1.
35 mm
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35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for motion pictures and chemical still photography. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, the standard negative pulldown for movies is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film. For still photography, the frame has eight perforations on each side. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge, the 35 mm width, originally specified as 1.375 inches, was introduced in 1892 by William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman. The gauge has been versatile in application, Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies which offered 35 mm films. Today Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film and it is difficult to compare the quality of film to digital media but a good estimate would be about 20.8 million total pixels would equal one 35 millimeter high quality color frame of film. In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry plates in Rochester. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer coated paper, hannibal Goodwins invention of nitrocellulose film base in 1887 was the first transparent, flexible film. With the advent of film, Thomas Alva Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope. The Kinetoscope was a loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant W. K. L. Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New Yorks Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Edisons aperture defined a single frame of film at 4 perforations high, a court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edisons claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison had failed to file patents, at the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière Brothers used a circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.33 aspect ratio. Spehr describes the importance of these developments, The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The film format was introduced into still photography as early as 1913 but first became popular with the launch of the Leica camera, created by Oskar Barnack in 1925. The costly image-forming silver compounds in a film stocks emulsion meant from the start that 35 mm filmmaking was to be a hobby with a high barrier to entry for the public at large. Furthermore, the film base of all early film stock was highly flammable
2.
Optics
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Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behaviour of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light, because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties. Most optical phenomena can be accounted for using the classical description of light. Complete electromagnetic descriptions of light are, however, often difficult to apply in practice, practical optics is usually done using simplified models. The most common of these, geometric optics, treats light as a collection of rays that travel in straight lines, physical optics is a more comprehensive model of light, which includes wave effects such as diffraction and interference that cannot be accounted for in geometric optics. Historically, the model of light was developed first, followed by the wave model of light. Progress in electromagnetic theory in the 19th century led to the discovery that waves were in fact electromagnetic radiation. Some phenomena depend on the fact that light has both wave-like and particle-like properties, explanation of these effects requires quantum mechanics. When considering lights particle-like properties, the light is modelled as a collection of particles called photons, quantum optics deals with the application of quantum mechanics to optical systems. Optical science is relevant to and studied in many related disciplines including astronomy, various engineering fields, photography, practical applications of optics are found in a variety of technologies and everyday objects, including mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, lasers, and fibre optics. Optics began with the development of lenses by the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians, the earliest known lenses, made from polished crystal, often quartz, date from as early as 700 BC for Assyrian lenses such as the Layard/Nimrud lens. The ancient Romans and Greeks filled glass spheres with water to make lenses, the word optics comes from the ancient Greek word ὀπτική, meaning appearance, look. Greek philosophy on optics broke down into two opposing theories on how vision worked, the theory and the emission theory. The intro-mission approach saw vision as coming from objects casting off copies of themselves that were captured by the eye, plato first articulated the emission theory, the idea that visual perception is accomplished by rays emitted by the eyes. He also commented on the parity reversal of mirrors in Timaeus, some hundred years later, Euclid wrote a treatise entitled Optics where he linked vision to geometry, creating geometrical optics. Ptolemy, in his treatise Optics, held a theory of vision, the rays from the eye formed a cone, the vertex being within the eye. The rays were sensitive, and conveyed back to the observer’s intellect about the distance. He summarised much of Euclid and went on to describe a way to measure the angle of refraction, during the Middle Ages, Greek ideas about optics were resurrected and extended by writers in the Muslim world
3.
Mechanics
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Mechanics is an area of science concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. The scientific discipline has its origins in Ancient Greece with the writings of Aristotle, during the early modern period, scientists such as Khayaam, Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, laid the foundation for what is now known as classical mechanics. It is a branch of physics that deals with particles that are either at rest or are moving with velocities significantly less than the speed of light. It can also be defined as a branch of science which deals with the motion of, historically, classical mechanics came first, while quantum mechanics is a comparatively recent invention. Classical mechanics originated with Isaac Newtons laws of motion in Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, both are commonly held to constitute the most certain knowledge that exists about physical nature. Classical mechanics has especially often been viewed as a model for other so-called exact sciences, essential in this respect is the relentless use of mathematics in theories, as well as the decisive role played by experiment in generating and testing them. Quantum mechanics is of a scope, as it encompasses classical mechanics as a sub-discipline which applies under certain restricted circumstances. According to the principle, there is no contradiction or conflict between the two subjects, each simply pertains to specific situations. The correspondence principle states that the behavior of systems described by quantum theories reproduces classical physics in the limit of quantum numbers. Quantum mechanics has superseded classical mechanics at the level and is indispensable for the explanation and prediction of processes at the molecular, atomic. However, for macroscopic processes classical mechanics is able to solve problems which are difficult in quantum mechanics and hence remains useful. Modern descriptions of such behavior begin with a definition of such quantities as displacement, time, velocity, acceleration, mass. Until about 400 years ago, however, motion was explained from a different point of view. He showed that the speed of falling objects increases steadily during the time of their fall and this acceleration is the same for heavy objects as for light ones, provided air friction is discounted. The English mathematician and physicist Isaac Newton improved this analysis by defining force and mass, for objects traveling at speeds close to the speed of light, Newton’s laws were superseded by Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. For atomic and subatomic particles, Newton’s laws were superseded by quantum theory, for everyday phenomena, however, Newton’s three laws of motion remain the cornerstone of dynamics, which is the study of what causes motion. In analogy to the distinction between quantum and classical mechanics, Einsteins general and special theories of relativity have expanded the scope of Newton, the differences between relativistic and Newtonian mechanics become significant and even dominant as the velocity of a massive body approaches the speed of light. Relativistic corrections are also needed for quantum mechanics, although general relativity has not been integrated, the two theories remain incompatible, a hurdle which must be overcome in developing a theory of everything
4.
Film
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A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
5.
Movie screen
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A projection screen is an installation consisting of a surface and a support structure used for displaying a projected image for the view of an audience. Projection screens may be installed, as in a movie theater, painted on the wall. As in a room or other non-dedicated viewing space. Another popular type of portable screens are inflatable screens for movie screening. Flat or curved screens may be used depending on the used to project the image. Screens can be designed for front or back projection, the more common being front projection systems. In commercial movie theaters, the screen is a surface that may be either aluminized or a white surface with small glass beads. The screen also has hundreds of small, evenly spaced holes to allow air to and from the speakers and subwoofer, rigid wall-mounted screens maintain their geometry perfectly just like the big movie screens, which makes them suitable for applications that demand exact reproduction of image geometry. Such screens are used in home theaters, along with the pull-down screens. Pull-down screens are used in spaces where a permanently installed screen would require too much space. These commonly use painted fabric that is rolled in the case when not used. Fixed-frame screens provide the greatest level of tension on the screens surface. They are often used in theater and professional environments where the screen does not need to be recessed into the case. Electric screens can be mounted, ceiling mounted or ceiling recessed. These are often larger screens, though electric screens are available for theater use as well. Electric screens are similar to pull-down screens, but instead of the screen being pulled down manually, switchable projection screens can be switched between opaque and clear. In the opaque state, projected image on the screen can be viewed from both sides and it is very good for advertising on store windows. Mobile screens usually use either a pull-down screen on a free stand and these can be used when it is impossible or impractical to mount the screen to a wall or a ceiling
6.
Movie camera
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The movie camera, film camera or cine-camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on an image sensor or on a film. In contrast to a camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time. This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism, the frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the frame rate. While viewing at a frame rate, a persons eyes. Since 2010s, film-based movie cameras have been replaced by digital movie cameras. An interesting forerunner to the camera was the machine invented by Francis Ronalds at the Kew Observatory in 1845. A photosensitive surface was drawn slowly past the diaphragm of the camera by a clockwork mechanism to enable continuous recording over a 12- or 24-hour period. Ronalds applied his cameras to trace the ongoing variations of scientific instruments, the very first patented film camera was the one devised by Wordsworth Donisthorpe in 1876. Another film camera was designed in England by Frenchman Louis Le Prince in 1888 and he built and patented an earlier 16 lens camera in 1887 at his workshop in Leeds. The first 8 lenses would be triggered in rapid succession by an electromagnetic shutter on the sensitive film, according to Adolphe Le Prince, who assisted his father at Leeds, Roundhay Garden was shot at 12 frame/s and Leeds Bridge at 20 frame/s. His camera still exists with the National Media Museum in Bradford and he shot the film on celluloid with 1¾ inch width. Another early pioneer was the British inventor William Friese-Greene and he began to experiment with the use of oiled paper as a medium for displaying motion pictures in 1885 and by 1887 he was experimenting with the use of celluloid. In 1889, Friese-Greene took out a patent for a chronophotographic camera and this was capable of taking up to ten photographs per second using perforated celluloid film. A report on the camera was published in the British Photographic News on February 28,1890 and he gave a public demonstration in 1890 of his device, but the low frame rate combined with the devices apparent unreliability made an unfavourable impression. William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, a Scottish inventor and employee of Thomas Edison, the camera was powered by an electric motor and was capable of shooting with the new sprocketed film. The Lumière Domitor camera was created by Charles Moisson, the mechanic at the Lumière works in Lyon in 1894. The camera used paper film of 35 millimeter width, but in 1895 the Lumière brothers shifted to celluloid film and this they covered with their own Etiquette-bleue emulsion, had it cut into strips and perforated. In 1894 the Polish inventor Kazimierz Prószyński constructed a projector and camera in one, due to the work of Le Prince, Friese-Greene, Edison and the Lumière brothers, the movie camera had become a practical reality by the mid 1890s
7.
Zoopraxiscope
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The zoopraxiscope is an early device for displaying motion pictures. Created by photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge in 1879, it may be considered the first movie projector, the zoopraxiscope projected images from rotating glass disks in rapid succession to give the impression of motion. The stop-motion images were painted onto the glass, as silhouettes. A second series of discs, made in 1892–1894, used outline drawings printed onto the discs photographically, some of the animated images are highly complex, featuring multiple combinations of sequences of animal and human movement. The device appears to have one of the primary inspirations for Thomas Edison and William Kennedy Dicksons Kinetoscope. Images from all of the known seventy-one surviving zoopraxiscope discs have been reproduced in the book Eadweard Muybridge, history of cinema List of film formats Strobe light Zoopraxiscope - Royal Borough of Kingston. Information about the Eadweard Muybridge Collection, candy Spinner mobile application featuring zoopraxiscope images, Android, Apple
8.
Eadweard Muybridge
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Eadweard Muybridge was an English photographer important for his pioneering work in photographic studies of motion, and early work in motion-picture projection. He adopted the name Eadweard Muybridge, believing it to be the original Anglo-Saxon form of his name, at age 20, he emigrated to America, first to New York, as a bookseller, and then to San Francisco. He returned to England in 1861, and took up photography, learning the wet-plate collodion process. He went back to San Francisco in 1867, and in 1868 his large photographs of Yosemite Valley made him world-famous, in 1874 he shot and killed Major Harry Larkyns, his wifes lover, but was acquitted in a jury trial on the grounds of justifiable homicide. He travelled for more than a year in Central America on an expedition in 1875. He spent much of his later years giving lectures and demonstrations of his photography and early motion picture sequences, travelling back to England. He also edited and published compilations of his work, which greatly influenced visual artists and he returned to his native England permanently in 1894, and in 1904, the Kingston Museum, containing a collection of his equipment, was opened in his hometown. Edward James Muggeridge was born and raised in England, Muggeridge changed his name several times, starting with Muggridge. In 1855, in the United States, he used the surname Muygridge, after he returned from Britain to the United States in 1867, he used the surname Muybridge. In addition, he used the pseudonym Helios to sign many of his photographs and he also used this as the name of his studio and made it the middle name for his only son, Florado Helios Muybridge, born in 1874. While travelling on an expedition in the Spanish-speaking nations of Central America in 1875. After an 1882 trip to England, he changed the spelling of his first name to Eadweard and he used Eadweard Muybridge for the rest of his career, but his gravestone carries his name as Eadweard Maybridge. Muybridge was born in Kingston upon Thames, in the county of Surrey in England, on 9 April 1830 to John and Susanna Muggeridge, he had three brothers. His father was a grain and coal merchant, with spaces on the ground floor of their house adjacent to the River Thames at No.30 High Street. After his father died in 1843, his mother carried on the business and his cousin Norman Selfe who also grew up in Kingston upon Thames moved to Australia and, following a family tradition, became a renowned engineer. Edwards younger brother George born in 1833 is found living with his Uncle Samuel in 1851 after the death of his Father in 1843 which establishes the lineage of Edward James Muggeridge. He started a career as a agent for the London Printing and Publishing Company. At the time, the city was booming, with 40 bookstores, nearly 60 hotels, later in his life, he wrote about also having spent time in New Orleans and New York City during his early years in the United States
9.
Louis Le Prince
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Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince was a French inventor who shot the first moving pictures on paper film using a single lens camera. He has been heralded as the Father of Cinematography since 1930, a Frenchman who also worked in the United Kingdom and the United States, Le Prince conducted his ground-breaking work in 1888 in the city of Leeds in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. In October 1888, Le Prince filmed moving picture sequences Roundhay Garden Scene and these were several years before the work of competing inventors such as William Friese-Greene, Auguste and Louis Lumière and Thomas Edison. He was never able to perform a public demonstration in the US because he mysteriously vanished from a train on 16 September 1890. His body and luggage were never found, but, over a century later, not long after Le Princes disappearance, Thomas Edison tried to take credit for the invention. But Le Prince’s widow and son, Adolphe, were keen to advance his cause as the inventor of cinematography, in 1898 Adolphe appeared as a witness for the defence in a court case brought by Edison against the American Mutoscope Company. Adolphe Le Prince was not allowed to present his fathers two cameras as evidence and eventually the court ruled in favour of Edison, however, a year later that ruling was overturned. The early history of motion pictures in the United States and Europe is marked by battles over patents of cameras, in 1888 Le Prince was granted an American dual-patent on a 16-lens device that combined a motion picture camera with a projector. A patent for a type was refused in America because of an interfering patent. On October 14,1888, Le Prince used a version of his single-lens camera to film Roundhay Garden Scene. He exhibited his first films in the Whitley factory in Hunslet, Leeds and in Oakwood Grange, the Whitley family home in Roundhay, Leeds, but they were not distributed to the general public. The following year, he took French-American dual citizenship in order to establish himself with his family in New York City, however, he was never able to perform his planned public exhibition at Morris–Jumel Mansion in Manhattan, in September 1890, due to his mysterious disappearance. Consequently, Le Princes contribution to the birth of the cinema has often been overlooked, Le Prince was born on Saint-Georges street in Metz, France, on 28 August 1841. His father was a major of artillery in the French Army and his education went on to include the study of painting in Paris and post-graduate chemistry at Leipzig University, which provided him with the academic knowledge he was to utilise in the future. He moved to Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK in 1866, after being invited to join John Whitley, a friend from college, in Whitley Partners of Hunslet, in 1869 he married Elizabeth Whitley, Johns sister and a talented artist. In 1881 Le Prince went to the United States as an agent for Whitley Partners and he became the manager for a small group of French artists who produced large panoramas, usually of famous battles, that were exhibited in New York City, Washington DC and Chicago. During this time he continued the experiments he had begun, relating to the production of moving photographs, during his time in the US, Le Prince built a camera that utilised sixteen lenses, which was the first invention he patented. After his return to Leeds with his family in May 1887, Le Prince built and it was first used on 14 October 1888 to shoot what would become known as Roundhay Garden Scene, the worlds first motion picture
10.
Leeds
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Leeds /liːdz/ is a city in West Yorkshire, England. Historically in Yorkshires West Riding, the history of Leeds can be traced to the 5th century when the name referred to an area of the Kingdom of Elmet. The name has applied to many administrative entities over the centuries. It changed from being the appellation of a small borough in the 13th century, through several incarnations. In the 17th and 18th centuries Leeds became a centre for the production. During the Industrial Revolution, Leeds developed into a mill town, wool was the dominant industry but flax, engineering, iron foundries, printing. From being a market town in the valley of the River Aire in the 16th century Leeds expanded and absorbed the surrounding villages to become a populous urban centre by the mid-20th century. The city has the third largest jobs total by local authority area with 480,000 in employment and self-employment at the beginning of 2015. Leeds is also ranked as a world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Leeds is served by four universities, and has the fourth largest student population in the country and has the fourth largest urban economy. After London, Leeds is the largest legal and financial centre in the UK, with over 30 national and international banks located in the city. Leeds is also the UKs third largest manufacturing centre with around 1,800 firms and 39,000 employees, the largest sub-sectors are engineering, printing and publishing, food and drink, chemicals and medical technology. Outside of London, Leeds has the third busiest railway station, Public transport, rail and road communications networks in the region are focused on Leeds and there are a number of twinning arrangements with towns and cities in other countries. The name Leeds derives from the old Brythonic word Ladenses meaning people of the fast-flowing river and this name originally referred to the forested area covering most of the Brythonic kingdom of Elmet, which existed during the 5th century into the early 7th century. An inhabitant of Leeds is locally known as a Loiner, a word of uncertain origin, the term Leodensian is also used, from the citys Latin name. Leeds developed as a town in the Middle Ages as part of the local agricultural economy. Before the Industrial Revolution it became a centre for the manufacture of woollen cloth. Leeds handled one sixth of Englands export trade in 1770, growth, initially in textiles, was accelerated by the building of the Aire and Calder Navigation in 1699 and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in 1816
11.
Camera
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Thumb|A2016 Nikon D810 A camera is an optical instrument for recording or capturing images, which may be stored locally, transmitted to another location, or both. The images may be individual still photographs or sequences of images constituting videos or movies, the camera is a remote sensing device as it senses subjects without physical contact. The word camera comes from camera obscura, which means dark chamber and is the Latin name of the device for projecting an image of external reality onto a flat surface. The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura, the functioning of the camera is very similar to the functioning of the human eye. A camera may work with the light of the spectrum or with other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A still camera is a device which creates a single image of an object or scene. All cameras use the basic design, light enters an enclosed box through a converging lens/convex lens. A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light can enter the camera, a display, often a liquid crystal display, permits the user to view scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed. A movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved, the forerunner to the photographic camera was the camera obscura. The oldest known record of this principle is a description by Han Chinese philosopher Mozi, Mozi correctly asserted that the camera obscura image is inverted because light travels in straight lines from its source. In the 11th century Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham s wrote very influential essays about experiments with light through an opening in a darkened room. The use of a lens in the opening of a wall or closed window shutter of a room to project images used as a drawing aid has been traced back to circa 1550. Since the late 17th century portable camera obscura devices in tents, before the development of the photographic camera, it had been known for hundreds of years that some substances, such as silver salts, darkened when exposed to sunlight. The first person to use this chemistry to create images was Thomas Wedgwood, to create images, Wedgwood placed items, such as leaves and insect wings, on ceramic pots coated with silver nitrate, and exposed the set-up to light. These images werent permanent, however, as Wedgwood didnt employ a fixing mechanism and he ultimately failed at his goal of using the process to create fixed images created by a camera obscura. The first permanent photograph of an image was made in 1826 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles. Niépce had been experimenting with ways to fix the images of a camera obscura since 1816, the photograph Niépce succeeded in creating shows the view from his window
12.
Motion picture
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A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
13.
Roundhay Garden Scene
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Roundhay Garden Scene is an 1888 short silent film recorded by French inventor Louis Le Prince. Shot at Oakwood Grange in Roundhay, Leeds in the north of England, it is believed to be the oldest surviving film in existence, as noted by the Guinness Book of Records. According to Le Princes son, Adolphe, the film was made at Oakwood Grange and it features Adolphe Le Prince, Sarah Whitley, Joseph Whitley and Annie Hartley in the garden, walking around. Sarah is walking backwards as she turns around, and Josephs coat tails are flying as he also is turning. Joseph and Sarah Whitley were Louis Le Princes parents-in-law, being the parents of his wife Elizabeth, Sarah Whitley died ten days after the scene was filmed. In 1930 the National Science Museum in London produced photographic copies of surviving parts from the 1888 filmstrip, the NSM copy has 20 frames, at 12 frames/s, this produces a run time of 1.66 seconds. Details of memorial for Sarah and Joseph Whitley at Beechwood, Roundhay, monumental Inscriptions at St. Johns Church, Roundhay, Leeds
14.
Hunslet
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Hunslet is an inner-city area in south Leeds, West Yorkshire, England. It is 1 mile southeast of the city centre and has an industrial past, the population of the City and Hunslet ward at the 2011 census was 33,705. Many railway locomotives were built in the Jack Lane area of Hunslet, the area has a mixture of modern and 19th century industrial buildings, terraced housing and 20th century housing. It is an area that has grown up significantly around the River Aire in the years of the 21st century. It was at one point the production site for Leeds Creamware. Hunslet is now prospering as it follows the trend of Leeds generally, at the time of the Domesday survey in 1086, the manor belonged to the Lacys, from whom it passed to various families including the Gascoignes and the Neviles. Hunslet was the birthplace of Thomas Gascoigne, born in 1404, in 1823 forty working men from Hunslet raised the sum of £1. 5s. The subscription was accompanied by a letter written by one of the contributors. The population of Hunslet grew rapidly in the first half of the 19th century becoming an important manufacturing centre. By 1906 Hunslet was home to Leeds’ second-largest gas works, the main rail goods yards, known at the time as Midland Goods Station. The area was redeveloped in the 1960s, the feature of this being the Hunslet Grange. In the 1980s it was redeveloped, and in the 2000s. The brewers Joshua Tetley and Son set up business in Hunslet in 1822 producing beer and bitter today as part of Carlsberg Tetley group, however, in 2011 the brewery closed. Hunslet, in the lower Aire Valley, is bounded on the east by the River Aire, the underlying rocks were coal measures. Hunslet has different areas including Hunslet Moor, Hunslet Carr, Crown Point, Pottery Fields, Crown Point once had a large railway depot which contained Leeds main goods station. After many decades lying derelict the area was redeveloped into the Crown Point Retail Park, the former track beds are currently let for storage and contain timber and brickwork. Tetleys Brewery was to the north of area, as was the Yorkshire Chemical Works. Next to the river is Clarence Dock, Pottery Fields House, has the administrative and engineering functions for Northern Gas Networks
15.
La Ciotat
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La Ciotat is a commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur region in southern France. It is part of the area of Marseille Provence. La Ciotat is located to the east of Marseille at a distance from Marseille. Its inhabitants are called Ciotadens or Ciotadennes, La Ciotat is called La Ciutat or La Ciéutat or Cióutat in Occitan/Provençal/Catalan, meaning the city. It became prominent in the 15th century, La Ciotat was the setting of one of the very first projected motion pictures, LArrivée dun train en gare de La Ciotat filmed by the Lumière brothers in 1895. After several private showings, the fifty-second long film was given a screening on December 28,1895, in Paris. According to the Institut Lumière, before its Paris premiere, the film was shown to invited audiences in several French cities and it was screened at the Eden Theater in September 1896, making that theater one of the first motion picture theaters. The history of the game is documented in the Musée Ciotaden, La Ciotat has a large number of offices uptown. These include some big names such as Gemalto and Ball Packaging and these offices are a major source of employment and income for the local people through the transport, catering and other services they require. Also, business travelers to La Ciotat drive the local hotel business, the primary mode of transport into La Ciotat is the train station which is a ten minutes drive from the city centre. The SNCF train service between Marseille and Toulon stops at La Ciotat, almost every hour during the day except for the mid-day one-hour break, most parts of La Ciotat are covered by its public transport bus service. Although buses are not very frequent, given the population of the city they serve their purpose. The train station is serviced by route no,10,21 and 40 which all go to the La Ciotat downtown station by different routes. Peak time of bus operations are from 8am to 5pm when people are working in the offices of La Ciotat. After 8pm, buses cease their operation, same is the case on weekends when buses are rare even at the train station. Although taxis are available in La Ciotat, it is rare to hail one from the street, taxis are also hard to hire before 7am and after 8pm. Most call taxis are operated by individuals and are not registered with a call service number. The dynamics of public transport change during the summer when La Ciotat is visited by scores of tourists, at that time, more taxis service the area and buses operate more frequently
16.
Cinematography
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Typically, a lens is used to repeatedly focus the light reflected from objects into real images on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a questioned exposure, creating multiple images. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. The result with photographic emulsion is a series of invisible latent images on the film stock, the images on the film stock are played back at a rapid speed and projected onto a screen, creating the illusion of motion. Cinematography finds uses in fields of science and business as well as for entertainment purposes. The word cinematography was created from the Greek words κίνημα, meaning movement, motion and γράφειν meaning to record, the word used to refer to the art, process, or job of filming movies, but later its meaning was restricted to motion picture photography. In the 1830s, moving images were produced on revolving drums and disks, with independent invention by Simon von Stampfer in Austria, Joseph Plateau in Belgium, and William Horner in Britain. In 1845, Francis Ronalds invented the first successful camera able to make recordings of the varying indications of meteorological. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories around the world and some remained in use well into the 20th century. William Lincoln patented a device, in 1867, that showed animated pictures called the wheel of life or zoopraxiscope, in it, moving drawings or photographs were watched through a slit. On 19 June 1873, Eadweard Muybridge successfully photographed a horse named Sallie Gardner in fast motion using a series of 24 stereoscopic cameras. The cameras were arranged along a parallel to the horses. They were 21 inches apart to cover the 20 feet taken by the horse stride, although it was never played back at speed to create motion, this was the first step towards motion pictures. The late nineteenth to the twentieth century brought rise to the use of film not only for entertainment purposes. The experimental film Roundhay Garden Scene, filmed by Louis Le Prince on 14 October 1888, in Roundhay, Leeds and this movie was shot on paper film. W. K. L. Dickson, working under the direction of Thomas Alva Edison, was the first to design a successful apparatus and this camera took a series of instantaneous photographs on standard Eastman Kodak photographic emulsion coated onto a transparent celluloid strip 35 mm wide. The results of work were first shown in public in 1893, using the viewing apparatus also designed by Dickson. Contained within a box, only one person at a time looking into it through a peephole could view the movie. The Lumière brothers were the first to present projected, moving, photographic, in 1896, movie theaters were open in France, Italy, Brussels, and London
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Digital cinema
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Digital cinema refers to the use of digital technology to distribute or project motion pictures as opposed to the historical use of reels of motion picture film, such as 35 mm film. Digital movies are projected using a digital projector instead of a film projector. Digital cinema is distinct from high-definition television and is not dependent on using television or high-definition video standards, aspect ratios, in digital cinema, resolutions are represented by the horizontal pixel count, usually 2K or 4K. As digital cinema technology improved in the early 2010s, most of the theaters across the world converted to digital, Digital media playback of high-resolution 2K files has at least a 20-year history. Early video data storage units fed custom frame buffer systems with large memories, in early digital video units, content was usually restricted to several minutes of material. Transfer of content between remote locations was slow and had limited capacity and it was not until the late 1990s that feature-length films could be sent over the wire. In conjunction with Texas Instruments, the movie was publicly demonstrated in five theaters across the United States. In Europe, on February 2,2000, Texas Instruments DLP Cinema projector technology was demonstrated, by Philippe Binant. On January 19,2000, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, in the United States, by December 2000, there were 15 digital cinema screens in the United States and Canada,11 in Western Europe,4 in Asia, and 1 in South America. Digital Cinema Initiatives was formed in March 2002 as a joint project of many motion picture studios to develop a specification for digital cinema. In April 2004, in cooperation with the American Society of Cinematographers, DCI created standard evaluation material for testing of 2K and 4K playback, DCI selected JPEG2000 as the basis for the compression in the system the same year. In China, in June 2005, an E-Cinema System called dMs was established and was used in over 15,000 screens spread across Chinas 30 provinces, DMS estimated that the system would expand to 40,000 screens in 2009. In 2005 the UK Film Council Digital Screen Network launched in the UK by Arts Alliance Media creating a chain of 250 2K digital cinema systems, the roll out was completed in 2006. This was the first mass roll out in Europe, axis IT/Christie Digital also started a roll out in the United States and Canada. By mid 2006, about 400 theaters were equipped with 2K digital projectors with the number increasing every month, several digital 3D films surfaced in 2006 and several prominent filmmakers committed to making their next productions in stereo 3D. VUE West End was one of the first 3D Digital Cinemas along with Odeon Printworks Manchester and this was done by Emil and Eric Digital Films, a company based at Thrissur using the end-to-end digital cinema system developed by Singapore-based DG2L Technologies. This film was mastered at Real Image Media Technologies in India. In June 2007, Arts Alliance Media announced the first European commercial digital cinema Virtual Print Fee agreements, by June 2010, there were close to 16,000 digital cinema screens, with over 5000 of them being stereoscopic setups
18.
2K resolution
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2K resolution is a generic term for display devices or content having horizontal resolution of approximately 2,000 pixels and higher, specific to the 2000 pixel range. Digital Cinema Initiatives defines 2K resolution standard as 2048×1080, in the movie projection industry, Digital Cinema Initiatives is the dominant standard for 2K output. Occasionally, 1080p has been included into the 2K resolution definition, although 1080p has the same vertical resolution as DCI 2K resolutions, it has a smaller horizontal resolution below the range of 2K resolution formats. According to official reference material, DCI and industry standards do not officially recognize 1080p as a 2K resolution in literature concerning 2K, 1080p 1440p 4K resolution 8K resolution
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4K resolution
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4K resolution, also called 4K, refers to a horizontal resolution on the order of 4,000 pixels and vertical resolution on the order of 2,000 pixels. Several 4K resolutions exist in the fields of television and digital cinematography. In the movie industry, Digital Cinema Initiatives is the dominant 4K standard. In television and consumer media, 4K UHD or UHD-1 is the dominant 4K standard, by 2015, 4K television market share had increased greatly as prices fell dramatically during 2014 and 2015. By 2025, more than half of U. S. households are expected to have a 4K-capable TV, the name 4K resolution refers to a horizontal resolution of approximately 4,000 pixels. The use of width to characterize the overall resolution marks a switch from previous television standards such as 480i and 1080p, using that same convention, 4K UHD would be named 2160p. There are two main 4K resolution standards, The DCI 4K resolution standard, which has a resolution of 4096 ×2160 pixels and this standard is widely respected by the film and video production industry. The DCI 4K standard has twice the horizontal and vertical resolution of DCI 2K, UHD-1, or ultra-high-definition television, is the 4K standard for television and computer monitors. UHD-1 is also called 2160p since it has twice the horizontal and vertical resolution of 1080p and it has a resolution of 3840 ×2160. UHD-1 is used in television and other media, e. g. video games. Many manufacturers may advertise their products as UHD 4K, or simply 4K and this often causes great confusion among consumers. YouTube and the industry have adopted UHD-1 as their 4K standard. As of 2014, 4K content from major broadcasters remains limited, the channel is licensed by the Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission to provide educational content. However, 4K content is becoming widely available online including on YouTube, Netflix. By 2013, some UHDTV models were available to consumers in the range of US$600. As of 2015, prices on smaller computer and television panels had dropped below US$400, DVB expects UHD-1 Phase 2 services to be introduced by broadcasters from 2017, with features such as High Dynamic Range, Wide Color Gamut, and High Frame Rate. The first commercially available 4K camera for cinematographic purposes was the Dalsa Origin, YouTube began supporting 4K for video uploads in 2010 as a result of leading manufacturers producing 4K cameras. Users could view 4K video by selecting Original from the quality settings until December 2013, the projection of movies at 4K resolution at cinemas began in 2011
20.
Quentin Tarantino
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Quentin Jerome Tarantino is an American director, writer, and actor. His career began in the late 1980s, when he wrote and directed My Best Friends Birthday and its popularity was boosted by his second film, Pulp Fiction, a black comedy crime film that was a major success both among critics and audiences. Judged the greatest film from 1983–2008 by Entertainment Weekly, many critics, for his next effort, Tarantino paid homage to the blaxploitation films of the 1970s with Jackie Brown, an adaptation of the novel Rum Punch. Tarantino directed Death Proof as part of a feature with friend Robert Rodriguez. His long-postponed Inglourious Basterds, which tells the fictional alternate history story of two plots to assassinate Nazi Germanys political leadership, was released in 2009 to positive reviews, after that came 2012s critically acclaimed Django Unchained, a Western film set in the antebellum era of the Deep South. It became the film of his career so far, making over $425 million at the box office. Tarantinos films have garnered critical and commercial success. He has received industry awards, including two Academy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, two BAFTA Awards and the Palme dOr, and has been nominated for an Emmy and a Grammy. He was named one of the 100 Most Influential People in the World by Time in 2005, Filmmaker and historian Peter Bogdanovich has called him the single most influential director of his generation. In December 2015, Tarantino received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to the film industry, Tarantino was born on March 27,1963 in Knoxville, Tennessee, the son of Connie McHugh and Tony Tarantino. His father is of Italian descent, and his mother has English and Irish ancestry, Quentin was named after Quint Asper, Burt Reynolds character in the CBS series Gunsmoke. Quentins mother met his father during a trip to Los Angeles and she married him soon after, to gain independence from her parents, but the marriage did not last. Connie Tarantino left Los Angeles, and moved to Knoxville, where her parents lived, in 1966, Tarantinos mother, after finishing her nursing studies, moved back to Los Angeles with her then three-year-old son. They lived in the South Bay, in the part of the city. Tarantinos mother married musician Curtis Zastoupil soon after coming to Los Angeles, and the moved to Torrance. Zastoupil encouraged his love of movies, and accompanied him to film screenings. Tarantinos mother allowed him to see movies with adult content, such as Carnal Knowledge, after his mother divorced Zastoupil in 1973, and received a misdiagnosis of Hodgkins lymphoma, Tarantino was sent to live with his grandparents in Tennessee. He remained there for six months to a year, before returning to California
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Christopher Nolan
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Christopher Edward Nolan is an English-American film director, screenwriter, producer, cinematographer and editor. He is one of the directors in history, and among the most successful. The acclaim garnered by his independent films gave Nolan the opportunity to make the thriller film Insomnia. His nine films have grossed over US$4.2 billion worldwide and garnered a total of 26 Oscar nominations, Nolan has co-written several of his films with his younger brother, Jonathan, and runs the production company Syncopy Inc. with his wife, Emma Thomas. Nolans films are rooted in philosophical, sociological and ethical concepts, exploring human morality, the construction of time, and his English father, Brendan James Nolan, was an advertising executive, and his American mother, Christina, worked as a flight attendant and an English teacher. His childhood was split between London and Evanston, Illinois, and he has both British and American citizenship and he has an older brother, Matthew Francis Nolan, a convicted criminal, and a younger brother, Jonathan. He began making films at age seven, borrowing his fathers Super 8 camera, growing up, Nolan was particularly influenced by Star Wars, and around the age of eight he made a stop motion animation homage called Space Wars. His uncle who worked at NASA, building systems for the Apollo rockets. I re-filmed them off the screen and cut them in, thinking no-one would notice, from the age of 11, he aspired to be a professional filmmaker. When Nolans family relocated to Chicago during his years, he started making films with Adrien. He has continued his collaboration with the brothers, receiving a credit for his assistance on their Oscar-nominated documentary Genghis Blues. Nolan also worked alongside Roko on documenting a safari across four African countries, Nolan was educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College, an independent school in Hertford Heath, Hertfordshire, and later read English literature at University College London. He chose UCL specifically for its facilities, which comprised a Steenbeck editing suite and 16 mm film cameras. Nolan was president of the Unions Film Society, and with Emma Thomas he screened 35 mm feature films during the school year, during his college years, Nolan made two short films. The first was the surreal 8 mm Tarantella, which was shown on Image Union, the second was Larceny, filmed over a weekend in black and white with a limited cast, crew, and equipment. Funded by Nolan and shot with the equipment, it appeared at the Cambridge Film Festival in 1996 and is considered one of UCLs best shorts. After graduation, Nolan worked as a reader, camera operator. He also made a short, Doodlebug, about a man chasing an insect around a flat with a shoe
22.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
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Visual perception
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Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment using light in the visible spectrum reflected by the objects in the environment. The resulting perception is known as visual perception, eyesight, sight. The visual system in animals allows individuals to assimilate information from their surroundings, the act of seeing starts when the cornea and then the lens of the eye focuses light from its surroundings onto a light-sensitive membrane in the back of the eye, called the retina. The retina is actually part of the brain that is isolated to serve as a transducer for the conversion of light into neuronal signals. These signals are processed via complex feedforward and feedback processes by different parts of the brain, signals from the retina can also travel directly from the retina to the superior colliculus. The perception of objects and the totality of the scene is accomplished by the visual association cortex. The visual association cortex combines all sensory information perceived by the cortex which contains thousands of modules that are part of modular neural networks. The neurons in the cortex send axons to the extrastriate cortex. The major problem in perception is that what people see is not simply a translation of retinal stimuli. Thus people interested in perception have long struggled to explain what visual processing does to create what is actually seen, there were two major ancient Greek schools, providing a primitive explanation of how vision is carried out in the body. The first was the theory which maintained that vision occurs when rays emanate from the eyes and are intercepted by visual objects. If an object was seen directly it was by means of coming out of the eyes. This theory was championed by scholars like Euclid and Ptolemy and their followers, the second school advocated the so-called intro-mission approach which sees vision as coming from something entering the eyes representative of the object. Plato makes this assertion in his dialogue Timaeus, as does Aristotle, alhazen carried out many investigations and experiments on visual perception, extended the work of Ptolemy on binocular vision, and commented on the anatomical works of Galen. Leonardo da Vinci is believed to be the first to recognize the special qualities of the eye. He wrote The function of the human eye, was described by a large number of authors in a certain way. But I found it to be completely different and his main experimental finding was that there is only a distinct and clear vision at the line of sight—the optical line that ends at the fovea. Although he did not use these words literally he actually is the father of the distinction between foveal and peripheral vision
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Vertical scan rate
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The refresh rate is the number of times in a second that a display hardware updates its buffer. For example, most movie projectors advance from one frame to the next one 24 times each second, but each frame is illuminated two or three times before the next frame is projected using a shutter in front of its lamp. As a result, the movie runs at 24 frames per second. On cathode ray tube displays, increasing the rate decreases flickering. However, if a refresh rate is specified that is beyond what is recommended for the display, for computer programs or telemetry, the term is also applied to how frequently a datum is updated with a new external value from another source. It is limited by the maximum horizontal scan rate and the resolution. The refresh rate can be calculated from the scan rate by dividing the scanning frequency by the number of horizontal lines multiplied by 1.05. For instance, a monitor with a horizontal scanning frequency of 96 kHz at a resolution of 1280 ×1024 results in a rate of 96,000 ÷ ≈89 Hz. CRT refresh rates have historically been an important factor in game programming. Traditionally, one of the principles of game programming is to avoid altering the computers video buffer except during the vertical retrace. This is necessary to prevent flickering graphics or screen tearing, some video game consoles such as the Famicom/Nintendo Entertainment System did not allow any graphics changes except during the retrace. Contrary to popular belief, liquid-crystal displays do suffer from flickering problems and it is still necessary to avoid modifying graphics data except during the retrace phase to prevent tearing from an image that is rendered faster than the display operates. CRTs have the ability to use light guns and pens. These are devices with a photosensor that detects the electron beam and this can be used to determine if a specific graphics object is on the screen. The light gun is a variant used in arcade games. Unlike light pens, they are held at a distance from the screen, light pens and guns cannot be used on fixed-pixel displays because they have no electron beam to detect. Pen tablets and touchscreen LCDs are used as a substitute for them, the Nintendo DS is an example of a video game system that has a touchscreen LCD. Refresh rate or the resolution of an LCD is the number of times per second in which the display draws the data it is being given
25.
Rod cells
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Rod cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that can function in less intense light than the other type of visual photoreceptor, cone cells. Rods are usually concentrated at the outer edges of the retina and are used in peripheral vision. On average, there are approximately 90 million rod cells in the human retina, Rod cells are more sensitive than cone cells and are almost entirely responsible for night vision. However, rods have little role in vision, which is one of the main reasons why colors are much less apparent in darkness. Rods are a longer and leaner than cones but have the same structural basis. The opsin or pigment is on the side, lying on the Retinal pigment epithelium. This epithelium end contains many stacked disks, rods have a high area for visual pigment and thus substantial efficiency of light absorption. Rods are much more common than cones, with about 100 million rod cells compared to 7 million cone cells, like cones, rod cells have a synaptic terminal, an inner segment, and an outer segment. The synaptic terminal forms a synapse with another neuron, for example a septo cell, the inner and outer segments are connected by a cilium, which lines the distal segment. The inner segment contains organelles and the nucleus, while the rod outer segment. A human rod cell is about 2 microns in diameter and 100 microns long, rods are not all morphologically the same, in mice, rods close to the outer plexiform synaptic layer display a reduced length and due to short synaptic body. Those rods also have different synaptic organizations, in vertebrates, activation of a photoreceptor cell is a hyperpolarization of the cell. When they are not being stimulated, such as in the dark, rod cells and cone cells depolarize and this neurotransmitter hyperpolarizes the bipolar cell. Bipolar cells exist between photoreceptors and ganglion cells and act to transmit signals from the photoreceptors to the ganglion cells, as a result of the bipolar cell being hyperpolarized, it does not release its transmitter at the bipolar-ganglion synapse and the synapse is not excited. Depolarization of rod cells occurs because in the dark, cells have a high concentration of cyclic guanosine 3-5 monophosphate. Glutamate can depolarize some neurons and hyperpolarize others, allowing photoreceptors to interact in an antagonistic manner, when light hits photoreceptive pigments within the photoreceptor cell, the pigment changes shape. The pigment, called rhodopsin comprises a large protein called opsin, attached to which is a covalently bound prosthetic group, the retinal exists in the 11-cis-retinal form when in the dark, and stimulation by light causes its structure to change to all-trans-retinal. This structural change causes an increased affinity for the protein called transducin
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LCD
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A liquid-crystal display is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome and they use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs are used in a range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays. Small LCD screens are common in consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators. LCD screens are used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube displays in all applications. LCD screens are available in a range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to huge. Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in when an image is displayed on a screen for a long time. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence, the LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be, by 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes. Without the liquid crystal between the filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and this light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels. The optical effect of a TN device in the state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used, for this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers
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Digital Light Processing
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Digital Light Processing is a display device based on optical micro-electro-mechanical technology that uses a digital micromirror device. It was originally developed in 1987 by Larry Hornbeck of Texas Instruments, while the DLP imaging device was invented by Texas Instruments, the first DLP-based projector was introduced by Digital Projection Ltd in 1997. Digital Projection and Texas Instruments were both awarded Emmy Awards in 1998 for the DLP projector technology, DLP technology is used in DLP front projectors, DLP rear projection television sets, and digital signs. It is also used in about 85% of digital cinema projection, smaller pico chipsets are used in mobile devices including cell phone accessories and projection display functions embedded directly into phones. In DLP projectors, the image is created by small mirrors laid out in a matrix on a semiconductor chip. These mirrors are so small that DMD pixel pitch may be 5.4 µm or less, each mirror represents one or more pixels in the projected image. The number of mirrors corresponds to the resolution of the projected image, 800×600, 1024×768, 1280×720, and 1920×1080 matrices are some common DMD sizes. These mirrors can be repositioned rapidly to light either through the lens or onto a heat sink. Rapidly toggling the mirror between these two orientations produces grayscales, controlled by the ratio of on-time to off-time, there are two primary methods by which DLP projection systems create a color image, those used by single-chip DLP projectors, and those used by three-chip projectors. A third method, sequential illumination by three colored light emitting diodes, is being developed, and is used in televisions manufactured by Samsung. The color wheel is divided into sectors, the primary additive colors, red, green, and blue. Newer systems substitute the primary subtractive colors cyan, magenta, the DLP chip is synchronized with the rotating motion of the color wheel so that the green component is displayed on the DMD when the green section of the color wheel is in front of the lamp. The same is true for the red, blue and other sections, the colors are thus displayed sequentially at a sufficiently high rate that the observer sees a composite full color image. In early models, this was one rotation per frame, now, most systems operate at up to 10x the frame rate. The black level of a single-chip DLP depends on how unused light is being disposed, DLP projectors utilizing a mechanical spinning color wheel may exhibit an anomaly known as the rainbow effect. Common examples are the end credits of many movies. Brief visible separation of the colours can also be apparent when the viewer moves their eyes quickly across the projected image, some people perceive these rainbow artifacts frequently, while others may never see them at all. This effect is caused by the way the eye follows an object on the projection
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Video projector
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A video projector is an image projector that receives a video signal and projects the corresponding image on a projection screen using a lens system. All video projectors use a bright light to project the image, and most modern ones can correct any curves, blurriness. Video projectors are used for applications such as conference room presentations, classroom training. In schools and other settings, they are sometimes connected to an interactive whiteboard. In the late 20th century they were commonplace in home cinema, common display resolutions for contemporary portable projectors include SVGA, XGA, 720p, and 1080p. The cost of a device is determined by its resolution and its light output, a projector with a higher light output is required for a larger screen or for a room with a larger amount of ambient light. A few camcorders have a built-in projector suitable to make a projection, a few more powerful pico projectors are pocket-sized. CRT projector using cathode ray tubes and this typically involves a blue, a green, and a red tube. This is the oldest system still in use, but falling out of favor largely because of the bulky cabinet. However, it does provide the largest screen size for a given cost and this also covers three-tube home models which, while bulky, can be moved. LCD projector using LCD light gates and this is the simplest system, making it one of the most common and affordable for home theaters and business use. Its most common problem is a visible “screen door” or pixelation effect, DLP projector using Texas Instruments’ DLP technology. This uses one, two, or three microfabricated light valves called digital micromirror devices, the single- and double-DMD versions use rotating color wheels in time with the mirror refreshes to modulate color. The most common problem with the single- or two-DMD varieties is a visible “rainbow” which some people perceive when moving their eyes, more recent projectors with higher speed and otherwise optimised color wheels have lessened this effect. Systems with 3 DMDs never have this problem, as they display each primary color simultaneously, such projectors often process light in the Fourier domain, which enables correction of optical aberrations using Zernike polynomials. Some commercially available technologies include, D-ILA JVC’s Direct-drive Image Light Amplifier based on LCoS technology, SXRD Sony’s proprietary variant of LCoS technology. Hybrid LED and laser diode system developed by Casio, uses a combination of Light Emitting Diodes and 445 nm laser diodes as the light source, while image is processed with DLP chip. Laser diode projectors have been developed by Microvision and Aaxa Technologies, Microvision laser projectors use Microvisions patented laser beam-steering technology, whereas Aaxa Technologies uses laser diodes + LCoS
29.
Silent films
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A silent film is a film with no synchronized recorded sound, especially with no spoken dialogue. The silent film era lasted from 1895 to 1936, in silent films for entertainment, the dialogue is transmitted through muted gestures, mime and title cards which contain a written indication of the plot or key dialogue. During silent films, a pianist, theatre organist, or, in large cities, pianists and organists would either play from sheet music or improvise, an orchestra would play from sheet music. The term silent film is therefore a retronym—that is, a term created to distinguish something retroactively, the early films with sound, starting with The Jazz Singer in 1927, were referred to as talkies, sound films, or talking pictures. A September 2013 report by the United States Library of Congress announced that a total of 70% of American silent feature films are believed to be completely lost, the earliest precursors of film began with image projection through the use of a device known as the magic lantern. This utilized a glass lens, a shutter and a persistent light source, such as a powerful lantern and these slides were originally hand-painted, but still photographs were used later on after the technological advent of photography in the nineteenth century. The invention of a practical photography apparatus preceded cinema by only fifty years, the next significant step towards film creation was the development of an understanding of image movement. Simulations of movement date as far back as to 1828 and only four years after Paul Roget discovered the phenomenon he called Persistence of Vision. This experience was further demonstrated through Rogets introduction of the thaumatrope, the first projected primary proto-movie was made by Eadweard Muybridge between 1877 and 1880. Muybridge set up a row of cameras along a racetrack and timed image exposures to capture the many stages of a horses gallop, the oldest surviving film was created by Louis Le Prince in 1888. It was a film of people walking in Oakwood streets garden. Edison also made a business of selling Kinetograph and Kinetoscope equipment, due to Edisons lack of securing an international patent on his film inventions, similar devices were invented around the world. The Lumière brothers, for example, created the Cinématographe in France, the Cinématographe proved to be a more portable and practical device than both of Edisons as it combined a camera, film processor and projector in one unit. In contrast to Edisons peepshow-style kinetoscope, which one person could watch through a viewer. Their first film, Sortie de lusine Lumière de Lyon, shot in 1894, is considered the first true motion picture, the invention of celluloid film, which was strong and flexible, greatly facilitated the making of motion pictures. This film was 35 mm wide and pulled using four sprocket holes and this doomed the cinematograph, which could only use film with just one sprocket hole. From the very beginnings of film production, the art of motion pictures grew into maturity in the silent era. Silent filmmakers pioneered the art form to the extent that virtually every style, the silent era was also pioneering era from a technical point of view
30.
Nitrocellulose
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Nitrocellulose is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose through exposure to nitric acid or another powerful nitrating agent. When used as a propellant or low-order explosive, it was known as guncotton. Partially nitrated cellulose has found uses as a film and in inks. In 1862 the first man-made plastic, nitrocellulose, was created by Alexander Parkes from cellulose treated with nitric acid and a solvent. Celluloid was used by Kodak, and other suppliers, from the late 1880s as a base in photography, X-ray films, and motion picture films. After numerous fires caused by unstable nitrate films, safety film started to be used from the 1930s in the case of X-ray stock and from 1948 for motion picture film. Henri Braconnot discovered in 1832 that nitric acid, when combined with starch or wood fibers, would produce a lightweight combustible explosive material, a few years later in 1838, another French chemist, Théophile-Jules Pelouze, treated paper and cardboard in the same way. Jean-Baptiste Dumas obtained a material, which he called nitramidine. These substances were highly unstable and were not practical explosives, however, around 1846 Christian Friedrich Schönbein, a German-Swiss chemist, discovered a more practical solution. As he was working in the kitchen of his home in Basel and he reached for the nearest cloth, a cotton apron, and wiped it up. He hung the apron on the door to dry, and, as soon as it was dry. His preparation method was the first to be widely imitated—one part of cotton wool to be immersed in 15 parts of an equal blend of sulfuric and nitric acids. After two minutes, the cotton was removed and washed in water to set the esterification level. It was then dried at a temperature below 40 °C. Schönbein collaborated with the Frankfurt professor Rudolf Christian Böttger, who had discovered the process independently in the same year. By coincidence, a third chemist, the Brunswick professor F. J. Otto had also produced guncotton in 1846 and was the first to publish the process, much to the disappointment of Schönbein and Böttger. The process uses nitric acid to convert cellulose into cellulose nitrate and water, 3HNO3+ C6H10O5 → C6H73O5 + 3H2O The sulfuric acid is present as a catalyst to produce the nitronium ion, the reaction is first order and proceeds by electrophilic substitution at the C-OH centers of the cellulose. The power of guncotton made it suitable for blasting, as a projectile driver, it had around six times the gas generation of an equal volume of black powder and produced less smoke and less heating
31.
Nuovo Cinema Paradiso
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Cinema Paradiso is a 1988 Italian drama film written and directed by Giuseppe Tornatore. It won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 62nd Academy Awards, Salvatore obviously shies from committed relationships and has not been to his home village of Giancaldo, Sicily in 30 years. As his girlfriend asks him who Alfredo is, Salvatore flashes back to his childhood and it is a few years after World War II. Six-year-old Salvatore is the mischievous, intelligent son of a war widow, nicknamed Toto, he discovers a love for films and spends every free moment at the movie house Cinema Paradiso. During the shows, the audience can be heard booing when there are missing sections, causing the films to suddenly jump, the local priest had ordered these sections censored, and the deleted scenes are piled on the projection room floor. At first, Alfredo considers Toto a bit of a pest, the montage ends as the movie house catches fire as Alfredo was projecting The Firemen of Viggiù after hours, on the wall of a nearby house. Salvatore saves Alfredos life, but not before a film reel explodes in Alfredos face, the Cinema Paradiso is rebuilt by a town citizen, Ciccio, who invests his football lottery winnings. Salvatore, still a child, is hired as the new projectionist, about a decade later, Salvatore, now in high school, is still operating the projector at the Cinema Paradiso. His relationship with the blind Alfredo has strengthened, and Salvatore often looks to him for help – advice that Alfredo often dispenses by quoting classic films. Salvatore has been experimenting with film, using a movie camera, and he has met. Salvatore woos – and wins – Elenas heart, only to lose her due to her fathers disapproval, as Elena and her family move away, Salvatore leaves town for compulsory military service. His attempts to write to Elena are fruitless, his letters are returned as undeliverable, upon his return from the military, Alfredo urges Salvatore to leave Giancaldo permanently, counseling that the town is too small for Salvatore to ever find his dreams. They tearfully embrace, and Salvatore leaves town to pursue his future, Salvatore has obeyed Alfredo, but he returns home to attend the funeral. Though the town has changed greatly, he now understands why Alfredo thought it was important that he leave, Salvatore learns that Cinema Paradiso is to be demolished to make way for a parking lot. At the funeral, he recognizes the faces of people who attended the cinema when he was the projectionist. He watches Alfredos reel and discovers that it comprises a special montage. It contains all of the scenes the priest had ordered cut from movies. Salvatore has made peace with his past, the famous town square is Piazza Umberto I in the village of Palazzo Adriano, about 30 miles to the south of Palermo
32.
Sound film
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A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900. Reliable synchronization was difficult to achieve with the early sound-on-disc systems, innovations in sound-on-film led to the first commercial screening of short motion pictures using the technology, which took place in 1923. The primary steps in the commercialization of sound cinema were taken in the mid- to late 1920s, at first, the sound films which included synchronized dialogue, known as talking pictures, or talkies, were exclusively shorts. The earliest feature-length movies with recorded sound included only music and effects, the first feature film originally presented as a talkie was The Jazz Singer, released in October 1927. A major hit, it was made with Vitaphone, which was at the time the brand of sound-on-disc technology. Sound-on-film, however, would become the standard for talking pictures. By the early 1930s, the talkies were a global phenomenon, in the United States, they helped secure Hollywoods position as one of the worlds most powerful cultural/commercial centers of influence. In Europe, the new development was treated with suspicion by many filmmakers and critics, in Japan, where the popular film tradition integrated silent movie and live vocal performance, talking pictures were slow to take root. In India, sound was the element that led to the rapid expansion of the nations film industry. The idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself. On February 27,1888, a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison, the two inventors privately met. No agreement was reached, but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope, essentially a peep-show system, as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph. The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895, but individual, cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection and these appear to be the first publicly exhibited films with projection of both image and recorded sound. Phonorama and yet another sound-film system—Théâtroscope—were also presented at the Exposition, three major problems persisted, leading to motion pictures and sound recording largely taking separate paths for a generation. The primary issue was synchronization, pictures and sound were recorded and played back by separate devices, sufficient playback volume was also hard to achieve. Finally, there was the challenge of recording fidelity, cinematic innovators attempted to cope with the fundamental synchronization problem in a variety of ways. In 1902, Léon Gaumont demonstrated his sound-on-disc Chronophone, involving an electrical connection he had recently patented, four years later, Gaumont introduced the Elgéphone, a compressed-air amplification system based on the Auxetophone, developed by British inventors Horace Short and Charles Parsons
33.
The Hobbit
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The Hobbit, or There and Back Again is a childrens fantasy novel by English author J. R. R. Tolkien. It was published on 21 September 1937 to wide acclaim, being nominated for the Carnegie Medal. The book remains popular and is recognized as a classic in childrens literature. The Hobbit is set in a time between the Dawn of Færie and the Dominion of Men, and follows the quest of home-loving hobbit Bilbo Baggins to win a share of the treasure guarded by Smaug the dragon. Bilbos journey takes him from light-hearted, rural surroundings into more sinister territory, the story is told in the form of an episodic quest, and most chapters introduce a specific creature or type of creature of Tolkiens geography. Bilbo gains a new level of maturity, competence, and wisdom by accepting the disreputable, romantic, fey, the story reaches its climax in the Battle of the Five Armies, where many of the characters and creatures from earlier chapters re-emerge to engage in conflict. Personal growth and forms of heroism are central themes of the story and these themes have led critics to view Tolkiens own experiences during World War I as instrumental in shaping the story. The authors scholarly knowledge of Germanic philology and interest in fairy tales are often noted as influences, the publisher was encouraged by the books critical and financial success and, therefore, requested a sequel. As Tolkiens work progressed on the successor The Lord of the Rings and these few but significant changes were integrated into the second edition. Further editions followed with minor emendations, including those reflecting Tolkiens changing concept of the world into which Bilbo stumbled, the work has never been out of print. Its ongoing legacy encompasses many adaptations for stage, screen, radio, board games, several of these adaptations have received critical recognition on their own merits. Bilbo Baggins, the titular protagonist, is a respectable, reserved hobbit, during his adventure, Bilbo often refers to the contents of his larder at home and wishes he had more food. Until he finds a ring, he is more baggage than help. Gandalf, an itinerant wizard, introduces Bilbo to a company of thirteen dwarves, during the journey the wizard disappears on side errands dimly hinted at, only to appear again at key moments in the story. Smaug is a dragon who long ago pillaged the kingdom of Thorins grandfather. Gandalf tricks Bilbo into hosting a party for Thorin and his band of dwarves, when the music ends, Gandalf unveils a map showing a secret door into the Mountain and proposes that the dumbfounded Bilbo serve as the expeditions burglar. The dwarves ridicule the idea, but Bilbo, indignant, joins despite himself, the group travels into the wild, where Gandalf saves the company from trolls and leads them to Rivendell, where Elrond reveals more secrets from the map. Passing over the Misty Mountains, they are caught by goblins, although Gandalf rescues them, Bilbo gets separated from the others as they flee the goblins
34.
Kinoton
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Kinoton GmbH was a German manufacturer of digital projection equipment, conventional film equipment, studio systems, and 360° LED display systems. It was based in Germering near Munich with branches in Berlin, Hamburg, via an international distribution and service network, the company served customers worldwide. In 2010, Kinoton was picked by the German business periodical Manager Magazin to join the list of Germany’s 1,000 World Market Leaders, Kinoton GmbH is in Liquidation since April 1,2014. The Kinoton brand will live on as a new company Kinoton Digital Solutions which will focus on digital solutions, Kinoton was founded in Munich in 1948 to provide services to local movie theaters. The following year, the company obtained the rights to distribute film projectors made by the Dutch Philips company, in 1963, Kinoton launched the first projector that it had developed in-house. It was followed in 1968 by the ST200, the world’s first non-rewind film platter system, the subsequent decades were marked by rapid growth. In the 1980s, Kinoton expanded its portfolio by starting to develop, manufacture, in 2000, it also began developing and producing D-Cinema solutions. In 1988 and 2004 Kinoton received the Scientific and Engineering Award,1988 for developing the first film platter system and in 2004 for developing the high-speed FP30 EC II und FP38 EC II projectors. Kinoton GmbH Litefast 360° LED Display-Systems
35.
Slide projector
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A slide projector is an opto-mechanical device for showing photographic slides. Slide projectors were widely used in educational and other institutional settings. This glass transmits visible wavelengths but absorbs infrared, light passes through the transparent slide and lens, and the resulting image is enlarged and projected onto a perpendicular flat screen so the audience can view its reflection. Alternatively, the image may be projected onto a translucent rear projection screen, often used for continuous automatic display for close viewing and this form of projection also avoids the audience interrupting the light stream by casting their shadows on the projection or by bumping into the projector. Slide projectors get smarter all the time
36.
Incandescent lighting
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An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is an electric light with a wire filament heated to such a high temperature that it glows with visible light. The filament, heated by passing a current through it, is protected from oxidation with a glass or quartz bulb that is filled with inert gas or evacuated. In a halogen lamp, filament evaporation is prevented by a process that redeposits metal vapor onto the filament. The light bulb is supplied with current by feed-through terminals or wires embedded in the glass. Most bulbs are used in a socket which provides mechanical support, Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and voltage ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external regulating equipment, have low manufacturing costs, the remaining energy is converted into heat. The luminous efficacy of an incandescent bulb is 16 lumens per watt. Some applications of the incandescent bulb deliberately use the heat generated by the filament, such applications include incubators, brooding boxes for poultry, heat lights for reptile tanks, infrared heating for industrial heating and drying processes, lava lamps, and the Easy-Bake Oven toy. In addressing the question of who invented the incandescent lamp, historians Robert Friedel and Paul Israel list 22 inventors of incandescent lamps prior to Joseph Swan, historian Thomas Hughes has attributed Edisons success to his development of an entire, integrated system of electric lighting. In 1761 Ebenezer Kinnersley demonstrated heating a wire to incandescence and it was not bright enough nor did it last long enough to be practical, but it was the precedent behind the efforts of scores of experimenters over the next 75 years. Over the first three-quarters of the 19th century many experimenters worked with various combinations of platinum or iridium wires, carbon rods, many of these devices were demonstrated and some were patented. In 1835, James Bowman Lindsay demonstrated a constant electric light at a meeting in Dundee. He stated that he could read a book at a distance of one, however, having perfected the device to his own satisfaction, he turned to the problem of wireless telegraphy and did not develop the electric light any further. His claims are not well documented, although he is credited in Challoner et al. with being the inventor of the Incandescent Light Bulb, in 1838, Belgian lithographer Marcellin Jobard invented an incandescent light bulb with a vacuum atmosphere using a carbon filament. In 1840, British scientist Warren de la Rue enclosed a coiled platinum filament in a vacuum tube, although a workable design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use. In 1841, Frederick de Moleyns of England was granted the first patent for an incandescent lamp, in 1845, American John W. Starr acquired a patent for his incandescent light bulb involving the use of carbon filaments. He died shortly after obtaining the patent, and his invention was never produced commercially, little else is known about him. In 1851, Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin publicly demonstrated incandescent light bulbs on his estate in Blois and his light bulbs are on display in the museum of the Château de Blois
37.
Limelight
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Limelight is a type of stage lighting once used in theatres and music halls. An intense illumination is created when a flame is directed at a cylinder of quicklime. The light is produced by a combination of incandescence and candoluminescence. Although it has long since replaced by electric lighting, the term has nonetheless survived, as someone in the public eye is still said to be “in the limelight. ”The actual lights are called limes. The limelight effect was discovered in the 1820s by Goldsworthy Gurney, based on his work with the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe, in 1825, a Scottish engineer, Thomas Drummond, saw a demonstration of the effect by Michael Faraday and realized that the light would be useful for surveying. Drummond built a version in 1826, and the device is sometimes called the Drummond Light after him. The earliest known use of limelight at a performance was outdoors, over Herne Bay Pier, Kent. This performance was part of the following the laying of the foundation stone of the Clock Tower. The advertising leaflet called it light, and announced that. Limelight was first used for indoor stage illumination in the Covent Garden Theatre in London in 1837, limelights were employed to highlight solo performers in the same manner as modern followspots. Limelight was replaced by electric arc lighting in the late 19th century, klieg light List of light sources Nineteenth-century theatrical scenery Timeline of hydrogen technologies Zirconia light
38.
Arc lamp
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An arc lamp or arc light is a lamp that produces light by an electric arc. The carbon arc light, which consists of an arc between carbon electrodes in air, invented by Humphry Davy in the first decade of the 1800s, was the first practical electric light. It was widely used starting in the 1870s for street and large building lighting until it was superseded by the incandescent light in the early 20th century. It continued in use in specialized applications where a high intensity point light source was needed, such as searchlights. The carbon arc lamp is now obsolete for all of these purposes and is still made for very specialized purposes where a high intensity UV source is needed. The term is now used for gas lamps, which produce light by an arc between metal electrodes through an inert gas in a glass bulb. The common fluorescent lamp is a mercury arc lamp. The xenon arc lamp, which produces a high intensity light, is now used in many of the applications which formerly used the carbon arc, such as movie projectors. An arc is the discharge that occurs when a gas is ionized, a high voltage is pulsed across the lamp to ignite or strike the arc, after which the discharge can be maintained at a lower voltage. The strike requires a circuit with an igniter and a ballast. The ballast is wired in series with the lamp and performs two functions, first, when the power is first switched on, the igniter/starter sets up a small current through the ballast and starter. This creates a magnetic field within the ballast windings. A moment later the starter interrupts the current flow from the ballast, the circuit will repeat this action until the lamp is ionized enough to sustain the arc. When the lamp sustains the arc, the ballast performs its second function, the lamp, ballast and igniter are rated matched to each other, these parts must be replaced with the same rating as the failed component or the lamp will not work. The colour of the emitted by the lamp changes as its electrical characteristics change with temperature. Lightning is a principle where the atmosphere is ionized by the high potential difference between earth and storm clouds. The temperature of the arc in an arc lamp can reach several thousand degrees Celsius, the outer glass envelope can reach 500 degrees Celsius, therefore before servicing one must ensure the bulb has cooled sufficiently to handle. Often, if these types of lamps are turned off or lose their power supply, however, some lamps can be restruck as soon as they are turned off.2 million candle power
39.
Xenon arc lamp
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A xenon arc lamp is a specialized type of gas discharge lamp, an electric light that produces light by passing electricity through ionized xenon gas at high pressure. It produces a white light that closely mimics natural sunlight. Xenon arc lamps are used in movie projectors in theaters, in searchlights, xenon headlamps in automobiles actually use metal-halide lamps where a xenon arc is only used during start-up. Xenon arc lamps can be divided into three categories, continuous-output xenon short-arc lamps, continuous-output xenon long-arc lamps, and xenon flash lamps. Each consists of a quartz or other heat resistant glass arc tube. The glass tube is first evacuated and then re-filled with xenon gas, for xenon flashtubes, a third trigger electrode usually surrounds the exterior of the arc tube. The lifetime of an arc lamp varies according to its design and power consumption. Xenon short-arc lamps were invented in the 1940s in Germany and introduced in 1951 by Osram, first launched in the 2 kW size, these lamps saw wide use in movie projection, where they replaced the older, more labor intensive carbon arc lamps. The white continuous light generated by the arc is spectrally similar to daylight. Today, almost all movie projectors in theaters employ these lamps, omnimax projection systems use single xenon lamps with ratings as high as 15 kW. As of 2016, laser illumination for digital projectors, is starting to establish a market presence and has been predicted will supersede the xenon arc lamp for this application. All modern xenon short-arc lamps use a fused quartz envelope with thoriated tungsten electrodes, fused quartz is the only economically feasible material currently available that can withstand the high pressure and high temperature present in an operating lamp, while still being optically clear. The thorium dopant in the electrodes greatly enhances their electron emission characteristics, because of the very high power levels involved, large lamps are water-cooled. In those used in IMAX projectors, the bodies are made from solid Invar. An O-ring seals off the tube, so that the electrodes do not contact the water. In order to achieve maximum efficiency, the gas inside short-arc lamps is maintained at an extremely high pressure — up to 30 atmospheres — which poses safety concerns. If a lamp is dropped, or ruptures while in service, to mitigate this, large xenon short-arc lamps are normally shipped in protective shields, which will contain the envelope fragments should breakage occur. Normally, the shield is removed once the lamp is installed in the lamp housing, when the lamp reaches the end of its useful life, the protective shield is put back on the lamp, and the spent lamp is then removed from the equipment and discarded
40.
Lens (optics)
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A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction. A simple lens consists of a piece of transparent material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses. Lenses are made from such as glass or plastic, and are ground. A lens can focus light to form an image, unlike a prism, devices that similarly focus or disperse waves and radiation other than visible light are also called lenses, such as microwave lenses, electron lenses, acoustic lenses, or explosive lenses. The word lens comes from the Latin name of the lentil, the genus of the lentil plant is Lens, and the most commonly eaten species is Lens culinaris. The lentil plant also gives its name to a geometric figure, the variant spelling lense is sometimes seen. While it is listed as a spelling in some dictionaries. The oldest lens artifact is the Nimrud lens, dating back 2700 years to ancient Assyria, david Brewster proposed that it may have been used as a magnifying glass, or as a burning-glass to start fires by concentrating sunlight. Another early reference to magnification dates back to ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs in the 8th century BC, the earliest written records of lenses date to Ancient Greece, with Aristophanes play The Clouds mentioning a burning-glass. Some scholars argue that the evidence indicates that there was widespread use of lenses in antiquity. Such lenses were used by artisans for fine work, and for authenticating seal impressions, both Pliny and Seneca the Younger described the magnifying effect of a glass globe filled with water. The Viking lenses were capable of concentrating enough sunlight to ignite fires, between the 11th and 13th century reading stones were invented. Often used by monks to assist in illuminating manuscripts, these were primitive plano-convex lenses initially made by cutting a sphere in half. As the stones were experimented with, it was understood that shallower lenses magnified more effectively. Lenses came into use in Europe with the invention of spectacles. Spectacle makers created improved types of lenses for the correction of vision based more on knowledge gained from observing the effects of the lenses. With the invention of the telescope and microscope there was a deal of experimentation with lens shapes in the 17th. Opticians tried to construct lenses of varying forms of curvature, wrongly assuming errors arose from defects in the figure of their surfaces
41.
Rotary disc shutter
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A rotary disc shutter is a type of shutter. It is notably used in motion picture cameras, rotary shutters are semicircular discs that spin in front of the film gate, alternately allowing light from the lens to strike the film, or blocking it. When blocking the light, the portion of the film is advanced. The spinning disc then exposes the new frame of film, the nature of light-sensitive film requires a shutter to block the light and prevent smearing of the image as the film is advanced through the camera. Digital sensors do not require a rotary shutter, although some digital cinema cameras do have them. On more advanced cameras the open portion of the shutter can be adjusted and this shutter setting is referred to as the shutter angle. Adjusting the shutter angle controls the proportion of time that the film is exposed to light during each frame interval, the angle of the shutter forms a proportion to the time that each frame of film is exposed, Shutter Angle 360 ∘ = Exposure Time Frame Interval. The primary reason that cinematographers adjust the angle is to control the amount of motion blur that is recorded on each successive frame of film. A tight shutter angle will constrict motion blur, a wide shutter angle will allow it. A 180° shutter angle is considered normal, so for instance, at 24 fps the frame Interval value is 0.04167 second. Using an exposure time of 1/50 second gives a shutter angle value of 173° and this is the reason for the rule-of-thumb Use an exposure time twice the value of the frames-per-second to get normal motion blur. Tight shutters create a stuttering stop-motion animation look that has become popular in action, in particular, tight shutters are used to capture particles flying through the air, such as dirt from an exploding mortar. On most film cameras the shutter angle is changed by removing the lens and this cannot be done while the camera is operating. Some cameras such as the Arriflex 435ES can modify their shutter angle during the shot and this is sometimes referred to as an electronic shutter. An electronic shutter can compensate for the change caused by a speed ramp without changing the aperture. Other types of shutter adjustments, such as an out-of-phase shutter, normally the film is held steady in the gate whenever it is exposed to light. Special shutter adjustments allow the film to be exposed while the mechanism is actually moving the film to the next frame. In the film Saving Private Ryan, cinematographer Janusz Kamiński used such an adjustment to give his film the look of World War II newsreel photography
42.
Geneva drive
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The Geneva drive or Maltese cross is a gear mechanism that translates a continuous rotation into an intermittent rotary motion. The rotating drive wheel has a pin that reaches into a slot of the driven wheel advancing it by one step, the drive wheel also has a raised circular blocking disc that locks the driven wheel in position between steps. The name derives from the devices earliest application in mechanical watches, the Geneva drive is also commonly called a Maltese cross mechanism due to the visual resemblance when the driven wheel has four spokes. Since they can be small and are able to withstand substantial mechanical stress. In the most common arrangement, the wheel has four slots. If the driven wheel has n slots, it advances by 360°/n per full rotation of the drive wheel, because the mechanism needs to be well lubricated, it is often enclosed in an oil capsule. One application of the Geneva drive is in movie projectors, the film does not run continuously through the projector, instead, the film is advanced frame by frame, each frame standing still in front of the lens for 1/24 of a second. This intermittent motion is achieved using a Geneva drive, the first uses of the Geneva drive in film projectors go back to 1896 to the projectors of Oskar Messter and Max Gliewe and the Teatrograph of Robert William Paul. Previous projectors, including Thomas Armats projector, marketed by Edison as the Vitascope, had used a mechanism, invented by Georges Demenÿ in 1893. If one of the slots of the wheel is occluded. In watches, the wheel is the one that winds up the spring. This so-called Geneva stop or Geneva stop work was the invention of 17th or 18th century watchmakers, the Iron Ring Clock uses a Geneva mechanism to provide intermittent motion to one of its rings. A Geneva drive was used to change filters in the Dawn mission framing camera used to image the asteroid 4 Vesta in 2011 and it was selected to ensure that should the mechanism fail at least one filter would be usable. An internal Geneva drive is a variant on the design, the axis of the drive wheel of the internal drive can have a bearing only on one side. The external form is the common, as it can be built smaller. Another variant is the spherical Geneva drive, the figure shows the motions curves for an external four-slots Geneva drive, in arbitrary units. There is a discontinuity in the acceleration when the drive pin enters and this generates an infinite peak of jerk, and therefore vibrations. Dwell cam Sclater, Neil, Cam, Geneva, and Ratchet Drives and Mechanisms, Mechanisms and Mechanical Devices Sourcebook, New York, McGraw Hill, pp. 180–210, drawings and designs of various drives
43.
Focal length
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The focal length of an optical system is a measure of how strongly the system converges or diverges light. For an optical system in air, it is the distance over which initially collimated rays are brought to a focus. A system with a focal length has greater optical power than one with a long focal length. For a thin lens in air, the length is the distance from the center of the lens to the principal foci of the lens. For a converging lens, the length is positive, and is the distance at which a beam of collimated light will be focused to a single spot. For a diverging lens, the length is negative, and is the distance to the point from which a collimated beam appears to be diverging after passing through the lens. The focal length of a lens can be easily measured by using it to form an image of a distant light source on a screen. The lens is moved until an image is formed on the screen. In this case 1/u is negligible, and the length is then given by f ≈ v. Back focal length or back focal distance is the distance from the vertex of the last optical surface of the system to the focal point. For an optical system in air, the focal length gives the distance from the front. If the surrounding medium is not air, then the distance is multiplied by the index of the medium. Some authors call these distances the front/rear focal lengths, distinguishing them from the front/rear focal distances, defined above. In general, the length or EFL is the value that describes the ability of the optical system to focus light. The other parameters are used in determining where an image will be formed for an object position. The quantity 1/f is also known as the power of the lens. The corresponding front focal distance is, FFD = f, in the sign convention used here, the value of R1 will be positive if the first lens surface is convex, and negative if it is concave. The value of R2 is negative if the surface is convex
