1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
National Register of Historic Places
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Logo used for the NRHP.
National Register of Historic Places
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Old Slater Mill, a historic district in
Pawtucket, Rhode Island, was the first property listed in the National Register on November 13, 1966.
National Register of Historic Places
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The
Loren Andrus Octagon House in
Washington, Michigan has been on the NRHP since September 3, 1971.
National Register of Historic Places
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Built in 1800 by
Samuel McIntire in
Salem, the
Stephen Phillips House is operated as a
historic house museum by
Historic New England and open for public tours.
2.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
National Historic Landmark
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USS Constitution
National Historic Landmark
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Frank Lloyd Wright 's
Taliesin is a National Historic Landmark
National Historic Landmark
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The
American Legation in Tangiers, Morocco, was the first National Historic Landmark on foreign soil.
National Historic Landmark
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Navajo Nation Council Chamber, the seat of government for the
Navajo Nation,
Window Rock, Arizona.
3.
Bretton Woods, New Hampshire
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Bretton Woods is an area within the town of Carroll, New Hampshire, United States, whose principal points of interest are three leisure and recreation facilities. The Bretton Woods system ended in 1971, Bretton Woods is located along U. S. Route 302,5 miles east of the village of Twin Mountain and 20 miles through scenic Crawford Notch northwest of the town of Bartlett. The plantation became the town of Carroll, and the southeast corner of the land retained the name Bretton Woods, the Bretton Woods Mountain Resort ski area serves both downhill and cross-country skiing, primarily in the Rosebrook Mountains, located in Bethlehem to the south. The downhill resort is the largest in New Hampshire, with 101 trails, in the early twentieth century heyday of northern U. S. resorts for the elite, rail passengers would travel from Boston on the Boston and Maines Mountaineer. From New York City, passengers took the Connecticut Yankee, Day White Mountains, Night White Mountains, the tracks of the Cog Railway and its associated buildings lie up the slope of Mount Washington, in nearby Thompson and Meserves Purchase. The Cog was operated during the seasons of 2004-2006 to take wilderness skiers partway up the mountain. Twin Mountain-Bretton Woods Chamber of Commerce
Bretton Woods, New Hampshire
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Mount Washington Hotel at the foot of the
Presidential Range in 2010
Bretton Woods, New Hampshire
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The Mount Washington Hotel in 1905
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
5.
Charles Alling Gifford
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Charles Alling Gifford was an American architect and a partner at the New York firm Gifford & Bates. Gifford was born in New Jersey and studied at the Stevens Institute of Technology and his most well-known work is the Mount Washington Hotel in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, designed for Joseph Stickney. The 1902 Gilded Age hotel is a National Historic Landmark, trenton Armory, New Jersey Camden Armory, New Jersey Rutgers Gymnasium and Armory, or Ballentine Gymnasium, New Brunswick, New Jersey,1894. 146 East 56th Street, New York, New York,1905, constructed as a private stable for Edwin Gould, in a neo-Georgian style. Brunswick Courthouse or Old Glynn County Courthouse, Glynn County, Georgia, the courthouse cornerstone was laid on December 27,1906 and construction was completed on December 18,1907 at a total cost of $97,613. Restoration work began in the early 1990s
Charles Alling Gifford
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Charles Alling Gifford
6.
Renaissance Revival architecture
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The divergent forms of Renaissance architecture in different parts of Europe, particularly in France and Italy, has added to the difficulty of defining and recognizing Neo-Renaissance architecture. The movement grew from scientific observations of nature, in human anatomy. Neo-Renaissance architecture is formed by not only the original Italian architecture, in England the Renaissance tended to manifest itself in large square tall houses such as Longleat House. Often these buildings had symmetrical towers which hint at the evolution from medieval fortified architecture and this is particularly evident at Hatfield House built between 1607 and 1611, where medieval towers jostle with a large Italian cupola. If this were not confusing enough, the new Neo-Renaissance then frequently borrowed architectural elements from the succeeding Mannerist period, mannerism and Baroque being two very opposing styles of architecture. Mannerism was exemplified by the Palazzo del Te and Baroque by the Wurzburg Residenz, as a consequence a self-consciously Neo-Renaissance manner first began to appear circa 1840. By 1890 this movement was already in decline, the Hagues Peace Palace completed in 1913, in a heavy French Neo-Renaissance manner was one of the last notable buildings in this style. Charles Barry introduced the Neo-Renaissance to England with his design of the Travellers Club, the style is characterized by original Renaissance motifs, taken from such Quattrocento architects as Alberti. These motifs included rusticated masonry and quoins, windows framed by architraves and doors crowned by pediments, if a building were of several floors the uppermost floor usually had small square windows representing the minor mezzanine floor of the original Renaissance designs. However, the Neo-renaissance style later came to incorporate Romanesque and Baroque features not found in the original Renaissance architecture which was more severe in its design. Like all architectural styles the Neo-Renaissance did not appear overnight fully formed but evolved slowly, one of the very first signs of its emergence was the Würzburg Womens Prison, which was erected in 1809 designed by Peter Speeth. This building foreshadows similar effects in the work of the American architect Henry Hobson Richardson whose work in the Neo-Renaissance style was popular in the USA during the 1880s, richardsons style at the end or the revival era was a severe mix of both Romanesque and Renaissance features. This was exemplified by his Marshall Field Warehouse in Chicago, however, while the beginning of Neo-Renaissance period can be defined by its simplicity and severity, what came between was far more ornate in its design. This period can be defined by some of the opera houses of the Europe, such as Gottfried Sempers Burgtheater in Vienna. This ornate form of the Neo-Renaissance, originating from France, is known as the Second Empire style. By 1875 it had become the style in Europe for all public and bureaucratic buildings. In England, where Sir George Gilbert Scott designed the London Foreign Office in this style between 1860 and 1875, it also incorporated certain Palladian features. In Austria, it was pioneered by such names as Rudolf Eitelberger
Renaissance Revival architecture
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Schwerin Palace in
Mecklenburg, Germany - Renaissance revival architecture for representation purposes. Completed in 1857.
Renaissance Revival architecture
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Waddesdon Manor, seat of the
Rothschild family, 1874
Renaissance Revival architecture
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Mentmore Towers English
Jacobethan Neo-Renaissance completed in 1854, derives motifs from
Wollaton Hall completed in 1588
Renaissance Revival architecture
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Russia: The façade of the
Vladimir Palace in
Saint Petersburg (1867-1872) redolent of
Alberti 's designs.
7.
Mount Washington (New Hampshire)
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Mount Washington, called Agiocochook by some Native American tribes, is the highest peak in the Northeastern United States at 6,288.2 ft and the most prominent mountain east of the Mississippi River. The mountain is notorious for its erratic weather, the mountain is located in the Presidential Range of the White Mountains, in the township of Sargents Purchase, Coös County, New Hampshire. While nearly the whole mountain is in the White Mountain National Forest, the Mount Washington Cog Railway ascends the western slope of the mountain, and the Mount Washington Auto Road climbs to the summit from the east. The mountain is popular with hikers, other common activities include glider flying, and annual cycle and running races such as the Auto Road Bicycle Hillclimb and Road Race. Before European settlers arrived in the region, the mountain was known by various peoples as Kodaak Wadjo or Agiochook or Agiocochook. The Algonquians called it Waumbik, white rocks, the first European to mention the mountain was Giovanni da Verrazzano. Viewing it from the Atlantic Ocean in 1524, he described what he saw as high interior mountains, darby Field claimed to have made the first ascent of Mt. Washington in 1642. A geology party, headed by Manasseh Cutler, named the mountain in 1784, the Crawford Path, the oldest mountain hiking trail in the United States, was laid out in 1819 as a bridle path from Crawford Notch to the summit and has been in use ever since. Ethan Allen Crawford built a house on the summit in 1821, little occurred on the summit itself until the mid-19th century, when it was developed into one of the first tourist destinations in the nation, with construction of more bridle paths and two hotels. The Summit House opened in 1852, a 64-foot-long stone hotel anchored by four heavy chains over its roof, in 1853, the Tip-Top House was erected to compete. Rebuilt of wood with 91 rooms in 1872–1873, the Summit House burned in 1908, the Tip-Top House alone survived the fire, today it is a state historic site, recently renovated for exhibits. Other Victorian era tourist attractions include a coach road —now the Mount Washington Auto Road—and the Mount Washington Cog Railway, for forty years, an intermittent daily newspaper, called Among the Clouds, was published by Henry M. Burt at the summit each summer, until 1917. CNL officials said they were directing their efforts against other hotels that use the mountains name, patent and Trademark Office seeks registration of the trademark Mount Washington for any retail service, any restaurant service, and any entertainment service. The summit station of Mount Washington has a climate or tundra climate, although it receives an extremely high amount of precipitation. Lower elevations have a subarctic climate, the weather of Mount Washington is notoriously erratic. This is partly due to the convergence of several tracks, mainly from the Atlantic to the south, the Gulf region. The vertical rise of the Presidential Range, combined with its north-south orientation, low-pressure areas are more favorable to develop along the coastline in the winter due to the relative temperature differences between the Northeastern United States and the Atlantic Ocean. With these factors combined, hurricane-force wind gusts are observed from the summit of the mountain on average of 110 days per year
Mount Washington (New Hampshire)
–
Mount Washington, from
Bretton Woods. The
cog railway track is visible, on the
spur to the left of the summit.
Mount Washington (New Hampshire)
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The 2nd Summit House in 1904
Mount Washington (New Hampshire)
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Mount Washington Observatory
Mount Washington (New Hampshire)
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The original weathered
shingle -clad building is chained to the ground, here covered in
rime ice in early April.
8.
Carroll, New Hampshire
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Carroll is a town in Coos County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 763 at the 2010 census, the two largest villages are Twin Mountain and Bretton Woods. The town is crossed by the Appalachian Trail and is home to the Mount Washington Hotel at Bretton Woods and it is also home to the Highland Center at Crawford Notch, the Appalachian Mountain Clubs four-season lodge. Carroll is part of the Berlin, NH–VT Micropolitan Statistical Area and it was granted by Governor John Wentworth on February 8,1772 to Sir Thomas Wentworth, Samuel Langdon and 81 others. Sir Thomas Wentworth resided in West Bretton, England on his estate called Bretton Hall, on the 1816 Carrigain map of New Hampshire, it appears as Breton Woods. On 22 June 1832, the town was incorporated by the General Court as Carroll, in honor of Charles Carroll, although the surface is uneven and bounded by mountains, farmers found the soil strong and deep. It has many streams, tributaries of the Ammonoosuc River. By 1859, Carroll had a factory, and two lumber mills that produced boards, shingles, clapboards and laths. But it is tourism that brought fame and prosperity to the area, hannah and Abel Crawford turned their log cabin into an inn, then built The Notch House in 1828. In 1874, the Boston, Concord & Montreal Railroad reached Fabyan Station, here stood the Fabyan House, a grand hotel built by Sylvester Marsh and his colleagues, who also built the nearby Mount Washington Cog Railway. The Mount Pleasant House was built in 1875, although demolished in 1939, but the grandest of all was the Mount Washington Hotel, built in 1902 and still operating. Here was held the 1944 International Monetary Conference, which resulted in the creation of the International Monetary Fund, in 1874, Wing Railroad, a branch of the Montreal, extended into this town. Also Browns lumber railroad, from Whitefield, there are several villages in the town. Twin Mountain, which has an airstrip, is primarily a summer and winter resort located at the intersection of U. S. Route 3 from Franconia. Bretton Woods is a recreational and resort area on Route 302 southeast toward Harts Location. Adjacent to Bretton Woods at the junction of the Mount Washington Cog Railway Base Station Road with Route 302 is the train station of Fabyan. Two miles north of Twin Mountain along Route 3 is the village of Carroll proper. New Hampshire Route 115 leads from Carroll to Jefferson, with views of Whitefield, Lancaster
Carroll, New Hampshire
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The Mount Washington Hotel c. 1906
Carroll, New Hampshire
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The Fabyan House c. 1908
Carroll, New Hampshire
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The Mt. Pleasant House c. 1912
Carroll, New Hampshire
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Stickney Memorial Chapel c. 1910
9.
Bretton Woods Mountain Resort
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Bretton Woods Mountain Resort is a ski area located in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, across from the Mount Washington Hotel. The resort is located on U. S. Route 302 in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, the terrain occupies 464 acres adjacent to the White Mountain National Forest. 92% of the trails have snowmaking, there are 102 trails currently, and the resort receives an average of over 200 inches of snow per year. The resort includes 10 lifts, four of which are high speed quads and they run at a capacity of 14,000 people per hour. In the 2013/2014 SKI Magazine Readers Poll, Bretton Woods was named #1 in the East for snow, grooming, service, Bretton Woods was named #1 in New Hampshire for lifts, lodging, and dining, and overall ski resort. Bretton Woods was also named Top 5 in the East for family programs and scenery and Top 10 in the East for on mountain food
Bretton Woods Mountain Resort
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Bretton Woods Mountain Resort
10.
Crawford Notch
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Crawford Notch is a major pass through the White Mountains of New Hampshire, located almost entirely within the town of Harts Location. Roughly half of town is contained in Crawford Notch State Park. North of the point of the notch, Crawford Brook flows more gently northwest to the Ammonoosuc River. The notch is traversed by U. S. Route 302, the notch became known to European settlers when found by Timothy Nash in 1771. The 1772 boundaries of Harts Grant reflected its shape and it was named for Abel Crawford, an explorer, trail-builder and hosteler in the early 19th century. The Tenth New Hampshire Turnpike from Portsmouth was extended through the notch to Lancaster in 1803, a well-documented historic event within the notch was a rockslide that killed the entire Samuel Willey family in August 1826. The family fled their home during the storm to a shelter but were buried by the slide and died in a mass of stone. Mount Willey, on the west side of the notch, is named in their memory, further down the notch, Nancy Brook and Mount Nancy are named for an earlier tragedy. The depot remains a stop on the scenic Notch Train of the Conway Scenic Railroad, place Names of the White Mountains. Hanover, University Press of New England
Crawford Notch
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The Notch of the White Mountains (1839), by
Thomas Cole (1801–1848), looking south
Crawford Notch
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Crawford Notch (1867), by
Thomas Hill (1829–1908), looking north, collection of the
New Hampshire Historical Society
Crawford Notch
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Present-day Crawford Notch, looking south from Elephant Head rock (visible to left of notch in Thomas Cole painting)
11.
Twin Mountain, New Hampshire
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Twin Mountain is an unincorporated community within the town of Carroll in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. It is named for two prominent summits which rise to the south of the village, North Twin Mountain and South Twin Mountain, the village is located at the junction of U. S. highways 3 and 302, two major routes through the White Mountain notches. The Ammonoosuc River flows through the center of the village, Twin Mountain has a separate ZIP code from the rest of the town of Carroll. Village of Twin Mountain Twin Mountain-Bretton Woods Chamber of Commerce
Twin Mountain, New Hampshire
–
Mount Washington Cog Railway display in center of Twin Mountain
12.
U.S. Route 302
–
U. S. Route 302 is an east–west spur of U. S. Route 2 in northern New England in the United States. It currently runs 171 miles from Montpelier, Vermont, at US2, to Portland, Maine and it passes through the states of Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine. US302 enters Vermont after crossing the Connecticut River at the village of Wells River, the highway crosses US5 in the center of the village. The next major intersection for US302 is its intersection with Interstate 91 in Newbury, US302 then winds through the rural towns of Ryegate, Groton, Topsham, and Orange, before entering East Barre. In East Barre, its intersection with Vermont Route 110 takes the form of a roundabout, after traveling down out of the hills surrounding the city of Barre, US302 makes up Washington Street and Main Street of Barre. It runs along the Jail Branch River and the Stevens Branch of the Winooski River in Barre, then through Berlin, US302 is named William Scott Memorial Highway and was part of the Theodore Roosevelt International Trail in Vermont. US302 enters the state of New Hampshire at an arch bridge over the Connecticut River beginning in Wells River. It follows Central Street on an alignment, passing through Woodsville until it reaches NH10. US302 follows the Ammonoosuc River through a mix of fields and forested land, passing through Bath as Lisbon Road, as it approaches Littleton, the roads name changes to Meadow Street and becomes a shopping strip just before crossing the river and interchanging with I-93. After a short stretch, the road meets Main Street at an intersection, defaulting onto Main Street. The route passes under Interstate 93 again and passes woodland, where it crosses I-93 for a third time at a second interchange. After turning eastward again, passing through Bartlett and intersecting NH16, the route follows Eastman Road south of North Conway, which it follows to its end at NH113 after bridging the Saco River once again. US302 turns east, passing through forested land as it crosses the Maine state border. US302 is known as the Roosevelt Trail through southern Maine because it was the beginning of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway to Portland, the highway leaves Portland, Maine, bridging the Presumpscot River into Westbrook at Riverton. The Roosevelt Trail then bridges the Pleasant River at milepost 13, the highway follows the Saco River from Fryeburg into the White Mountains and enters New Hampshire near milepost 58. It is a highway for almost all of its length. Some of the sections also feature a third passing lane. The eastern end of US302 was formerly at Longfellow Square in Portland, the highway follows a 19th-century stagecoach road from Portland through Windham to Bridgton
U.S. Route 302
–
U.S. Route 302 in
Berlin, Vermont, approximately two miles from the western terminus
U.S. Route 302
U.S. Route 302
–
Longfellow Square marks the southern end of U.S. Route 302.
13.
Orlando, Florida
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Orlando is a city in the U. S. state of Florida and the county seat of Orange County. Located in Central Florida, it is the center of the Orlando metropolitan area, which had a population of 4,000,002, according to U. S. As of 2015, Orlando had an estimated population of 270,934, making it the 73rd-largest city in the United States, the fourth-largest city in Florida. The City of Orlando is nicknamed The City Beautiful, and its symbol is the fountain at Lake Eola, Orlando is also known as The Theme Park Capital of the World and in 2014 its tourist attractions and events drew more than 62 million visitors. The Orlando International Airport is the thirteenth-busiest airport in the United States, with the exception of Walt Disney World, most major attractions are located along International Drive. The city is one of the busiest American cities for conferences and conventions. Orlando is home to the University of Central Florida, which is the largest university campus in the United States in terms of enrollment as of 2015, in 2010, Orlando was listed as a Gamma− level of world-city in the World Cities Study Groups inventory. Orlando ranks as the fourth-most popular American city based on where people want to live according to a 2009 Pew Research Center study. Fort Gatlin, as the Orlando area was known, was established at what is now just south of the city limits by the 4th U. S. Artillery under the command of Ltc, alexander C. W. Fanning on November 9,1838 during the construction of a series of fortified encampments across Florida during the Second Seminole War. The fort and surrounding area were named for Dr. John S. Gatlin, king Phillip and Coacoochee frequented this area and the tree was alleged to be the place where the previous 1835 ambush that had killed over 100 soldiers had been planned. When the U. S. military abandoned the fort in 1839 the surrounding community was built up by settlers, prior to being known by its current name, Orlando was once known as Jernigan. Aarron Jernigan became Orange Countys first State Representative in 1845 but his pleas for military protection went unanswered. Fort Gatlin was briefly reoccupied by the military for a few weeks during October and November 1849, a historical marker indicates that by 1850 the Jernigan homestead served as the nucleus of a village named Jernigan. One of the countys first records, a grand jurys report, mentions a stockade where it states homesteaders were driven from their homes, Aaron Jernigan led a local volunteer militia during 1852. Jernigan appears on an 1855 map of Florida and by 1856 the area had become the county seat of Orange County and it is known for certain that the area was renamed Orlando in 1857. The move is believed to be sparked, in part, by Aaron Jernigans fall from grace after he was relieved of his command by military officials in 1856. His behavior was so notorious that Secretary of War Jefferson Davis wrote, in 1859, Jernigan and his sons were accused of committing a murder at the towns post office
Orlando, Florida
Orlando, Florida
Orlando, Florida
Orlando, Florida
14.
Historic Hotels of America
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The National Trust for Historic Preservation is a privately funded, nonprofit organization based in Washington, D. C. that works in the field of historic preservation in the United States. The organization is governed by a board of trustees and led by current president, the National Trust presently has around 750,000 members and supporters. The National Trust issues the quarterly Preservation magazine and produces the PreservationNation blog, towards the end of the 19th century, as the United States was rebuilding after the Civil War, the country was beginning to form its sense of national identity and history. The government began to enact legislation for the preservation of sites, in 1872, an Act of Congress established the first National Park, Yellowstone. In 1906, the Antiquities Act enabled the President to declare landmarks or objects as a national monument, then in 1935, Congress passed the Historic Sites Act which outlined programs for research and inventory of historic sites. Meanwhile, historic preservation initiatives existed on local and state levels, in 1931, the first historic district was created in Charleston, South Carolina. However, efforts to save and maintain historic sites were largely limited to private citizens or local groups. In the late 1940s, leaders in American historic preservation saw the need for an organization to support local preservation efforts. In 1946, David E. Finley, Jr. George McAneny, Christopher Crittenden, the meeting’s attendants became the first charter members of the Council. The organization’s first headquarters was in the offices of Ford’s Theatre in downtown Washington, the creation of the National Trust was proposed as a bill to Congress, H. R.5170, introduced by Congressman J. Hardin Peterson of Florida and passed. The National Trust for Historic Preservation was formally established through the Act of Congress when President Harry S. Truman signed the legislation on October 26,1949. The charter provided that the Trust should acquire and preserve historic sites and objects of national significance, Finley served as the National Trusts first chairman of the board, remaining in the position for 12 years. The National Trust and the National Council existed side by side for years until the need to merge resources compelled the Executive Committee to integrate the two entities. In 1952, the boards of organizations approved a merger of the Council into the National Trust. The merger was effective the following year and was completed by 1956, the National Trust became a membership organization and assumed all other functions of the National Council. In 1957, the National Trust officially acquired its first property, over the next decade, the National Trust grew to become the leading national organization in historic preservation. They began working with citizens and city planning officials on matters, including federal, state. National Trust staff also traveled to parts of the country to advise local communities on preservation projects, in 1966, Congress passed the National Historic Preservation Act, a significant legislation for the preservation movement
Historic Hotels of America
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The National Trust for Historic Preservation is headquartered in the
Watergate complex,
Washington, D.C.
Historic Hotels of America
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The National Trust for Historic Preservation's former headquarters of 35 years, the
Andrew Mellon Building, located in the
Dupont Circle neighborhood of
Washington, D.C. The National Trust moved its headquarters to the
Watergate complex in 2013.
Historic Hotels of America
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Woodlawn Plantation &
Pope-Leighey House,
Alexandria, Virginia was the first site acquired into the National Trust portfolio.
Historic Hotels of America
–
The portfolio of National Trust sites has expanded to include Phillip Johnson's
Glass House,
New Canaan, Connecticut.
15.
National Trust for Historic Preservation
–
The National Trust for Historic Preservation is a privately funded, nonprofit organization based in Washington, D. C. that works in the field of historic preservation in the United States. The organization is governed by a board of trustees and led by current president, the National Trust presently has around 750,000 members and supporters. The National Trust issues the quarterly Preservation magazine and produces the PreservationNation blog, towards the end of the 19th century, as the United States was rebuilding after the Civil War, the country was beginning to form its sense of national identity and history. The government began to enact legislation for the preservation of sites, in 1872, an Act of Congress established the first National Park, Yellowstone. In 1906, the Antiquities Act enabled the President to declare landmarks or objects as a national monument, then in 1935, Congress passed the Historic Sites Act which outlined programs for research and inventory of historic sites. Meanwhile, historic preservation initiatives existed on local and state levels, in 1931, the first historic district was created in Charleston, South Carolina. However, efforts to save and maintain historic sites were largely limited to private citizens or local groups. In the late 1940s, leaders in American historic preservation saw the need for an organization to support local preservation efforts. In 1946, David E. Finley, Jr. George McAneny, Christopher Crittenden, the meeting’s attendants became the first charter members of the Council. The organization’s first headquarters was in the offices of Ford’s Theatre in downtown Washington, the creation of the National Trust was proposed as a bill to Congress, H. R.5170, introduced by Congressman J. Hardin Peterson of Florida and passed. The National Trust for Historic Preservation was formally established through the Act of Congress when President Harry S. Truman signed the legislation on October 26,1949. The charter provided that the Trust should acquire and preserve historic sites and objects of national significance, Finley served as the National Trusts first chairman of the board, remaining in the position for 12 years. The National Trust and the National Council existed side by side for years until the need to merge resources compelled the Executive Committee to integrate the two entities. In 1952, the boards of organizations approved a merger of the Council into the National Trust. The merger was effective the following year and was completed by 1956, the National Trust became a membership organization and assumed all other functions of the National Council. In 1957, the National Trust officially acquired its first property, over the next decade, the National Trust grew to become the leading national organization in historic preservation. They began working with citizens and city planning officials on matters, including federal, state. National Trust staff also traveled to parts of the country to advise local communities on preservation projects, in 1966, Congress passed the National Historic Preservation Act, a significant legislation for the preservation movement
National Trust for Historic Preservation
–
The National Trust for Historic Preservation is headquartered in the
Watergate complex,
Washington, D.C.
National Trust for Historic Preservation
–
The National Trust for Historic Preservation's former headquarters of 35 years, the
Andrew Mellon Building, located in the
Dupont Circle neighborhood of
Washington, D.C. The National Trust moved its headquarters to the
Watergate complex in 2013.
National Trust for Historic Preservation
–
Woodlawn Plantation &
Pope-Leighey House,
Alexandria, Virginia was the first site acquired into the National Trust portfolio.
National Trust for Historic Preservation
–
The portfolio of National Trust sites has expanded to include Phillip Johnson's
Glass House,
New Canaan, Connecticut.
16.
Waltham, Massachusetts
–
Waltham is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States, and was an early center for the labor movement as well as a major contributor to the American Industrial Revolution. The city is now a center for research and higher education, home to Brandeis University, the population was 60,636 at the census in 2010. Waltham is commonly referred to as Watch City because of its association with the watch industry, Waltham Watch Company opened its factory in Waltham in 1854 and was the first company to make watches on an assembly line. It won the medal in 1876 at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition. The company produced over 35 million watches, clocks and instruments before it closed in 1957, as most would pronounce in the British way, Walthum, when people came to work in the mills from Nova Scotia, the pronunciation evolved. The local version became a phonetic sounding to accommodate French speakers who could not pronounce in the British way, Waltham was first settled in 1634 as part of Watertown and was officially incorporated as a separate town in 1738. The Waltham–Lowell system of production derives its name from the city and the founder of the mill. and the Lyman Estate, a 400-acre estate built in 1793 by Boston merchant Theodore Lyman. In 1857, The Waltham Model 1857, was a made by the American Watch Company in the city of Waltham, Massachusetts. In the late 19th and early 20th century, Waltham was home to the brass era automobile manufacturer Metz, another first in Waltham industrial history involves the method to mass-produce the magnetron tube, invented by Percy Spencer at Raytheon. During World War II, the magnetron tube technology was applied to radar, later, magnetron tubes were used as components in microwave ovens. Waltham was also the home of the Walter E. Fernald State School, the storied and controversial history of the institution has long been covered by local and at times, national media. Waltham is located at 42°22′50″N 71°14′6″W, about 11 miles north-west of downtown Boston, Massachusetts, the city stretches along the Charles River and contains several dams. The dams were used to power mills and other endeavors in the early years of the industrial activity. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 13.6 square miles. As of the census in 2000, there were 59,226 people,23,207 households, there were 23,880 housing units at an average density of 1,880.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 82. 98% White,4. 41% African American,0. 16% Native American,7. 29% Asian,0. 06% Pacific Islander,3. 20% from other races, and 1. 89% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8. 49% of the population. There were 23,207 households, of which 20. 3% included those under the age of 18,41. 3% were married couples living together,8. 9% were headed by a single mother, and 46. 3% were non-families
Waltham, Massachusetts
–
Central Square
Waltham, Massachusetts
–
Boston Manufacturing Company
Waltham, Massachusetts
–
The Charles River in Waltham
Waltham, Massachusetts
–
Engine 1, Ladder 2, and Squad 5's quarters on Moody Street
17.
Coal
–
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
Coal
–
Anthracite coal
Coal
–
Bituminous coal
Coal
–
Coastal exposure of the Point Aconi Seam (Nova Scotia)
Coal
–
Coal miner in Britain, 1942
18.
Pennsylvania
–
Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
Pennsylvania
–
World's End State Park, Sullivan County
Pennsylvania
–
Flag
Pennsylvania
–
Autumn in North Branch Township,
Wyoming County, Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
–
Penn's Treaty with the Indians, by
Edward Hicks
19.
Mount Pleasant House (New Hampshire)
–
Mount Pleasant House was a grand hotel in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, in the area of Bretton Woods. It was built in 1875 and opened in 1876, mount Pleasant House was one of three grand hotels in the area at the time during the early stages of an era of epic hotel building and more came soon after. The other early grand hotels in Bretton Woods were White Mountain House, the original hotel was built by lumber businessman John T. G. Leavitt, and a mill was located across from the hotel. The hotel and mill were served by a rail line, portland, Maine, architect Francis H. Fassett orchestrated an expansion of the hotel in 1895. It featured Queen Anne architecture style, the hotel was demolished in 1939
Mount Pleasant House (New Hampshire)
–
Stereoscopic image of Mount Pleasant House with railroad tracks showing in foreground
Mount Pleasant House (New Hampshire)
–
Mount Pleasant House
postcard
20.
Italian people
–
Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to Italy who share a common culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a native tongue. The majority of Italian nationals are speakers of Standard Italian. Italians have greatly influenced and contributed to the arts and music, science, technology, cuisine, sports, fashion, jurisprudence, banking, Italian people are generally known for their localism and their attention to clothing and family values. The term Italian is at least 3,000 years old and has a history that goes back to pre-Roman Italy. According to one of the common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The Etruscan civilization reached its peak about the 7th century BC, but by 509 BC, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 BC, after a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, in the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, octavian, the final victor, was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. After two centuries of rule, in the 3rd century AD, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders. Emperor Diocletians administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief, it became permanent in 395, in 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy and his defeat marked the end of the western part of the Roman Empire. During most of the period from the fall of Rome until the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian, after the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak
Italian people
–
Amerigo Vespucci, the notable geographer and traveller from whose name the word
America is derived.
Italian people
Italian people
–
Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of the
New World.
Italian people
–
Laura Bassi, the first chairwoman of a university in a scientific field of studies.
21.
Artisan
–
Artisans practice a craft and may through experience and aptitude reach the expressive levels of an artist. The adjective artisanal is sometimes used in describing hand-processing in what is viewed as an industrial process. Thus, artisanal is sometimes used in marketing and advertising as a word to describe or imply some relation with the crafting of handmade food products, such as bread. Many of these have traditionally been handmade, rural or pastoral goods but are now commonly made on a larger scale with automated mechanization in factories. Artisans were the dominant producers of products prior to the Industrial Revolution. In ancient Greece, artisans were drawn to agoras and often built workshops nearby, during the Middle Ages, the term artisan was applied to those who made things or provided services. It did not apply to unskilled manual labourers, Artisans were divided into two distinct groups, those who operated their own businesses and those who did not. Those who owned their businesses were called masters, while the latter were the journeymen, one misunderstanding many people have about this social group is that they picture them as workers in the modern sense, employed by someone. The most influential group among the artisans were the masters, the business owners, the owners enjoyed a higher social status in their communities. Shokunin is a Japanese word for artisan or craftsman, which implies a pride in ones own work. In the words of shokunin Tashio Odate, Shokunin means not only having technical skill, a social obligation to work his best for the general welfare of the people, obligation both material and spiritual. Applied art Artist Arts and Crafts movement Caste — Tarkhan Guild Handicraft The dictionary definition of artisan at Wiktionary History of Artisans
Artisan
–
Glassblowing artisans at work in a
crystal glass workshop
Artisan
–
Craftsman of salt in Salinas Grandes,
Salta province (
Argentina)
Artisan
–
An artist blacksmith and a striker working as one
Artisan
–
Wood carver in Bali
22.
Granite
–
Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
Granite
–
Granite containing
potassium feldspar,
plagioclase feldspar,
quartz, and
biotite and/or
amphibole
Granite
–
Close-up of granite exposed in
Chennai,
India
Granite
–
The
Cheesewring, a granite
tor
Granite
–
A granite peak at
Huangshan, China
23.
Stucco
–
Stucco or render is a material made of aggregates, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a dense solid. It is used as coating for walls and ceilings and as a sculptural. Stucco may be used to cover less visually appealing construction materials such as metal, concrete, cinder block, or clay brick and adobe. In English, stucco usually means a coating for the outside of a building, and plaster one for interiors, as described below, but other European languages, importantly including Italian, do not have the same distinction, stucco means plaster in Italian and serves for both. This has led to English often using stucco for interior decorative plasterwork in relief, especially in art history, the difference in nomenclature between stucco, plaster, and mortar is based more on use than composition. Animal or plant fibers were often added for additional strength, in the latter nineteenth century, Portland cement was added with increasing frequency in an attempt to improve the durability of stucco. At the same time, traditional lime plasters were being replaced by gypsum plaster, traditional stucco is made of lime, sand, and water. Modern stucco is made of Portland cement, sand, and water, lime is added to increase the permeability and workability of modern stucco. Sometimes additives such as acrylics and glass fibers are added to improve the properties of the stucco. This is usually done with what is considered a one-coat stucco system, lime stucco is a relatively hard material that can be broken or chipped by hand without too much difficulty. The lime itself is white, color comes from the aggregate or any added pigments. Lime stucco has the property of being self-healing to a degree because of the slight water solubility of lime. Portland cement stucco is very hard and brittle and can easily crack if the base on which it is applied is not stable, typically its color was gray, from the innate color of most Portland cement, but white Portland cement is also used. Todays stucco manufacturers offer a wide range of colors that can be mixed integrally in the finish coat. As a building material, stucco is a durable, attractive and it was traditionally used as both an interior and exterior finish applied in one or two thin layers directly over a solid masonry, brick or stone surface. The finish coat usually contained a color and was typically textured for appearance. The lath added support for the wet plaster and tensile strength to the brittle, cured stucco, while the increased thickness, the traditional application of stucco and lath occurs in three coats — the scratch coat, the brown coat and the finish coat
Stucco
–
Stucco from the
House of Borujerdi-ha, 1850s,
Kashan,
Iran.
Stucco
–
Stucco from the
Sardar Rafie Yanehsari building (Shahryari building 1),
Hezarjarib District,
Behshahr County,
Iran.
Stucco
–
Stucco used as an exterior coating on a residential building.
Stucco
–
Rock dash stucco used as an exterior coating on a house on Canada's west coast. The chips of quartz, stone, and colored glass measure approx. 3-6 mm (1/8" - 1/4").
24.
Masonry
–
Masonry is the building of structures from individual units, which are often laid in and bound together by mortar, the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of construction are brick, building stone such as marble, granite, travertine, and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block. Masonry is generally a durable form of construction. However, the used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship. A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer, Masonry is commonly used for walls and buildings. Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations, Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great strength, and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement offers much greater tensile, the use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building and can protect the building from fire. Masonry walls are resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes. Extreme weather, under circumstances, can cause degradation of masonry due to expansion. Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a foundation, such as reinforced concrete. Other than concrete, masonry construction does not lend well to mechanization. Masonry consists of components and has a low tolerance to oscillation as compared to other materials such as reinforced concrete, plastics, wood. Masonry has high compressive strength under vertical loads but has low tensile strength unless reinforced, the tensile strength of masonry walls can be increased by thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers at intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcements such as windposts can be added, a masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this context the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural, the brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by brick ties. There is typically an air gap between the veneer and the structural wall. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion
Masonry
–
A mason laying mortar on top of a finished course of blocks, prior to placing the next course.
Masonry
–
Dry set masonry supports a rustic
log bridge, where it provides a well-drained support for the log (which will increase its service life).
Masonry
–
Masonry repair work done to a brick wall.
Masonry
–
Concrete masonry units (CMUs) or blocks in a basement wall before burial.
25.
Income tax
–
An income tax is a tax imposed on individuals or entities that varies with the income or profits of the taxpayer. Many jurisdictions refer to income tax on business entities as companies tax or corporate tax, partnerships generally are not taxed, rather, the partners are taxed on their share of partnership items. Tax may be imposed by both a country and subdivisions, most jurisdictions exempt locally organized charitable organizations from tax. Income tax generally is computed as the product of a tax rate times taxable income, the tax rate may increase as taxable income increases. Taxation rates may vary by type or characteristics of the taxpayer, capital gains may be taxed at different rates than other income. Credits of various sorts may be allowed that reduce tax, some jurisdictions impose the higher of an income tax or a tax on an alternative base or measure of income. Taxable income of resident in the jurisdiction is generally total income less income producing expenses. Generally, only net gain from sale of property, including goods held for sale, is included in income, Income of a corporations shareholders usually includes distributions of profits from the corporation. Deductions typically include all income producing or business expenses including an allowance for recovery of costs of business assets, many jurisdictions allow notional deductions for individuals, and may allow deduction of some personal expenses. Most jurisdictions either do not tax income earned outside the jurisdiction or allow a credit for taxes paid to other jurisdictions on such income, nonresidents are taxed only on certain types of income from sources within the jurisdictions, with few exceptions. Most jurisdictions require self-assessment of the tax and require payers of some types of income to withhold tax from those payments, advance payments of tax by taxpayers may be required. Taxpayers not timely paying tax owed are generally subject to significant penalties, for most of the history of civilization, these preconditions did not exist, and taxes were based on other factors. Taxes on wealth, social position, and ownership of the means of production were all common, the first income tax is generally attributed to Egypt. In the early days of the Roman Republic, public taxes consisted of modest assessments on owned wealth, the tax rate under normal circumstances was 1% and sometimes would climb as high as 3% in situations such as war. These modest taxes were levied against land, homes and other estate, slaves, animals, personal items. The more a person had in property, the tax they paid. In the year 10 AD, Emperor Wang Mang of the Xin Dynasty instituted an unprecedented income tax, at the rate of 10 percent of profits, for professionals and skilled labor. He was overthrown 13 years later in 23 AD and earlier policies were restored during the reestablished Han Dynasty which followed, one of the first recorded taxes on income was the Saladin tithe introduced by Henry II in 1188 to raise money for the Third Crusade
Income tax
–
William Pitt the Younger introduced a progressive income tax in 1798.
Income tax
–
Punch cartoon (1907); illustrates the unpopularity amongst Punch readers of a proposed 1907 income tax by the Labour Party in the United Kingdom.
26.
Prohibition
–
The earliest records of prohibition of alcohol date to the Xia Dynasty in China. Yu the Great, the first ruler of the Xia Dynasty and it was legalized again after his death, during the reign of his son Qi. Another record was in the Code of Hammurabi specifically banning the selling of beer for money, in the early twentieth century, much of the impetus for the prohibition movement in the Nordic countries and North America came from moralistic convictions of pietistic Protestants. Rum-running became widespread and organized crime control of the distribution of alcohol. Distilleries and breweries in Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean flourished as their products were consumed by visiting Americans or illegally exported to the United States. Chicago became notorious as a haven for prohibition dodgers during the known as the Roaring Twenties. Prohibition generally came to an end in the late 1920s or early 1930s in most of North America and Europe, in some countries where the dominant religion forbids the use of alcohol, the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages is prohibited or restricted today. For example, in Saudi Arabia and Libya alcohol is banned, Sale of alcohol is banned in Afghanistan. In Bangladesh, alcohol is prohibited due to its proscription in the Islamic faith. However, the purchase and consumption is allowed in the country, the Garo tribe consume a type of rice beer, and Christians in this country drink and purchase wine for their holy communion. In Brunei, alcohol consumption and sale is banned in public, in India alcohol is a state subject and individual states can legislate prohibition, but currently most states do not have prohibition. Prohibition is in force in the states of Gujarat, Bihar and Nagaland, parts of Manipur, the state of Kerala has placed some limitations on sale of alcohol. All other States and union territories of India permit the sale of alcohol, election days and certain national holidays such as Gandhi Jayanti are meant to be dry days when liquor sale is not permitted. The state of Andhra Pradesh had imposed Prohibition under the Chief Ministership of N. T. Rama Rao, Prohibition was also observed from 1996 to 1998 in Haryana. Some Indian states observe dry days on major religious festivals/occasions depending on the popularity of the festival in that region, since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the sale and consumption of alcohol is banned in Iran. Alcohol is banned for people who use small shops and convenience stores, the consumption, importation and brewing of, and trafficking in liquor is strictly against the law. Alcohol is banned for Muslims in Malaysia due to its Islamic faith, the Maldives ban the import of alcohol, x-raying all baggage on arrival. Alcoholic beverages are available only to tourists on resort islands
Prohibition
–
A police raid confiscating illegal alcohol, in
Elk Lake, Canada, in 1925.
Prohibition
–
The Drunkard's Progress: A lithograph by
Nathaniel Currier supporting the temperance movement, January 1846.
Prohibition
–
This 1902 illustration from the Hawaiian Gazette shows the
Anti-Saloon League and the
Women's Christian Temperance Union 's campaign against beer brewers. The
"water cure" was a torture which was in the news because of its use in the Philippines.
Prohibition
–
Prescription form for medicinal liquor
27.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
Great Depression
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Dorothea Lange 's
Migrant Mother depicts destitute
pea pickers in
California, centering on
Florence Owens Thompson, age 32, a mother of seven children, in
Nipomo, California, March 1936
Great Depression
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USA annual real GDP from 1910 to 1960, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–1939) highlighted.
Great Depression
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Crowd gathering at the intersection of
Wall Street and Broad Street after the
1929 crash
Great Depression
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Crowds outside the
Bank of United States in New York after its failure in 1931
28.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
World War II
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Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
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The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
World War II
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Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
World War II
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Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
29.
Bretton Woods system
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The Bretton Woods system was the first example of a fully negotiated monetary order intended to govern monetary relations among independent nation-states. Also, there was a need to address the lack of cooperation among other countries, the delegates deliberated during 1–22 July 1944, and signed the Bretton Woods agreement on its final day. The United States, which controlled two thirds of the gold, insisted that the Bretton Woods system rest on both gold and the US dollar. Soviet representatives attended the conference but later declined to ratify the final agreements and these organizations became operational in 1945 after a sufficient number of countries had ratified the agreement. On 15 August 1971, the United States unilaterally terminated convertibility of the US dollar to gold, effectively bringing the Bretton Woods system to an end and rendering the dollar a fiat currency. This action, referred to as the Nixon shock, created the situation in which the US dollar became a currency used by many states. At the same time, many fixed currencies also became free-floating, there was a high level of agreement among the powerful nations that failure to coordinate exchange rates during the interwar period had exacerbated political tensions. This facilitated the decisions reached by the Bretton Woods Conference, furthermore, all the participating governments at Bretton Woods agreed that the monetary chaos of the interwar period had yielded several valuable lessons. The experience of World War II was fresh in the minds of public officials, the planners at Bretton Woods hoped to avoid a repeat of the Treaty of Versailles after World War I, which had created enough economic and political tension to lead to WWII. The solution at Versailles for the French, British, and Americans seemed to be make Germany pay for it all, if the demands on Germany were unrealistic, then it was unrealistic for France to pay back Britain, and for Britain to pay back the US. Thus, many assets on bank balance sheets internationally were actually unrecoverable loans, in the 1920s, international flows of speculative financial capital increased, leading to extremes in balance of payments situations in various European countries and the US. In the 1930s, world markets never broke through the barriers and restrictions on trade and investment volume – barriers haphazardly constructed. The lesson was that simply having responsible, hard-working central bankers was not enough, Britain in the 1930s had an exclusionary trading bloc with nations of the British Empire known as the Sterling Area. If Britain imported more than it exported to, say, South Africa and this meant that though Britain was running a trade deficit, it had a financial account surplus, and payments balanced. Increasingly, Britains positive balance of payments required keeping the wealth of Empire nations in British banks, one incentive for, say, South African holders of rand to park their wealth in London and to keep the money in Sterling, was a strongly valued pound sterling. Unfortunately, as Britain deindustrialized in the 1920s, the way out of the deficit was to devalue the currency. But Britain couldnt devalue, or the Empire surplus would leave its banking system, nazi Germany also worked with a bloc of controlled nations by 1940. Germany forced trading partners with a surplus to spend that surplus importing products from Germany, thus, Britain survived by keeping Sterling nation surpluses in its banking system, and Germany survived by forcing trading partners to purchase its own products
Bretton Woods system
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Cordell Hull, US Secretary of State 1933–44
Bretton Woods system
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Roosevelt and Churchill during their secret meeting of 9–12 August 1941, in
Newfoundland resulted in the
Atlantic Charter, which the U.S. and Britain officially announced two days later.
Bretton Woods system
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John Maynard Keynes (right) and
Harry Dexter White at the inaugural meeting of the International Monetary Fund's Board of Governors in Savannah, Georgia, U.S., 8 March 1946
30.
Bretton Woods Conference
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The conference was held from July 1–22,1944. Agreements were signed that, after ratification by member governments, established the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. On May 25,1944, the U. S, the United States also invited a smaller group of countries to send experts to a preliminary conference in Atlantic City, New Jersey, to develop draft proposals for the Bretton Woods conference. The Atlantic City conference was held from June 15–30,1944, the Bretton Woods Conference had three main results, Articles of Agreement to create the IMF, whose purpose was to promote stability of exchange rates and financial flows. Articles of Agreement to create the IBRD, whose purpose was to speed reconstruction after the Second World War and to economic development. Other recommendations for economic cooperation. The Final Act of the conference incorporated these agreements and recommendations, within the Final Act, the most important part in the eyes of the conference participants and for the later operation of the world economy was the IMF agreement. Its major features were, An adjustably pegged foreign exchange rate system. Governments were only supposed to alter exchange rates to correct a fundamental disequilibrium, member countries pledged to make their currencies convertible for trade-related and other current account transactions. There were, however, transitional provisions that allowed for indefinite delay in accepting that obligation, the goal of widespread current account convertibility did not become operative until December 1958, when the currencies of the IMFs Western European members and their colonies became convertible. The IMF could concur in or object to changes beyond that level, the IMF could not force a member to undo a change, but could deny the member access to the resources of the IMF. All member countries were required to subscribe to the IMFs capital, membership in the IBRD was conditioned on being a member of the IMF. Voting in both institutions was apportioned according to formulas giving greater weight to countries contributing more capital, the seminal idea behind the Bretton Woods Conference was the notion of open markets. In his closing remarks at the conference, its president, U. S. Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau, stated that the establishment of the IMF and this meant countries would maintain their national interest, but trade blocs and economic spheres of influence would no longer be their means. The conference conducted its work through three commissions. Commission I dealt with the IMF and was chaired by Harry Dexter White, Assistant to the Secretary of the U. S. Treasury and the chief American negotiator at the conference. Commission II dealt with the IBRD and was chaired by John Maynard Keynes, economic adviser to the British Chancellor of the Exchequer and the chief British negotiator at the conference. Commission III dealt with other means of financial cooperation and was chaired by Eduardo Suárez, Mexico’s minister of finance
Bretton Woods Conference
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Mount Washington Hotel
Bretton Woods Conference
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John Maynard Keynes (right) represented the UK at the conference, and
Harry Dexter White represented the US.
Bretton Woods Conference
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Bretton Woods Conference Participating Nations Flag Display Case located within the Gold Room at the
Mount Washington Hotel
