, Nancey Goforth, Erik LeRoy, Chris Liddle, the summit was reached on June 25,1977, after 47 days spent on Mount Foraker. 1989 Infinite Spur, second ascent or route by Mark Bebie, summit reached on June 24,1989 after 13 days on the mountain. 1990 False Dawn, on the southeast face, first ascent by John Phelan, summit reached on May 27,1990 after 5 days on the mountain. PhotoMountains, High resolution aerial photographs of Mount Foraker climbing routes
37.
Mount Lucania
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Mount Lucania is the third highest mountain located entirely in Canada. A long ridge connects Mount Lucania with Mount Steele, the fifth highest in Canada, Lucania was named by the Duke of Abruzzi, as he stood on the summit of Mount Saint Elias on July 31,1897, having just completed the first ascent. Seeing Lucania in the far distance, beyond Mount Logan, he named it after the ship on which the expedition had sailed from Liverpool to New York. The first ascent of Mount Lucania was made in 1937 by Bradford Washburn and they used an airplane to reach Walsh Glacier,2,670 m above sea level, the use of air support for mountaineering was novel at the time. Washburn called upon Bob Reeve, a famous Alaskan bush pilot, the ski-equipped Fairchild F-51 made several trips to the landing site on the glacier without event in May, but on landing with Washburn and Bates in June, the plane sank into unseasonal slush. The second ascent of Lucania was made in 1967 by Jerry Halpern, Mike Humphreys, Gary Lukis, list of mountain peaks of Canada David Roberts, Escape from Lucania, An Epic Story of Survival, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-7432-2432-9
38.
Iztaccihuatl
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Iztaccíhuatl, is a 5,230 m dormant volcanic mountain in Mexico located on the border between the State of Mexico and Puebla. It is the third highest, after Pico de Orizaba 5,636 m. The name Iztaccíhuatl is Nahuatl for White woman, reflecting the four individual snow-capped peaks which depict the head, chest, knees, Iztaccíhuatl lies to the north of Popocatépetl, to which it is connected by the high altitude Paso de Cortés. Depending on atmospheric conditions the dormant volcano is visible much of the year from Mexico City some 70 km to the northwest, the first recorded ascent was made in 1889, though archaeological evidence suggests the Aztecs and previous cultures climbed it previously. It is the lowest peak containing permanent snow and glaciers in Mexico, the summit ridge of the massive 450 km3 volcano is a series of overlapping cones constructed along a NNW-SSE line to the south of the Pleistocene Llano Grande caldera. Andesitic and dacitic Pleistocene and Holocene volcanism has taken place from vents at or near the summit, areas near the El Pecho summit vent are covered in flows and tuff beds post-dating glaciation approximately 11 ka. The most recent vents are located at El Pecho and a depression at 5,100 m along the summit ridge midway between that summit and Los Pies, in Aztec mythology, Iztaccíhuatl was a princess who fell in love with one of her fathers warriors, Popocatépetl. The emperor sent Popocatépetl to war in Oaxaca, promising him Iztaccíhuatl as his wife when he returned, Iztaccíhuatl was falsely told Popocatépetl had died in battle, and believing the news, she died of grief. When Popocatépetl returned to find his dead, he took her body to a spot outside Tenochtitlan. The gods covered them with snow and changed them into mountains, iztaccíhuatls mountain is called White Woman because it resembles a woman lying on her back, and is often covered with snow. (The peak is sometimes nicknamed La Mujer Dormida Popocatépetl became an active volcano, iztaccihuatl is usually listed at 5,286 m. SRTM data and the Mexican national mapping survey assert that a range of 5,220 to 5,230 m is more accurate, the Global Volcanism Program cites 5,230 m
39.
Mount Bona
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Mount Bona is one of the major mountains of the Saint Elias Mountains in eastern Alaska, and is the fifth-highest independent peak in the United States. Mount Bona and its adjacent neighbor Mount Churchill are both large ice-covered stratovolcanoes, the mountain also contributes a large volume of ice to the north-flowing Russell Glacier system. Mount Bona was named by Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi in 1897 and he named it after the Bona, his racing yacht. The mountain was first climbed in 1930 by Allen Carpé, Terris Moore, the current standard route is the East Ridge, a climb of nearby Mount Churchill is a relatively easy addition via this route as well
40.
Mount Steele
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For the mountain in Antarctica, see Mount Steele. Mount Steele is the fifth highest mountain in Canada and the eleventh highest peak in North America reaching the height of 5,073 metres, a lower southeast peak of Mt. Steele stands at 4,300 m. It was named after Sir Sam Steele, the North-West Mounted Police officer in charge of the force in the Yukon during the Klondike Gold Rush. Walter A. Wood led a team consisting of Foresta Wood, Swiss guide Hans Fuhrer, Joseph W. Fobes, Harrison Wood, the expedition approached the peak on the eastern side from Kluane Lake. Base camp was established at the foot of the Steele Glacier with horses carrying loads to Advance Base Camp further along the glacier, ABC provided good views of the mountain and the team decided on the east ridge as their line of ascent. After waiting for the weather to improve after heavy snowfalls, a team consisting of Walter Wood, Harrison Wood, Fuhrer. Their plan to was to make a 2,440 m push to the summit, after steady upwards progress, deteriorating weather forced them to return to Camp 8 where they waited out a five-day storm which dumped over a metre of fresh snow. They started out again on August 15 and the ascent was made easier this time by windblown, at 4,570 m, a plateau of wretched snow forced the team to crawl on all fours. Walter Wood commented, The humour of it impressed me, here were four supposedly normal human beings crawling across a snow field 15,000 ft. up in the air, engaged in what they fondly believed to be a sporting venue. Alternating the lead every 100 paces, they made their way from the plateau to the top, the team enjoyed a blissful thirty minutes of windless conditions on top before beginning their descent. List of mountain peaks of North America List of mountain peaks of Canada
41.
Mount Blackburn
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Mount Blackburn is the highest peak in the Wrangell Mountains of Alaska in the United States. It is the fifth-highest peak in the United States and the twelfth-highest peak in North America, the mountain is an old, eroded shield volcano, the second-highest volcano in the U. S. behind Mount Bona and the fifth-highest in North America. It was named in 1885 by Lt. Henry T. Allen of the U. S. Army after Joseph Clay Stiles Blackburn and it is located in the heart of Wrangell – St. Elias National Park, the largest national park in the country. The mountain also contributes a large volume of ice to the north-flowing Nabesna Glacier, Mount Blackburn is a large, dramatic peak, with great local relief and independence from higher peaks. Its west face drops over 11,000 ft to the Kuskulana Glacier in less than 4 horizontal miles and its other faces drop 8, 000–10,000 ft, all in less than 8 miles. The toe of the Kuskulana Glacier, less than 12 miles from the summit, lies at an elevation of 2,400 ft, while these figures speak to the peaks relief, one measure of its independence is that it is the 50th-most topographically prominent peak in the world. The western of Blackburns two summits is the mountains highest point, a fact that was not understood until the 1960s when new USGS maps were published. The first ascent of the west peak, and hence Mount Blackburn, was done on May 30,1958, by Bruce Gilbert, Dick Wahlstrom, Hans Gmoser, Adolf Bitterlich, and Leon Blumer via the North Ridge. This team made the first ascent of Blackburn, but did not even know it at the due to the incorrect identification of the highest point. In fact, Blumers article in the 1959 American Alpine Journal is titled Mount Blackburn – Second Ascent, kennedy Peak, or East Blackburn,16,286 ft, is the eastern summit and was originally thought to be the highest point. The first ascent of this summit was made in 1912 by Dora Keen and George Handy via the Kennicott Glacier and this heady exploit was ahead of its time. Keen went on to write an article for the Saturday Evening Post titled, “First up Mount Blackburn. ”In 1912, Keen. Todays standard route on the peak is the 1958 ascent route, the North Ridge, the route starts from an airstrip on the glacier at an altitude of 7,200 feet. It is a climb by Alaskan standards. Richter, Donald H. Rosenkrans, Danny S. Steigerwald, Margaret J. Guide to the Volcanoes of the Western Wrangell Mountains, a Geologic Guide to Wrangell—Saint Elias National Park and Preserve, Alaska, A Tectonic Collage of Northbound Terranes. Richter, Donald H. Preller, Cindi C, labay, Keith A. Shew, Nora B. Geologic Map of the Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park and Preserve, Alaska
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