1.
Optical sound
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Optical sound is a means of storing sound recordings on transparent film. Originally developed for military purposes, the technology first saw use in the 1920s as a sound-on-film format for motion pictures. Optical sound eventually superseded all of other sound film technologies until the advent of digital sound became the standard in cinema projection booths, optical sound has also been used for multitrack recording and for creating effects in some musical synthesizers. The idea was that sound pulses could be converted into light pulses, beamed out from one ship and picked up by another, a pioneer in this technology was American physicist Theodore Case. While studying at Yale, Case became interested in using modulated light as a means of transmitting and recording speech. In 1914, he opened the Case Research Lab to experiment with the properties of various materials, leading to the development of the Thallofide Cell. The Thallofide tube was used by the United States Navy in a top secret ship-to-ship infrared signaling system developed at Cases lab with his assistant Earl Sponable. Case and Sponables system was first tested off the shores of New Jersey in 1917, the test was a success, and the U. S. Navy used the system during and after World War I. Contemporary with the work of Case and Sponable was Charles A. Hoxies Pallophotophone, similar to the Case infrared system used by the Navy, the Pallophotophone was also intended for wireless communications at sea, but was then adapted for recording speech. With GEs backing, Hoxies invention was used in 1922-1923 to record then-Vice-President Calvin Coolidge, the early work by Case, Sponable and Hoxie was instrumental in the development of sound-on-film systems for motion pictures during the 1920s. Three brands of optical sound-on-film technology emerged in the 1920s, Photofilm, a fourth major contender for the sound film market was Warner Brothers Vitaphone sound-on-disc system that synchronized large-size phonographic records with a films projector. Many early talkies, such as Warners 1927 hit The Jazz Singer, used Vitaphone discs, after the war, Theodore Case and Earl I. Sponable collaborated with wireless communications pioneer Lee de Forest, inventor of the Audion tube. De Forest had been granted patents for a sound-on-film process in 1919. The Case Lab first converted an old silent-film projector into a device in 1922. Case fine-tuned this process with a called the Aeo-light for use in sound cameras. During filming, audio signals modulated the Aeo-light to expose the films audio directly inside the camera, in 1924 Sponable focused on the design of these single-system cameras, in which the sound and picture were recorded on the same negative. He approached Bell & Howell to modify one of their cameras to his design, later, the Wall Camera Corporation rebuilt the machine with improved results
2.
Sound-on-film
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Sound-on-film processes can either record an analog sound track or digital sound track, and may record the signal either optically or magnetically. Earlier technologies were sound-on-disc, meaning the films soundtrack would be on a phonograph record. The most prevalent current method of recording sound on a film print is by stereo variable-area recording. A two-channel audio signal is recorded as a pair of running parallel with the films direction of travel through the projector. The lines change area depending on the magnitude of the signal, the projector shines light from a small lamp, called an exciter, through a perpendicular slit onto the film. The image on the slice of exposed track modulates the intensity of the light, which is collected by a photosensitive element, a photocell. These LED or laser exciters are backwards-compatible with older tracks, earlier processes, used on 70 mm film prints and special presentations of 35 mm film prints, recorded sound magnetically on ferric oxide tracks bonded to the film print, outside the sprocket holes. 16 mm and Super 8 formats sometimes used a magnetic track on the camera film. Film of this form is no longer manufactured, but single-perforated film without the track or, in the case of 16 mm. Three different digital systems for 35 mm cinema release prints were introduced during the 1990s. Almost all sound formats used with motion-picture film have been sound-on-film formats, including, RCA Photophone, a variable-area format now universally used for optical analog soundtracks—since the late 1970s, usually with a Dolby encoding matrix. Tri-Ergon, the patent of this Berlin based company was bought by Fox in 1926 and this was a system developed by RCA and Disney Studios with a multi-channel soundtrack recorded on a separate strip of film from the picture
3.
Digital cinema
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Digital cinema refers to the use of digital technology to distribute or project motion pictures as opposed to the historical use of reels of motion picture film, such as 35 mm film. Digital movies are projected using a digital projector instead of a film projector. Digital cinema is distinct from high-definition television and is not dependent on using television or high-definition video standards, aspect ratios, in digital cinema, resolutions are represented by the horizontal pixel count, usually 2K or 4K. As digital cinema technology improved in the early 2010s, most of the theaters across the world converted to digital, Digital media playback of high-resolution 2K files has at least a 20-year history. Early video data storage units fed custom frame buffer systems with large memories, in early digital video units, content was usually restricted to several minutes of material. Transfer of content between remote locations was slow and had limited capacity and it was not until the late 1990s that feature-length films could be sent over the wire. In conjunction with Texas Instruments, the movie was publicly demonstrated in five theaters across the United States. In Europe, on February 2,2000, Texas Instruments DLP Cinema projector technology was demonstrated, by Philippe Binant. On January 19,2000, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, in the United States, by December 2000, there were 15 digital cinema screens in the United States and Canada,11 in Western Europe,4 in Asia, and 1 in South America. Digital Cinema Initiatives was formed in March 2002 as a joint project of many motion picture studios to develop a specification for digital cinema. In April 2004, in cooperation with the American Society of Cinematographers, DCI created standard evaluation material for testing of 2K and 4K playback, DCI selected JPEG2000 as the basis for the compression in the system the same year. In China, in June 2005, an E-Cinema System called dMs was established and was used in over 15,000 screens spread across Chinas 30 provinces, DMS estimated that the system would expand to 40,000 screens in 2009. In 2005 the UK Film Council Digital Screen Network launched in the UK by Arts Alliance Media creating a chain of 250 2K digital cinema systems, the roll out was completed in 2006. This was the first mass roll out in Europe, axis IT/Christie Digital also started a roll out in the United States and Canada. By mid 2006, about 400 theaters were equipped with 2K digital projectors with the number increasing every month, several digital 3D films surfaced in 2006 and several prominent filmmakers committed to making their next productions in stereo 3D. VUE West End was one of the first 3D Digital Cinemas along with Odeon Printworks Manchester and this was done by Emil and Eric Digital Films, a company based at Thrissur using the end-to-end digital cinema system developed by Singapore-based DG2L Technologies. This film was mastered at Real Image Media Technologies in India. In June 2007, Arts Alliance Media announced the first European commercial digital cinema Virtual Print Fee agreements, by June 2010, there were close to 16,000 digital cinema screens, with over 5000 of them being stereoscopic setups
4.
Phonofilm
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Phonofilm is an optical sound-on-film system developed by inventors Lee de Forest and Theodore Case in the 1920s. In 1919 and 1920, Lee De Forest, inventor of the tube, filed his first patents on a sound-on-film process, DeForest Phonofilm. These parallel lines photographically recorded electrical waveforms from a microphone, which were translated back into sound waves when the movie was projected. The Phonofilm system, which recorded synchronized sound directly onto film, was used to record vaudeville acts, musical numbers, political speeches, the films of DeForest were short films made primarily as demonstrations to try to interest major studios in Phonofilm. Some of the films, such as Flying Jenny Airplane, Barking Dog, smith and Roosevelt were filmed during the 1924 Democratic National Convention, held June 24 to July 9 at Madison Square Garden in New York City. Coolidge became the first U. S, President to appear in a sound motion picture when DeForest filmed him at the White House on 11 August 1924. In November 1922, De Forest founded the De Forest Phonofilm Corporation with studios at 314 East 48th Street in New York City, however, DeForest was unable to interest any of the major Hollywood movie studios in his invention. From October 1921 to September 1922, DeForest lived in Berlin, meeting with the Tri-Ergon developers and he announced to the press in April 1922 that he would soon have a workable sound-on-film system. On 12 March 1923, DeForest presented a demonstration of Phonofilm to the press, on 12 April 1923, DeForest gave a private demonstration of the process to electrical engineers at the Engineering Society Buildings Auditorium at 33 West 39th Street in New York City. On 15 April 1923, DeForest premiered 18 short films made in Phonofilm — including vaudeville acts, musical performers, opera, the Rivolis music director Hugo Riesenfeld co-hosted the presentation. Movie theater chains at the time, De Forests decision to film primarily short films, not feature films limited the appeal of his process. All or part of the Paramount Pictures features Bella Donna and The Covered Wagon were filmed with Phonofilm as an experiment, however, the Phonofilm versions were only shown at the premiere engagements, also at the Rivoli. Siegfried, the first part of the Fritz Lang film Die Nibelungen had a Phonofilm soundtrack, one of the few two-reel films made by DeForest in the Phonofilm process was Loves Old Sweet Song, starring Louis Wolheim, Donald Gallaher, and the 20-year-old Una Merkel. DeForest kept to one-reel films because he was unable to solve the problem of reel changes—and the disruption in sound which would occur—when a projectionist in a movie theater changed reels. Max Fleischer and Dave Fleischer used the Phonofilm process for their Song Car-Tunes series of cartoons—all featuring the Follow the Bouncing Ball gimmick—starting in May 1924, of the 36 titles in the Song Car-Tunes series,19 used Phonofilm. Red Seal Pictures and DeForest Phonofilm filed for bankruptcy in September 1926, DeForest also worked with Theodore Case, using Cases patents to make the Phonofilm system workable. However, the two men had an out, shortly after DeForest filed suit in June 1923 against Freeman Harrison Owens. Case later went to movie mogul William Fox of Fox Film Corporation, who bought Cases patents, the American rights to the German Tri-Ergon patents, Cases falling out with DeForest was due to DeForest taking full credit for the work of Case and Earl I
5.
Warner Brothers
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Entertainment Inc. – colloquially known as Warner Bros. or Warner Bros. It is one of the Big Six major American film studios, Warner Bros. is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America. The companys name originated from the four founding Warner brothers, Harry, Albert, Sam, Jack, the youngest, was born in London, Ontario. The three elder brothers began in the theater business, having acquired a movie projector with which they showed films in the mining towns of Pennsylvania. In the beginning, Sam and Albert Warner invested $150 to present Life of an American Fireman and they opened their first theater, the Cascade, in New Castle, Pennsylvania, in 1903. When the original building was in danger of being demolished, the modern Warner Bros. called the current building owners, the owners noted people across the country had asked them to protect it for its historical significance. In 1904, the Warners founded the Pittsburgh-based Duquesne Amusement & Supply Company, in 1912, Harry Warner hired an auditor named Paul Ashley Chase. By the time of World War I they had begun producing films, in 1918 they opened the first Warner Bros. studio on Sunset Boulevard in Hollywood. Sam and Jack produced the pictures, while Harry and Albert, along with their auditor and now controller Chase, handled finance and distribution in New York City. During World War I their first nationally syndicated film, My Four Years in Germany, on April 4,1923, with help from money loaned to Harry by his banker Motley Flint, they formally incorporated as Warner Brothers Pictures, Incorporated. The first important deal was the acquisition of the rights to Avery Hopwoods 1919 Broadway play, The Gold Diggers, however, Rin Tin Tin, a dog brought from France after World War I by an American soldier, established their reputation. Rin Tin Tin debuted in the feature Where the North Begins, the movie was so successful that Jack signed the dog to star in more films for $1,000 per week. Rin Tin Tin became the top star. Jack nicknamed him The Mortgage Lifter and the success boosted Darryl F. Zanucks career, Zanuck eventually became a top producer and between 1928 and 1933 served as Jacks right-hand man and executive producer, with responsibilities including day-to-day film production. More success came after Ernst Lubitsch was hired as head director, lubitschs film The Marriage Circle was the studios most successful film of 1924, and was on The New York Times best list for that year. Despite the success of Rin Tin Tin and Lubitsch, Warners remained a lesser studio, Sam and Jack decided to offer Broadway actor John Barrymore the lead role in Beau Brummel. The film was so successful that Harry signed Barrymore to a contract, like The Marriage Circle. By the end of 1924, Warner Bros. was arguably Hollywoods most successful independent studio, as the studio prospered, it gained backing from Wall Street, and in 1924 Goldman Sachs arranged a major loan
6.
Vitaphone
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Vitaphone was a sound film system used for feature films and nearly 1,000 short subjects made by Warner Bros. and its sister studio First National from 1926 to 1931. Vitaphone was the last major analog sound-on-disc system and the one which was widely used. The soundtrack was not printed on the film itself, but issued separately on phonograph records, the discs, recorded at 33 1⁄3 rpm and typically 16 inches in diameter, would be played on a turntable physically coupled to the projector motor while the film was being projected. Many early talkies, such as The Jazz Singer, used the Vitaphone system, the name Vitaphone derived from the Latin and Greek words, respectively, for living and sound. The Vitaphone trademark was later associated with cartoons and other subjects that had optical soundtracks. Wente had created in 1916 and greatly improved in 1922, the business was established at Western Electrics Bell Laboratories in New York City and acquired by Warner Bros. in April 1925. Warner Bros. introduced Vitaphone on August 6,1926 with the release of their silent feature Don Juan, the feature was preceded by a program of short subjects with live-recorded sound, nearly all featuring classical instrumentalists and opera stars. Don Juan was able to draw huge sums of money at the box office, after its financial failure, Paramount head Adolph Zukor offered Sam Warner a deal as an executive producer for Paramount if he brought Vitaphone with him. Harry eventually agreed to accept Sams demands, dance band leader Henry Halstead is given credit for starring in the first Vitaphone short subject filmed in Hollywood instead of New York. Carnival Night in Paris featured the Henry Halstead Orchestra and a cast of hundreds of costumed dancers in a Carnival atmosphere, from the perspective of the cast and crew on the sound stage, there was little difference between filming with Vitaphone and a sound-on-film system. In the early years of sound, the cameras and their operators were enclosed in soundproofed booths with small windows made of thick glass. Cables suspended the microphones in fixed positions just above camera range, the recording machines were usually located in a separate building to completely isolate them from sound stage floor vibrations and other undesirable influences. The audio signal was sent from a monitoring and control booth to the recording room over a heavy shielded cable. Synchronization was maintained by driving all the cameras and recorders with synchronous electric motors powered from a common source, except for the unusual disc size and speed, the physical record-making process was the same one employed by contemporary record companies to make smaller discs for home use. The recording lathe cut an audio-signal-modulated spiral groove into the surface of a thick round slab of wax-like material rotating on a turntable. If problems were found, the scene could then be re-shot while everything was still in place, a Vitaphone-equipped theater had normal projectors which had been furnished with special phonograph turntables and pickups, a fader, an amplifier, and a loudspeaker system. The projectors operated just as motorized silent projectors did, but at a speed of 24 frames per second. When the projector was started, it rotated the linked turntable, the Vitaphone process made several improvements over previous systems, Amplification – The Vitaphone system used electronic amplification based on Lee De Forests Audion tube
7.
Lee de Forest
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Lee de Forest was an American inventor, self-described Father of Radio, and a pioneer in the development of sound-on-film recording used for motion pictures. He had over 180 patents, but also a tumultuous career—he boasted that he made, then lost and he was also involved in several major patent lawsuits, spent a substantial part of his income on legal bills, and was even tried for mail fraud. His most famous invention, in 1906, was the three-element Audion vacuum tube, Lee de Forest was born in 1873 in Council Bluffs, Iowa, the son of Anna Margaret and Henry Swift DeForest. He was a descendant of Jessé de Forest, the leader of a group of Walloon Huguenots who fled Europe in the 17th Century due to religious persecution. De Forests father was a Congregational Church minister who hoped his son would become a pastor. De Forest prepared for college by attending Mount Hermon Boys School in Mount Hermon, after completing his undergraduate studies, in September,1896 de Forest began three years of postgraduate work. However, his experiments had a tendency to blow fuses. Even after being warned to be careful, he managed to douse the lights during an important lecture by Professor Charles Hastings. One drawback to Marconis approach was his use of a coherer as a receiver, which, while providing for permanent records, was slow, insensitive. After making unsuccessful inquiries about employment with Nikola Tesla and Marconi and his first job after leaving Yale was with the Western Electric Companys telephone lab in Chicago, Illinois. While there he developed his first receiver, which was based on findings by two German scientists, Drs. A. Neugschwender and Emil Aschkinass and their original design consisted of a mirror in which a narrow, moistened slit had been cut through the silvered back. Attaching a battery and telephone receiver, they could hear sound changes in response to radio signal impulses, De Forest, along with Ed Smythe, a co-worker who provided financial and technical help, developed variations they called responders. With radio research his main priority, de Forest next took a teaching position at the Lewis Institute. By 1900, using a transmitter and his responder receiver. Professor Clarence Freeman of the Armour Institute became interested in de Forests work, Marconi had already made arrangements to provide reports for the Associated Press, which he had successfully done for the 1899 contest. De Forest contracted to do the same for the smaller Publishers Press Association, the race effort turned out to be an almost total failure. The Freeman transmitter broke down — in a fit of rage, none of these companies had effective tuning for their transmitters, so only one could transmit at a time without causing mutual interference. De Forest ruefully noted that under conditions the only successful wireless communication was done by visual semaphore wig-wag flags
8.
Auburn, New York
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Auburn is a city in Cayuga County, New York, United States, located at the north end of Owasco Lake, one of the Finger Lakes, in Central New York. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 27,687. It is the county seat of Cayuga County, and the site of the maximum-security Auburn Correctional Facility, as well as the William H. Seward House Museum, the region around Auburn had been Haudenosaunee territory for centuries before European contact and historical records. Auburn was founded in 1793, during the period of settlement of western New York. The founder, John L. Hardenbergh, was a veteran of the Sullivan-Clinton campaign against the Iroquois during the American Revolution, Hardenbergh settled in the vicinity of the Owasco River with his infant daughter and two African-American slaves, Harry and Kate Freeman. After his death in 1806, Hardenbergh was buried in Auburns North Street Cemetery, the community grew up around Hardenberghs gristmill and sawmill. Originally known as Hardenberghs Corners in the town of Aurelius, the settlement was renamed Auburn in 1805 when it became the county seat and it became an incorporated village in 1815, and was chartered as a city in 1848. It was only a few miles from the Erie Canal, which opened in 1825, from 1818 to 1939, Auburn was home to Auburn Theological Seminary, once one of the preeminent theological seminaries in the United States. In 1939, facing difficulties as a result of the Great Depression. It is the complete and unaltered Tiffany chapel interior known to exist. In 1816, Auburn Prison was founded as a model for the ideas about treating prisoners. Visitors were charged a fee for viewing the facility and its inmates, on August 6,1890, the first execution by the electric chair was carried out at Auburn Prison. In 1901 Leon Czolgosz, assassin of President William McKinley, was executed there, although the ideas of the Auburn System have been abandoned, the prison continues to serve as a maximum security facility, and is one of the most secure prisons in the continental United States. A dam, owned and operated by the city, controls the outflow of the lake, the city is required to keep a sufficient amount of water in the river to deal with the effluent from its waste disposal treatment facility. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 8.4 square miles, of which 8.3 square miles is land and 0.08 square miles. US20 is an important east-west highway passing through the city, seneca Falls is 15 miles west on US20, and Syracuse is 26 miles to the northeast via New York State Route 5. This climatic region is typified by large temperature differences, with warm to hot summers. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Auburn has a continental climate
9.
Bell & Howell
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Bell & Howell is a U. S. -based former manufacturer of motion picture machinery, founded in 1907 by two projectionists, and headquartered in Wheeling, Illinois. The company now provides inserting and finishing solutions for letters and parcels, document processing, microfilmers, scanners, the Bell & Howell trademark is also licensed to makers of various electronic consumer products. According to its charter, the Bell & Howell Company was incorporated on February 17,1907 and it was duly recorded in the Cook County Record Book eight days later. The first meeting of stockholders took place in the office of Attorney W. G, strong on February 19 at 10 a. m. The first board of directors was chosen for a term of one year, Donald Joseph Bell, chairman, Albert Summers Howell, secretary, austin Delaney was president of Bell and Howell in Canada in the 1960s and 1970s before moving with his family from England. Historically, Bell & Howell Co. was an important supplier of many different media technologies, the firm dropped the production of movie cameras in the early 1970s. Bell & Howell is a supplier of equipment for schools. The film laboratory line is now a company, BHP Inc. The firm added microfilm products in 1946 and it purchased University Microfilms International in the 1980s. UMI produced a product called ProQuest, in the 2000s, Bell and & Howell decided to focus on their information technology businesses. The imaging business was sold to Eastman Kodak and the mail business was sold to Pitney Bowes. On June 6,2001 Bell & Howell became ProQuest Company, which was then a publicly traded company, in September 2001, the remaining industrial businesses, along with the Bell & Howell name, were sold to private equity firm Glencoe Capital. The company merged with the North American arm of Böwe Systec Inc, in 2003, Böwe Systec later acquired the entire company. It was known as Böwe Bell & Howell until 2011, when Versa Capital Management bought the company from bankruptcy and they also had an Electronics and Instrumentation Division on Lennox Road, Basingstoke, UK. This facility produced several different types of transducers for applications such as North Sea oil platforms, the modified Apple had additional security elements for classroom use such as a tamper-proof cover. The case color was black but the inside was a standard Apple II Plus, Bell & Howell founded an Education Group within their company in 1907. This Education Group created Bell & Howell Schools in 1966, in that same year, the Education Group purchased a controlling share of DeVry Institute of Technology. Two years later in 1968, Bell & Howell’s Education Group, via a controlling interest in DeVry, acquired Ohio Institute of Technology in Columbus, over the years, the Education Group has bought and sold large interests in a variety of educational organizations and institutions
10.
Syracuse, New York
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Syracuse is a city in, and the county seat of, Onondaga County, New York, in the United States. It is the largest U. S. city with the name Syracuse, and is the fifth most populous city in the state of New York following New York City, Buffalo, Rochester, and Yonkers. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170 and it is the economic and educational hub of Central New York, a region with over a million inhabitants. Syracuse is also well-provided with convention sites, with a convention complex. Syracuse was named after the original Greek city Syracuse, a city on the eastern coast of the Italian island of Sicily. The city has functioned as a crossroads over the last two centuries, first between the Erie Canal and its branch canals, then of the railway network. Today, Syracuse is located at the intersection of Interstates 81 and 90, Syracuse is home to Syracuse University, a major research university, as well as Le Moyne College, a nationally recognized liberal arts college. In 2010, Forbes rated Syracuse 4th in the top 10 places in the U. S. to raise a family, the Syracuse area was first seen by Europeans when French missionaries came to the area in the 1600s. Marie de Gannentaha, on the northeast shore of Onondaga Lake, Jesuit missionaries visiting the Syracuse region in the mid 1600s reported salty brine springs around the southern end of Salt Lake, known today as Onondaga Lake. It is the north flowing brine from Tully that is the source of salt for the salty springs found along the shoreline of Onondaga lake, the rapid development of this industry in the 18th and 19th centuries led to the nicknaming of Syracuse as The Salt City. In 1847, the city was named after Syracuse, Sicily. In 1861, he developed the process for the manufacture of soda ash from brine wells dug in the southern end of Tully valley. The process was an improvement over the earlier Leblanc process, the Syracuse Solvay plant was the incubator for a large chemical industry complex owned by Allied Signal in Syracuse, the result of which made Onondaga Lake the most polluted in the nation. The salt industry declined after the Civil War, but a new manufacturing industry arose in its place, the Geneva Medical College was founded in 1834. It is now known as Upstate Medical University, one of four medical colleges in the State University of New York system. The first New York State Fair was held in Syracuse in 1841, world War II sparked significant industrial expansion in the area, specialty steel, fasteners, custom machining. After the war, two of the Big Three automobile manufacturers had major operations in the area, Syracuse was headquarters for Carrier Corporation, and Crouse-Hinds manufactured traffic signals in Syracuse. General Electric had its television manufacturing plant at Electronics Parkway in Syracuse
11.
Cinerama
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Cinerama is a widescreen process that originally projected images simultaneously from three synchronized 35 mm projectors onto a huge, deeply curved screen, subtending 146° of arc. The trademarked process was marketed by the Cinerama corporation and it was the first of a number of novel processes introduced during the 1950s, when the movie industry was reacting to competition from television. Cinerama was presented to the public as an event, with reserved seating and printed programs. The display is accompanied by a high-quality, seven-track discrete, directional, the original system involved shooting with three synchronized cameras sharing a single shutter. This process was abandoned in favor of a system using a single camera. The latter system lost the 146° field of view of the original three-strip system, three-strip Cinerama did not use anamorphic lenses, although two of the systems used to produce the 70mm prints did employ anamorphics. Later, 35mm anamorphic reduction prints were produced for exhibition in theatres with anamorphic CinemaScope-compatible projection lenses, Cooper, produced a commercially viable demonstration of Cinerama which opened on Broadway on September 30,1952. The film, titled This is Cinerama, was received with enthusiasm and it was the outgrowth of many years of development. Waller had earlier developed an 11-projector system called Vitarama at the Petroleum Industry exhibit in the 1939 New York Worlds Fair, a five-camera version, the Waller Gunnery Trainer, was used during the Second World War. The word Cinerama combines cinema with panorama, the origin of all the -orama neologisms, the photographic system used three interlocked 35 mm cameras equipped with 27 mm lenses, approximately the focal length of the human eye. The three cameras were mounted as one unit, set at 48 degrees to each other, a single rotating shutter in front of the three lenses assured simultaneous exposure on each of the films. The image was photographed six sprocket holes high, rather than the four used in other 35 mm processes. The picture was photographed and projected at 26 frames per second rather than the usual 24 and he further comments on the unreliability of numerous websites and other resources that will tell you that Cinerama had an aspect ratio of up to 3,1. In theaters, Cinerama film was projected from three projection booths arranged in the same pattern as the cameras. This was a big-ticket, reserved-seats spectacle, and the Cinerama projectors were adjusted carefully, great care was taken to match color and brightness when producing the prints. Nevertheless, the seams between panels were usually noticeable, optical limitations with the design of the camera itself meant that if distant scenes joined perfectly, closer objects did not. A nearby object might split into two as it crossed the seams, to avoid calling attention to the seams, scenes were often composed with unimportant objects such as trees or posts at the seams, and action was blocked so as to center actors within panels. This gave a distinctly triptych-like appearance to the composition even when the seams themselves were not obvious and it was often necessary to have actors in different sections cheat where they looked in order to appear to be looking at each other in the final projected picture
12.
Aspect ratio
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The aspect ratio of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions. For example, the ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter side – the ratio of width to height. The aspect ratio is expressed as two separated by a colon. The values x and y do not represent actual widths and heights but, rather, as an example,8,5,16,10 and 1.6,1 are three ways of representing the same aspect ratio. In objects of more than two dimensions, such as hyperrectangles, the ratio can still be defined as the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side. The term is most commonly used reference to, Graphic / image Image aspect ratio Display aspect ratio. A square has the smallest possible ratio of 1,1. An ellipse with a ratio of 1,1 is a circle. A circle has the minimal DWAR which is 1, a square has a DWAR of sqrt. The Cube-Volume Aspect Ratio of a set is the d-th root of the ratio of the d-volume of the smallest enclosing axes-parallel d-cube. A square has the minimal CVAR which is 1, a circle has a CVAR of sqrt. An axis-parallel rectangle of width W and height H, where W>H, has a CVAR of sqrt = sqrt, if the dimension d is fixed, then all reasonable definitions of aspect ratio are equivalent to within constant factors. Aspect ratios are mathematically expressed as x, y, in digital images there is a subtle distinction between the Display Aspect Ratio and the Storage Aspect Ratio, see Distinctions. Ratio Equidimensional ratios in 3D List of film formats Squeeze mapping Vertical orientation
13.
AMPAS
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The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences is a professional honorary organization with the stated goal of advancing the arts and sciences of motion pictures. The Academys corporate management and general policies are overseen by a Board of Governors, the roster of the Academys approximately 6,000 motion picture professionals is a closely guarded secret. While the great majority of its members are based in the United States, the Academy is known around the world for its annual Academy Awards, now officially known as The Oscars. The Academy plans to open the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures in Los Angeles in 2017, the notion of the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences began with Louis B. He said he wanted to create an organization that would mediate labor disputes without unions and he met with actor Conrad Nagel, director Fred Niblo, and the head of the Association of Motion Picture Producers, Fred Beetsonto to discuss these matters. The idea of this elite club having a banquet was discussed. They also established that membership into the organization would only be open to people involved in one of the five branches of the industry, actors, directors, writers, technicians, and producers. That evening Mayer presented to those guests what he called the International Academy of Motion Picture Arts, everyone in the room that evening became a founder of the Academy. Several organizational meetings were held prior to the first official meeting held on May 6,1927 and their first organizational meeting was held on May 11. At that meeting Douglas Fairbanks, Sr. was elected as the first president of the Academy, while Fred Niblo was the first vice-president and that night, the Academy also bestowed its first honorary membership, to Thomas Edison. Initially, the Academy was broken down into five groups, or branches. The original five were, Producers, Actors, Directors, Writers, the initial concerns of the group had to do with labor. However, as went on, the organization moved further away from involvement in labor-management arbitrations and negotiations. By July 1928 the board of directors had approved a list of 12 awards to be presented, during July the voting system for the Awards was established, and the nomination and selection process began. This award of merit for distinctive achievement is what we know now as the Academy Award, the initial location of the organization was 6912 Hollywood Boulevard. In May 1928, the Academy authorized the construction of a state of the art screening room, the screening room was not completed until April 1929. With the publication of Report on Incandescent Illumination in 1928, the Academy began a history of publishing books to assist its members. Another early initiative concerned training Army Signal Corps officers, in 1929 Academy members in a joint venture with the University of Southern California created Americas first film school to further the art and science of moving pictures
14.
William Fox (producer)
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William Fox was an American motion picture executive, who founded the Fox Film Corporation in 1915 and the Fox West Coast Theatres chain in the 1920s. Fox was born in Tolcsva, Hungary and originally named Wilhelm Fried and his parents, Michael Fuchs and Hannah Fried, were both German Jews. The family emigrated to the United States when William was nine months old and settled in New York City, Wilhelm worked as a newsboy and in the fur and garment industry as a youth, then later changed his name to William Fox. In 1900, he started his own company, which he sold in 1904 to purchase his first nickelodeon, always more of an entrepreneur than a showman, he concentrated on acquiring and building theaters. The companys first film studio was leased in Fort Lee, New Jersey and he now had the capital to acquire facilities and expand his production capacity. Sound-on-film systems such as Movietone and RCA Photophone soon became the standard, from 1928 to 1963, Fox Movietone News was one of the major newsreel series in the U. S. along with The March of Time and Universal Newsreel. In 1927, Marcus Loew, head of rival studio Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, died, Fox saw an opportunity to expand his empire, and in 1929, with Schencks assent, bought the Loew familys holdings in MGM. However, MGM studio bosses Louis B. Mayer and Irving Thalberg were outraged, since, despite their high posts in MGM, Mayer used his political connections to persuade the Justice Department to sue Fox for violating federal antitrust law. During this time, in the middle of 1929, Fox was badly hurt in an automobile accident, Fox lost control of the Fox Film Corporation in 1930 during a hostile takeover. A combination of the market crash, Foxs car accident injury. At his bankruptcy hearing in 1936, he attempted to bribe judge John Warren Davis and committed perjury, after serving his time, Fox retired from the film business. He died more or less unnoticed in 1952 at the age of 73 in New York City, no Hollywood producers came to his funeral. He is interred at Salem Fields Cemetery, Brooklyn, in 1935, Fox Film Corporation, under new president Sidney Kent, merged with the upstart Twentieth Century Pictures to form 20th Century-Fox. 20th Century Fox was itself merged into Rupert Murdochs News Corporation in 1985, News Corporation, 20th Century Foxs corporate parent, continues to make movies and started the Fox Network, one of the four principal commercial broadcast television networks in the United States. Fox personally oversaw the construction of many Fox Theatres in US cities including Atlanta, Detroit, Oakland, San Francisco, an Empire of Their Own, How the Jews Invented Hollywood. William Fox at the Internet Movie Database Historical Article on William Fox William Fox at Find a Grave
15.
Fox Film Corporation
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The Fox Film Corporation was an American company that produced motion pictures, formed by William Fox on 1 February 1915. It was the successor to his earlier Greater New York Film Rental Company. On July 23,1926, the company bought the patents of the Movietone sound system for recording sound on to film, after the Crash of 1929, William Fox lost control of the company in 1930, during a hostile takeover. Under new president Sidney Kent, the new owners merged the company with Twentieth Century Pictures to form 20th Century Fox in 1935, William Fox entered the film industry in 1904 when he purchased a one-third share of a Brooklyn nickelodeon for $1,667. Fox invested further in the industry by founding the Greater New York Film Rental Company as a film distributor. In 1914, reflecting the broader scope of his business, he renamed it the Box Office Attraction Film Rental Company and he also continued to distribute material from other sources, such as Winsor McCays early animated film Gertie the Dinosaur. Later that year, Fox concluded that depending on other companies for the products he depended on was insufficient and he purchased the Éclair studio facilities in Fort Lee, New Jersey, along with property in Staten Island, and arranged for actors and crew. The company became a studio, with its name shortened to the Box Office Attractions Company. Always more of an entrepreneur than a showman, Fox concentrated on acquiring and building theaters, in 1917, William Fox sent Sol M. Wurtzel to Hollywood to oversee the studios West Coast production facilities where a more hospitable and cost-effective climate existed for filmmaking. Fox had purchased the Edendale studio of the failing Selig Polyscope Company, with the introduction of sound technology, Fox moved to acquire the rights to a sound-on-film process. In the years 1925–26, Fox purchased the rights to the work of Freeman Harrison Owens and this resulted in the Movietone sound system later known as Fox Movietone developed at the Movietone Studio. Later that year, the company began offering films with a track, and the following year Fox began the weekly Fox Movietone News feature. The growing company needed space, and in 1926 Fox acquired 300 acres in the country west of Beverly Hills and built Movietone City. When rival Marcus Loew died in 1927, Fox offered to buy the Loew familys holdings, Loews Inc. controlled more than 200 theaters, as well as the MGM studio. When the family agreed to the sale, the merger of Fox, but MGM studio boss Louis B. Mayer was not included in the deal and fought back. Using political connections, Mayer called on the Justice Departments antitrust unit to delay giving final approval to the merger, overextended and close to bankruptcy, Fox was stripped of his empire in 1930 and ended up in jail. Fox Film, with more than 500 theatres, was placed in receivership, a bank-mandated reorganization propped the company up for a time, but it soon became apparent that despite its size, Fox could not stand on its own. Under new president Sidney Kent, the new owners began negotiating with the upstart, the two companies merged that spring as 20th Century-Fox
16.
Sunrise (film)
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Sunrise, A Song of Two Humans is a 1927 American silent romantic drama film directed by German director F. W. Murnau and starring George OBrien, Janet Gaynor, and Margaret Livingston. The story was adapted by Carl Mayer from the short story The Excursion to Tilsit, Murnau chose to use the then new Fox Movietone sound-on-film system, making Sunrise one of the first feature films with a synchronized musical score and sound effects soundtrack. The film incorporated Charles Gounods 1872 composition Funeral March of a Marionette, chopins A minor prelude also features prominently in orchestral arrangement. Sunrise won the Academy Award for Unique and Artistic Picture at the 1st Academy Awards in 1929, Janet Gaynor won the first Academy Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role for her performance in the film. The films legacy has endured, and it is now considered a masterpiece. Many have called it the greatest film of the silent era, in 1989, Sunrise was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of the United States Library of Congress for films that are culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. The Academy Film Archive preserved Sunrise in 2004, although the original 35mm negative of the original American version of Sunrise was destroyed in the 1937 Fox vault fire, a new negative was created from a surviving print. A vacationing Woman from the City lingers in a town for weeks. After dark, she goes to a farmhouse where the Man and she whistles from the fence outside. The Man is torn, but finally departs, leaving his wife with the memories of times when they were deeply in love. The man and woman meet in the moonlight and kiss passionately and she wants him to sell his farm—which has not done well recently—to join her in the city. When she suggests that he solve the problem of his wife by drowning her, he throttles her violently, the Woman gathers bundles of reeds so that when the boat is overturned, the Man can stay afloat. The Wife suspects nothing when her husband suggests going on an outing and he prepares to throw her overboard, but when she pleads for his mercy, he realizes he cannot do it. He rows frantically for shore, and when the boat reaches land and she boards a trolley, and he follows, begging her not to be afraid of him. The trolley brings them to the city and her fear and disappointment are overwhelming. He plies her with flowers and cakes and finally she stops crying, emerging back on the street, they are touched to see a bride enter a church for her processional, and follow her inside to watch the wedding. The Man breaks down and asks her to forgive him, after a tearful reconciliation, they continue their adventure in the city, having their photograph taken together and visiting a funfair. As darkness falls, they board the trolley for home, soon they are drifting back across the lake under the moonlight
17.
F. W. Murnau
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Friedrich Wilhelm F. W. Murnau was a German film director. Murnau was greatly influenced by Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Shakespeare and Ibsen plays he had seen at the age of 12, during World War I he served as a company commander at the eastern front and was in the German air force, surviving several crashes without any severe injuries. One of Murnaus acclaimed works is the 1922 film Nosferatu, an adaptation of Bram Stokers Dracula, although not a commercial success due to copyright issues with Stokers novel, the film is considered a masterpiece of Expressionist film. He later directed the 1924 film The Last Laugh, as well as a 1926 interpretation of Goethes Faust and he later emigrated to Hollywood in 1926, where he joined the Fox Studio and made three films, Sunrise,4 Devils and City Girl. The first of three is widely regarded as one of the greatest films ever made. In 1931 Murnau travelled to Bora Bora to make the film Tabu with documentary film pioneer Robert J. Flaherty, who left after disputes with Murnau. Of the 21 films Murnau directed, eight are considered to be completely lost, one reel of his feature Marizza, genannt die Schmuggler-Madonna survives. This leaves only 12 films surviving in their entirety, Murnau was born in Bielefeld, Province of Westphalia, and grew up in Kassel from the time he was seven. He had two brothers, Bernhard and Robert, and two stepsisters, Ida and Anna, Murnaus mother Otilie Volbracht was the second wife of his father Heinrich Plumpe, the owner of a cloth factory in the north-western part of Germany. Their villa was often turned into a stage for plays, directed by Murnau. He took the name Murnau from the town of that name, the 6 ft 11 in director was said to have an icy, imperious disposition and an obsession with film. He soon became a friend of Franz Marc, Else Lasker-Schüler, in World War I Murnau served as a company commander at the eastern front. Murnau joined the German air force in northern France two years later and survived eight crashes without severe injuries and he landed in Switzerland where he was interned and won a prize for the best production-concept. After World War I ended, Murnau returned to Germany where he established his own film studio with actor Conrad Veidt. His first feature-length film, The Boy in Blue, an inspired by the famous Thomas Gainsborough painting, was released in 1919. He explored the theme of dual personalities, much like Robert Louis Stevensons Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, in 1920s Der Janus-Kopf starring Veidt. Murnaus most famous film is Nosferatu, a 1922 adaptation of Bram Stokers Dracula German stage actor Max Schreck as the vampire Count Orlok, Stokers widow sued for copyright infringement. Murnau lost the lawsuit and all prints of the film were ordered to be destroyed, also in Murnaus filmography was The Last Laugh, written by Carl Mayer and starring Emil Jannings
18.
Western Electric
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Western Electric Company was an American electrical engineering and manufacturing company that served as the primary supplier to AT&T from 1881 to 1996. The company was responsible for technological innovations and seminal developments in industrial management. It also served as the agent for the member companies of the Bell System. In 1856, George Shawk purchased an engineering business in Cleveland. On December 31,1869, he partners with Enos M. Barton and, later the same year. In 1872 Barton, and Gray moved the business to Clinton Street, Chicago, Illinois, in 1875, Gray sold his interests to Western Union, including the caveat that he had filed against Alexander Graham Bells patent application for the telephone. Western Electric was the first company to join in a Japanese joint venture with foreign capital, in 1899, it invested in a 54% share of the Nippon Electric Company, Ltd. Western Electrics representative in Japan was Walter Tenney Carleton, in 1901, Western Electric secretly purchased a controlling interest in a principal competitor, the Kellogg Switchboard & Supply Company, but was later forced by a lawsuit to sell. On July 24,1915, employees of the Hawthorne Works boarded the SS Eastland in downtown Chicago for a company picnic, the ship rolled over at the dock and over 800 people died. In 1920, Alice Heacock Seidel was the first of Western Electrics female employees to be given permission to stay on after she had married and this set a precedent in the company, which previously had not allowed married women in their employ. Miss Heacock had worked for Western Electric for sixteen years before her marriage, if the women at the top were permitted to remain after marriage then all women would expect the same privilege. How far and how fast the policy was expanded is shown by the fact that a few years later women were given maternity leaves with no loss of time on their service records. In 1925, ITT purchased the Bell Telephone Manufacturing Company of Brussels, Belgium, the company manufactured rotary system switching equipment under the Western Electric brand. Early on, Western Electric also managed an electrical equipment distribution business, Bell Telephone Laboratories was half-owned by Western Electric, the other half belonging to AT&T. Western Electric used various logos during its existence, starting in 1914 it used an image of AT&Ts statue Spirit of Communication. In 1915, Western Electric Manufacturing was incorporated in New York, New York, as an owned subsidiary of AT&T, under the name Western Electric Company. AT&T and Bell System companies were rumored to employ small armies of inspectors to check household line voltage levels to determine if non-leased phones were in use by consumers. Western Electric telephones were owned not by end customers but by the local Bell System telephone companies—all of which were subsidiaries of AT&T, each phone was leased from the phone company on a monthly basis by customers who generally paid for their phone as part of the recurring lease fees
19.
Movietone News
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Movietone News is a newsreel that ran from 1928 to 1963 in the United States, and – as British Movietone News – from 1929 to 1979 in the United Kingdom. It evolved from an earlier established by Fox Films called Fox News which was founded in 1919. When Fox entered talkies with Mother Knows Best the name Fox Movietone was applied to Foxs sound productions. It is known in the U. S. as Fox Movietone News, produced cinema, sound newsreels from 1928 to 1963 in the U. S. from 1929 to 1979 in the UK, and from 1929 to 1975 in Australia. One of the earliest in the series featured George Bernard Shaw Talks to Movietone News, sir Harry Lauder also appeared in test sound films made at the Fox Studios in New York City during the winter-spring of 1927. One installment, Fox Grandeur News, was released on May 26,1929, in Foxs short-lived widescreen process Grandeur, hearst Metrotone News initially leased the Case Research Lab patents from William Fox for its sound newsreels. Each of these studios used this system of recording sound film for news items because it was an easily transported single-system of sound-on-film recording, a regular narrator of the newsreels was broadcaster/journalist Lowell Thomas. After Fox Films merged with 20th Century Pictures in 1935 to form 20th Century-Fox, in Australia, Movietone and Cinesound were competitors for newsreel coverage, but have now combined under the Movietone News name. The University of South Carolina Moving Image Research Collections has a portion of the Fox Movietone newsreel collection, the rest of it is owned and managed by the Fox Film Corporations corporate successor, Fox News Channel. During its early years, Fox News Channel had a show which played the newsreels. British Movietone is owned separately by the films successor-in-interest, operating under the name British Movietonews Ltd, British Movietone is represented by AP Archive in the UK. In the United States, licensing of those newsreels is handled by ABC News, in September 2016, it was announced that the British Movitone archive had been acquired by Associated Press. The Academy Film Archive houses the 20th Century Fox Movietone Shorts and Documentaries Series Collection
20.
SMPTE
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SMPTE Membership is open to any individual or organization with interest in the subject matter. SMPTE standards documents are copyrighted and may be purchased from the SMPTE website, standard documents may be purchased by the general public. Significant standards promulgated by SMPTE include, All film and television formats and media. The society sponsors many awards, the oldest of which are the SMPTE Progress Medal, the Samuel Warner Memorial Medal, SMPTE also has a number of student Chapters and sponsors scholarships for college students in the motion imaging disciplines. A group within the standards committees has begun to work on the definition of the SMPTE 3D Home Master. SMPTE, instituted in 1999, a committee for the foundations of Digital Cinema. The SMPTE presents awards to individuals for outstanding contributions in fields of the society, James Cameron Edwin Catmull Birney Dayton Clyde D. Smith Roderick Snell Dr. Kees Immink Stanley N. Baron William C. Miller Bernard J. Lechner Ray Dolby Harold E. Edgerton Vladimir K. Zworykin John G. Frayne Walt Disney Chuck Pagano James M. DeFilippis Bernard J. Lechner Stanley N. Baron William F. Schreiber Adrian Ettlinger Joseph A. Flaherty, goldmark W. R. G. Baker Albert Rose Charles Ginsburg Robert E. Shelby Arthur V. Loughren Otto H. Recent recipients are Andrew Laszlo James MacKay Dr. Roderick T. Swartz
21.
35mm film
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35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for motion pictures and chemical still photography. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, the standard negative pulldown for movies is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film. For still photography, the frame has eight perforations on each side. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge, the 35 mm width, originally specified as 1.375 inches, was introduced in 1892 by William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman. The gauge has been versatile in application, Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies which offered 35 mm films. Today Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film and it is difficult to compare the quality of film to digital media but a good estimate would be about 20.8 million total pixels would equal one 35 millimeter high quality color frame of film. In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry plates in Rochester. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer coated paper, hannibal Goodwins invention of nitrocellulose film base in 1887 was the first transparent, flexible film. With the advent of film, Thomas Alva Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope. The Kinetoscope was a loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant W. K. L. Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New Yorks Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Edisons aperture defined a single frame of film at 4 perforations high, a court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edisons claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison had failed to file patents, at the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière Brothers used a circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.33 aspect ratio. Spehr describes the importance of these developments, The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The film format was introduced into still photography as early as 1913 but first became popular with the launch of the Leica camera, created by Oskar Barnack in 1925. The costly image-forming silver compounds in a film stocks emulsion meant from the start that 35 mm filmmaking was to be a hobby with a high barrier to entry for the public at large. Furthermore, the film base of all early film stock was highly flammable
22.
20th Century Fox
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Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation is an American film studio currently owned by 21st Century Fox. It is one of the Big Six major American film studios and is located in the Century City area of Los Angeles, the studio was formerly owned by News Corporation. 20th Century Fox is a member of the Motion Picture Association of America, in 2015, 20th Century Fox celebrated its 80th anniversary as a studio. Spyros Skouras, then manager of the Fox West Coast Theaters, the studios biggest star, Will Rogers, died in a plane crash weeks after the merger. Its leading female star, Janet Gaynor, was fading in popularity and promising leading men James Dunn, at first, it was expected that the new company was originally to be called Fox-20th Century, even though 20th Century was the senior partner in the merger. However, 20th Century brought more to the bargaining table besides Schenck and Zanuck, the new company, 20th Century-Fox Film Corporation, began trading on May 31,1935, the hyphen was dropped in 1985. Schenck became Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, while Kent remained as President, Zanuck became Vice President in Charge of Production, replacing Foxs longtime production chief Winfield Sheehan. The company established a training school. The contracts included an option for renewal for as long as seven years. For many years, 20th Century Fox claimed to have founded in 1915. For instance, it marked 1945 as its 30th anniversary, however, in recent years it has claimed the 1935 merger as its founding, even though most film historians agree it was founded in 1915. The companys films retained the 20th Century Pictures searchlight logo on their credits as well as its opening fanfare. Also on the Fox payroll he found two players who he built up into the studios leading assets, Alice Faye and seven-year-old Shirley Temple, favoring popular biographies and musicals, Zanuck built Fox back to profitability. Thanks to record attendance during World War II, Fox overtook RKO, while Zanuck went off for eighteen months war service, junior partner William Goetz kept profits high by going for light entertainment. The studios—indeed the industrys—biggest star was creamy blonde Betty Grable, in 1942, Spyros Skouras succeeded Kent as president of the studio. Together with Zanuck, who returned in 1943, they intended to make Foxs output more serious-minded. During the next few years, with pictures like The Razors Edge, Wilson, Gentlemans Agreement, The Snake Pit, Boomerang, and Pinky, Zanuck established a reputation for provocative, adult films. Fox also specialized in adaptations of best-selling books such as Ben Ames Williams Leave Her to Heaven, starring Gene Tierney and they also made the 1958 film version of South Pacific
23.
54th Street (Manhattan)
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54th Street is a two-mile-long, one-way street traveling west to east across Midtown Manhattan. The route begins at Twelfth Avenue, opposite the intersection is the New York Passenger Ship Terminal and the Hudson River. This is the only portion of 54th Street, the remainder is one-way eastbound. The west side neighborhood of Clinton derives its name from the park, fitz Gerald who lived there and popularized the phrase Big Apple. The London NYC, 54-floor 180 m /590 ft office tower that is tallest building on West 54th Ziegfeld Theatre New York Hilton Hotel, 54th Street, A New York Songline - virtual walking tour
24.
Academy Award
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The various category winners are awarded a copy of a golden statuette, officially called the Academy Award of Merit, which has become commonly known by its nickname Oscar. The awards, first presented in 1929 at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, are overseen by AMPAS, the awards ceremony was first broadcast on radio in 1930 and televised for the first time in 1953. It is now live in more than 200 countries and can be streamed live online. The Academy Awards ceremony is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony and its equivalents – the Emmy Awards for television, the Tony Awards for theater, and the Grammy Awards for music and recording – are modeled after the Academy Awards. The 89th Academy Awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2016, were held on February 26,2017, at the Dolby Theatre, in Los Angeles, the ceremony was hosted by Jimmy Kimmel and was broadcast on ABC. A total of 3,048 Oscars have been awarded from the inception of the award through the 88th, the first Academy Awards presentation was held on May 16,1929, at a private dinner function at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel with an audience of about 270 people. The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel, the cost of guest tickets for that nights ceremony was $5. Fifteen statuettes were awarded, honoring artists, directors and other participants in the industry of the time. The ceremony ran for 15 minutes, winners were announced to media three months earlier, however, that was changed for the second ceremony in 1930. Since then, for the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11,00 pm on the night of the awards. The first Best Actor awarded was Emil Jannings, for his performances in The Last Command and he had to return to Europe before the ceremony, so the Academy agreed to give him the prize earlier, this made him the first Academy Award winner in history. With the fourth ceremony, however, the system changed, for the first six ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned two calendar years. At the 29th ceremony, held on March 27,1957, until then, foreign-language films had been honored with the Special Achievement Award. The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, since 1973, all Academy Awards ceremonies always end with the Academy Award for Best Picture. The Academy also awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting, see also § Awards of Merit categories The best known award is the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. The five spokes represent the branches of the Academy, Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers. The model for the statuette is said to be Mexican actor Emilio El Indio Fernández, sculptor George Stanley sculpted Cedric Gibbons design. The statuettes presented at the ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze
25.
CinemaScope
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CinemaScope is an anamorphic lens series used, from 1953 to 1967, for shooting widescreen movies. Its creation in 1953 by Spyros P. Skouras, the president of 20th Century Fox, marked the beginning of the modern anamorphic format in both principal photography and movie projection. The anamorphic lenses theoretically allowed the process to create an image of up to a 2.66,1 aspect ratio, although the CinemaScope lens system was made obsolete by new technological developments, primarily advanced by Panavision, the CinemaScope anamorphic format has continued to this day. Bausch & Lomb won a 1954 Oscar for its development of the CinemaScope lens, french inventor Henri Chrétien developed and patented a new film process that he called Anamorphoscope in 1926. It was this process that would form the basis for CinemaScope. He attempted to interest the motion picture industry in his invention, by 1950, however, cinema attendance seriously declined with the advent of a new competitive rival, television. The optical company Bausch & Lomb was asked to produce a prototype anamorphoser lens, test footage shot with these lenses was screened for Skouras, who gave the go-ahead for development of a widescreen process based on Chrétiens invention, which was to be known as CinemaScope. Twentieth Century-Foxs pre-production of The Robe, originally committed to Technicolor Three-Strip origination, was halted so that the film could be changed to a CinemaScope production, two other CinemaScope productions were also planned, How to Marry a Millionaire and Beneath the Twelve-Mile Reef. The introduction of CinemaScope enabled Fox and other studios to reassert its distinction from the new competitor, Chrétiens Hypergonars proved to have significant optical and operational defects. Ultimately Bausch & Lomb formula combined lens designs incorporated both the lens and the anamorphic lens in one unit. These combined lenses continue to be used to day, particularly in special effects units. Other manufacturers lenses are preferred for so-called production applications that benefit from significantly lighter weight or lower distortion. When, however, developers found that magnetic stripes could be added to the film to produce a composite picture/sound print and this reduction was kept to a minimum by reducing the width of the normal KS perforations so that they were nearly square, but of DH height. This was the CinemaScope, or CS, perforation, known colloquially as fox-holes, later still an optical soundtrack was added, reducing the aspect ratio further to 2.35,1. This change also meant a shift in the center of the projected image. All of Foxs CinemaScope films were made using an aperture for the negatives, as was this studios practice for all films. In order to better hide so-called negative assembly splices, the ratio of the image was changed by others to 2.39,1 and, finally. All professional cameras are capable of shooting 2.55,1 or 2.66,1, Fox selected The Robe as the first film to start production in CinemaScope, a project chosen because of its epic nature
26.
Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
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SMPTE Membership is open to any individual or organization with interest in the subject matter. SMPTE standards documents are copyrighted and may be purchased from the SMPTE website, standard documents may be purchased by the general public. Significant standards promulgated by SMPTE include, All film and television formats and media. The society sponsors many awards, the oldest of which are the SMPTE Progress Medal, the Samuel Warner Memorial Medal, SMPTE also has a number of student Chapters and sponsors scholarships for college students in the motion imaging disciplines. A group within the standards committees has begun to work on the definition of the SMPTE 3D Home Master. SMPTE, instituted in 1999, a committee for the foundations of Digital Cinema. The SMPTE presents awards to individuals for outstanding contributions in fields of the society, James Cameron Edwin Catmull Birney Dayton Clyde D. Smith Roderick Snell Dr. Kees Immink Stanley N. Baron William C. Miller Bernard J. Lechner Ray Dolby Harold E. Edgerton Vladimir K. Zworykin John G. Frayne Walt Disney Chuck Pagano James M. DeFilippis Bernard J. Lechner Stanley N. Baron William F. Schreiber Adrian Ettlinger Joseph A. Flaherty, goldmark W. R. G. Baker Albert Rose Charles Ginsburg Robert E. Shelby Arthur V. Loughren Otto H. Recent recipients are Andrew Laszlo James MacKay Dr. Roderick T. Swartz
27.
Thomas Edison
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Thomas Alva Edison was an American inventor and businessman, who has been described as Americas greatest inventor. He developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and the long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Edison was an inventor, holding 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as many patents in the United Kingdom, France. Edisons inventions contributed to mass communication and, in particular, telecommunications and these included a stock ticker, a mechanical vote recorder, a battery for an electric car, electrical power, recorded music and motion pictures. His advanced work in these fields was an outgrowth of his career as a telegraph operator. Edison developed a system of generation and distribution to homes, businesses. His first power station was on Pearl Street in Manhattan, New York, Thomas Edison was born in Milan, Ohio, and grew up in Port Huron, Michigan. He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison, Jr. and Nancy Matthews Elliott. His father, the son of a Loyalist refugee, had moved as a boy with the family from Nova Scotia, settling in southwestern Ontario, in a known as Shewsbury, later Vienna. Samuel Jr. eventually fled Ontario because he took part in the unsuccessful Mackenzie Rebellion of 1837 and his father, Samuel Sr. had earlier fought in the War of 1812 as captain of the First Middlesex Regiment. By contrast, Samuel Jr. s struggle found him on the losing side, once across the border, he found his way to Milan, Ohio. His patrilineal family line was Dutch by way of New Jersey and his mother taught him at home. Much of his education came from reading R. G, parkers School of Natural Philosophy and The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art. Edison developed hearing problems at an early age, the cause of his deafness has been attributed to a bout of scarlet fever during childhood and recurring untreated middle-ear infections. In his later years, he modified the story to say the injury occurred when the conductor, in helping him onto a moving train, Edisons family moved to Port Huron, Michigan, after the railroad bypassed Milan in 1854 and business declined. Edison sold candy and newspapers on trains running from Port Huron to Detroit and he briefly worked as a telegraph operator in 1863 for the Grand Trunk Railway at Stratford, Ontario railway at age 16. He was held responsible for a near collision and he also studied qualitative analysis and conducted chemical experiments on the train until he left the job. Edison obtained the right to sell newspapers on the road, and, with the aid of four assistants, he set in type and printed the Grand Trunk Herald
28.
George Eastman House
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The George Eastman Museum, the worlds oldest museum dedicated to photography and one of the worlds oldest film archives, opened to the public in 1949 in Rochester, New York. Home to the 500-seat Dryden Theatre, the museum is located on the estate of George Eastman, the estate was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966. The Rochester estate of George Eastman was bequeathed upon his death to the University of Rochester, University presidents occupied Eastmans mansion as a residence for ten years. In 1948, the university transferred the property to the museum, George Eastman House was chartered as a museum in 1947. From the outset, the mission has been to collect, preserve. The museum opened its doors on November 9,1949, displaying its core collections in the public rooms of Eastmans house. Today, the name is the George Eastman Museum. Entire archives, corporate collections, and artists lifetime portfolios have been donated to the Eastman Museum, as well as an assemblage of rare motion pictures and ephemera. By 1984, the holdings were considered by many to be among the worlds finest, but with the collections growing at a rapid pace. Additional space became critical to store, study the number of collection objects. The museums expansion facility opened to the public in January 1989, in 1999, the George Eastman Museum launched the Mellon Advanced Residency Program in Photograph Conservation, made possible with grant support from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. The program trains top photograph archivists and conservators from around the world, in 1996, the museum opened the Louis B. Mayer Conservation Center in nearby Chili, New York. One of only four film conservation centers in the United States and that same year, the Eastman House launched the first school of film preservation in the United States to teach restoration, preservation, and archiving of motion pictures. The L. Jeffrey Selznick School of Film Preservation is supported by a grant from The Louis B. Mayer Foundation, George Eastman Museum has organized numerous groundbreaking exhibitions, including New Topographics, Photographs of a Man-Altered Landscape in 1975. On October 6,2015, the changed its name from George Eastman House to the George Eastman Museum. The current director of the George Eastman Museum is Bruce Barnes who was appointed in September 2012, the George Eastman Museum is headed by a board of trustees. Steven Schwartz, of Chicago, is the current chair of board, the George Eastman Museums annual budget is approximately $10 million. As of December 2014, its endowment exceeded $35 million, more than 14,000 photographers are represented in the collection, including virtually all the major figures in the history of the medium
29.
Rochester, New York
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Rochester is a city on the southern shore of Lake Ontario in the western portion of the U. S. state of New York, and the seat of Monroe County. The citys population was the third largest — after New York City. This area, which is part of the Western New York region, had a population of 1,079,671 at the time of the 2010 Census, a Census estimate of July 1,2012, raised that number to 1,082,284. Rochester was one of Americas first boomtowns, and rose to prominence as the site of many mills along the Genesee River. Several of the universities have renowned research programs. In addition, Rochester is the site of important inventions and innovations in consumer products. Until 2010, the Rochester metropolitan area was the second-largest regional economy in New York State, internal Revenue Service, after the New York City metropolitan area. Rochesters GMP has since ranked just below that of Buffalo, New York, the 25th edition of the Places Rated Almanac rated Rochester as the most livable city in 2007, among 379 U. S. metropolitan areas. In 2010 Forbes rated Rochester as the third-best place to raise a family, in 2012 Kiplinger rated Rochester as the fifth-best city for families, citing low cost of living, top public schools, and a low jobless rate. Of the 19 places in the United States named Rochester at least eight were named directly after Rochester, New York, having been founded or settled by former residents. These include Rochester, Indiana, Rochester, Texas, Rochester, Iowa, Rochester, Kentucky, Rochester, Michigan, Rochester, Minnesota, Rochester, Nevada, and Rochester, Ohio. The Seneca tribe of Native Americans lived in and around Rochester until they lost their claim to most of land in the Treaty of Big Tree in 1797. Settlement before the Seneca tribe is unknown, development of modern Rochester followed the American Revolution, and forced cession of their territory by the Iroquois after the defeat of Great Britain. Allied with the British, four major Iroquois tribes were forced from New York. As a reward for their loyalty to the British Crown, they were given a land grant on the Grand River in Canada. Rochester was founded shortly after the American Revolution by a wave of English-Puritan descended immigrants from New England who were looking for new agricultural land and they would be the dominant cultural group in Rochester for over a century. They chose the site because its three cataracts on the Genesee offered great potential for water power, beginning in 1811, and with a population of 15, the three founders surveyed the land and laid out streets and tracts. In 1817, the Brown brothers and other landowners joined their lands with the Hundred Acre Tract to form the village of Rochesterville, by 1821, Rochesterville was the seat of Monroe County
30.
University of South Carolina
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The University of South Carolina is a public, co-educational research university located in Columbia, South Carolina, United States, with seven satellite campuses. Its campus covers over 359 acres in downtown Columbia not far from the South Carolina State House, the University is categorized by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as having highest research activity. It also houses the largest collection of Robert Burns and Scottish literature materials outside Scotland, the University of South Carolina has an enrollment of approximately 49,220 students, with 33,575 on the main Columbia campus as of fall 2015. USC also has several thousand students in feeder programs at surrounding technical colleges. Professional schools on the Columbia campus include business, engineering, law, medicine, pharmacy, on January 10,1805, having an initial enrollment of nine students, the college commenced classes with a traditional classical curriculum. The first president was the Baptist minister and theologian Reverend Jonathan Maxcy and he was an alumnus of Brown University, with an honorary degree from Harvard University. Before coming to the college, Maxcy had served as the president of Brown. Maxcys tenure lasted from 1804 through 1820, when South Carolina College opened its doors in 1801, the building now known as Rutledge College was the only building on campus. Located one block southeast of the State Capitol, it served as an office, academic building, residence hall. However, the plan for the original campus called for a total of eleven buildings. In 1807, the original Presidents House was the building to be erected. The building now known as DeSaussure College followed shortly thereafter, when completed, all eleven buildings formed a U-shape open to Sumter Street. This modified quadrangle became known as the Horseshoe, as with other southern universities in the antebellum period, the most important organizations for students were the two literary societies, the Clariosophic Society and the Euphradian Society. These two societies, which arose from a split in a literary society known as the Philomathic. The College became a symbol of the South in the period as its graduates were on the forefront of secession from the Union. Despite the depletion of students, the professors issued a notice that the college would temporarily close and would reopen to those under eighteen. When the college reopened on March 17, only nine students showed up for classes, on June 25 with the consent of the state government, the Confederate authorities took possession of the college buildings and converted them into a hospital. After many unsuccessful attempts to reopen the college, the trustees passed a resolution on December 2,1863 that officially closed the college
31.
The Robe (film)
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The Robe is a 1953 American Biblical epic film that tells the story of a Roman military tribune who commands the unit that crucifies Jesus. The film was released by 20th Century Fox and is notable for being the first film released in the widescreen process CinemaScope, like other early CinemaScope films, The Robe was shot with Henri Chrétiens original Hypergonar anamorphic lenses. The picture was directed by Henry Koster and produced by Frank Ross, the screenplay was adapted by Gina Kaus, Albert Maltz, and Philip Dunne from Lloyd C. Douglas eponymous 1942 novel. The music score was composed by Alfred Newman, and the cinematography was by Leon Shamroy. This first widescreen movie in more than two decades stars Richard Burton, Jean Simmons, Victor Mature, and Michael Rennie, with Dean Jagger, Jay Robinson, Richard Boone, the Robe had one sequel, Demetrius and the Gladiators. The action takes place in Ancient Rome, Judaea, Capri, Marcellus Gallio, son of an important Roman senator and himself a military tribune, begins the film in a prologue that introduces the viewer to the might and scope of the Roman empire. He is notoriously known as a man but is captivated by the reappearance of a childhood sweetheart, Diana. Diana is unofficially pledged in marriage to Tiberius regent, Caligula, in a slave market, Marcellus bids against Caligula for a defiant Greek slave Demetrius and wins. Angrily, Caligula issues orders for Marcellus to receive a transfer to Jerusalem. Marcellus has Demetrius released and orders him to go on his own to the Gallio home, Marcellus is surprised to find Demetrius waiting for him when he gets home. Unofficially, Marcellus had freed Demetrius, but Demetrius feels honor bound to compensate Marcellus by being his servant. Demetrius accompanies Marcellus to Palestine, but before the sails, Diana comes to see Marcellus, pledging her love for him. Marcellus declares his love for Diana and asks her to make the promise not to give her in marriage to Caligula. Marcellus rides into Jerusalem with the centurion Paulus on the day as Jesus triumphal entry on Palm Sunday. Demetrius locks gazes with Jesus and feels compelled to follow him, Jesus is arrested and condemned by Pontius Pilate, the procurator. Marcellus reports to Pilate, who informs him that the emperor has sent for him, before Marcellus departs, he is ordered to take charge of the detail of Roman soldiers assigned to crucify Jesus. Marcellus wins the robe worn by Jesus in a game and is told it will be a reminder of Marcellus first crucifixion. Demetrius has had enough, he curses Marcellus and the Roman Empire and runs away, Marcellus now behaves like a madman haunted by nightmares of the crucifixion
32.
Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
33.
British Film Institute
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The British Film Institute is a film and charitable organisation which promotes and preserves filmmaking and television in the United Kingdom. The BFI maintains the worlds largest film archive, the BFI National Archive, previously called National Film Library, National Film Archive and National Film, the archive contains more than 50,000 fiction films, over 100,000 non-fiction titles and around 625,000 television programmes. The majority of the collection is British material but it also features internationally significant holdings from around the world, the Archive also collects films which feature key British actors and the work of British directors. The BFI runs the BFI Southbank and London IMAX cinema, both located on the bank of the River Thames in London. The IMAX has the largest cinema screen in the UK, and shows popular recent releases and short films showcasing its technology, BFI Southbank shows films from all over the world particularly critically acclaimed historical & specialised films that may not otherwise get a cinema showing. The BFI also distributes archival and cultural cinema to other venues – each year to more than 800 venues all across the UK, the BFI offers a range of education initiatives, in particular to support the teaching of film and media studies in schools. In late 2012, the BFI received money from the Department For Education to create the BFI Film Academy Network, the BFI runs the annual London Film Festival along with BFI Flare, London LGBT Film Festival and the youth-orientated Future Film Festival. The BFI publishes the monthly Sight & Sound magazine as well as films on Blu-ray, DVD, SIFT has a collection of about 7 million still frames from film and television. The institute was founded in 1933, the institute was restructured following the Radcliffe Report of 1948 which recommended that it should concentrate on developing the appreciation of filmic art, rather than creating film itself. Thus control of film production passed to the National Committee for Visual Aids in Education. From 1952-2000, the BFI provided funding for new and experimental filmmakers via the BFI Production Board, the institute received a Royal Charter in 1983. This was updated in 2000, and in the year the newly established UK Film Council took responsibility for providing the BFIs annual grant-in-aid. As an independent registered charity, the BFI is regulated by the Charity Commission, in 1988, the BFI opened the London Museum of the Moving Image on the South Bank. The Museum was temporarily closed in 1999 when the BFI stated that it would be re-sited and this did not happen, and MOMIs closure became permanent in 2002 when it was decided to redevelop the South Bank site. This redevelopment was itself then further delayed, the BFI is currently managed on a day-to-day basis by its chief executive, Amanda Nevill. Supreme decision-making authority rests with a chair and a board of up to 14 governors, the current chair is Josh Berger, who took up the post in February 2016. He succeeded Greg Dyke, who took office on 1 March 2008, Dyke succeeded the late Anthony Minghella, who was chair from 2003 until 31 December 2007. The chair of the board is appointed by the BFIs own Board of Governors but requires the consent of the Secretary of State for Culture, Media, other Governors are co-opted by existing board members when required
34.
Patent
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A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a solution to a technological problem and is a product or a process. Patents are a form of intellectual property, the procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right and these claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness, and non-obviousness. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, the word patent originates from the Latin patere, which means to lay open. More directly, it is a version of the term letters patent. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the USA, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term patent usually refers to the granted to anyone who invents any new, useful. The additional qualification utility patent is used to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents, the period of protection was 10 years. These were mostly in the field of glass making, as Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries, by the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England was forced to revoke all existing monopolies, the Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of property right. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand, in the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colonys legislature
35.
Film preservation
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In the widest sense, preservation nowadays assures that a movie will continue to exist in as close to its original form as possible. For many years the term preservation was synonymous with duplication of film, the goal of a preservationist was to create a durable copy without any significant loss of quality. In more modern terms, film preservation now includes the concepts of handling, duplication, storage, the archivist seeks to protect the film and share the content with the public. By the 1980s, it was becoming apparent that the collections of motion picture heritage were at risk of becoming lost, at that time, the best known solution was to duplicate the original film onto a more secure medium. 90 percent of all American silent films made before 1929 and 50 percent of American sound films made before 1950 are lost films, the great majority of films made in the silent era are now considered lost forever. Most films made on nitrate stock were not preserved, over the years, their negatives, many of them were recycled for their silver content, or destroyed in studio or vault fires. The largest cause, however, was intentional destruction, as film preservationist Robert A. Harris explains, Most of the early films did not survive because of wholesale junking by the studios. There was no thought of saving these films. They simply needed vault space and the materials were expensive to house, silent films had little or no commercial value after the advent of sound films in the 1930s, and as such, they were not kept. As a result, preserving the now rare silent films has been a priority amongst film historians. Because of the fragility of film stock, proper preservation of film usually involves storing the original negatives, the vast majority of films were not stored in this manner, which resulted in the widespread decay of film stocks. The problem of film decay is not limited to films made on cellulose nitrate, Film industry researchers and specialists have found that color films are also decaying at an increasingly rapid rate. A number of well-known films only exist as copies of original productions or exhibition elements because the originals have decomposed beyond use. Cellulose acetate film, which was the replacement for nitrate, has been found to suffer from vinegar syndrome. The film was paired together with a composed by Michael Gordon. The preservation of film usually refers to storage of the film in a climate-controlled vault. Film is best preserved by proper protection from external forces while in storage along with being under controlled temperatures, for most film materials, the Image Permanence Institute finds that storing film media in frozen temperatures, with RH between 30% and 50%, greatly extends its useful life. These measures inhibit deterioration better than any other methods and is a solution than replicating deteriorating films
36.
Release print
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A release print is a copy of a film that is provided to a movie theater for exhibition. Workprints, sometimes called cutting copies, are, like rush prints and they are used for editing before the negative itself is conformed, or cut to match the edited workprint. A Showprint is a high quality projection print made for screening at special events such as gala premieres. As a showprint is at least two generations closer to the camera negative than a typical release print, the definition and saturation in the projected image is significantly higher. Showprints have been referred to as EKs, since Showprint is a tradename of DeLuxe. In short, a release print is three generations removed from the cut camera negative. This procedure eliminates at least one generation of analogue duplication and usually results in a significant higher quality of release prints, as of March 2015, Eastman Kodak is the only remaining manufacturer of colour release print stock in the world. Along with Kodak, ORWO of Germany also sells black-and-white print stock, the person operating the printer on which the release print is struck must take several factors into consideration in order to achieve accurate color. At the theater, release prints are projected through an aperture plate, sometimes a hard matte is used in printing to ensure that only the area of the frame shot in the camera that is intended to be projected is actually present on the release print. The audience may be confused when significant action appears on the edges of the picture. Director Brad Bird expressed frustration at this practice, which some theaters applied to his film The Incredibles, for example, in the United States, it is not unusual for each one to cost around $1,500 to print and ship to theaters around the country. The cost of a print is determined primarily by its length, the type of print stock used. Laser subtitling release prints of foreign language films adds significantly to the cost per print, due to the fear of piracy, distributors try to ensure that prints are returned and destroyed after the movies theatrical run is complete. A significant number of films have been preserved this way, via prints eventually being donated to film archives, the polyester film base is often recycled. EKs are even more expensive as they are almost completely made by hand, perhaps only five EKs will be made of a widely distributed feature, compared to thousands of standard prints. They are intended primarily for first-run and Academy-consideration theatrical runs in Los Angeles and this accounts for two of the typically five produced. Two EKs are usually reserved for the films producer, the remaining EK is usually archived by the films distributor. SFIFF, Brad Birds State of Cinema Address
37.
Sound film
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A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900. Reliable synchronization was difficult to achieve with the early sound-on-disc systems, innovations in sound-on-film led to the first commercial screening of short motion pictures using the technology, which took place in 1923. The primary steps in the commercialization of sound cinema were taken in the mid- to late 1920s, at first, the sound films which included synchronized dialogue, known as talking pictures, or talkies, were exclusively shorts. The earliest feature-length movies with recorded sound included only music and effects, the first feature film originally presented as a talkie was The Jazz Singer, released in October 1927. A major hit, it was made with Vitaphone, which was at the time the brand of sound-on-disc technology. Sound-on-film, however, would become the standard for talking pictures. By the early 1930s, the talkies were a global phenomenon, in the United States, they helped secure Hollywoods position as one of the worlds most powerful cultural/commercial centers of influence. In Europe, the new development was treated with suspicion by many filmmakers and critics, in Japan, where the popular film tradition integrated silent movie and live vocal performance, talking pictures were slow to take root. In India, sound was the element that led to the rapid expansion of the nations film industry. The idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself. On February 27,1888, a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison, the two inventors privately met. No agreement was reached, but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope, essentially a peep-show system, as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph. The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895, but individual, cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection and these appear to be the first publicly exhibited films with projection of both image and recorded sound. Phonorama and yet another sound-film system—Théâtroscope—were also presented at the Exposition, three major problems persisted, leading to motion pictures and sound recording largely taking separate paths for a generation. The primary issue was synchronization, pictures and sound were recorded and played back by separate devices, sufficient playback volume was also hard to achieve. Finally, there was the challenge of recording fidelity, cinematic innovators attempted to cope with the fundamental synchronization problem in a variety of ways. In 1902, Léon Gaumont demonstrated his sound-on-disc Chronophone, involving an electrical connection he had recently patented, four years later, Gaumont introduced the Elgéphone, a compressed-air amplification system based on the Auxetophone, developed by British inventors Horace Short and Charles Parsons
38.
Movie projector
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A movie projector is an opto-mechanical device for displaying motion picture film by projecting it onto a screen. Most of the optical and mechanical elements, except for the illumination, the first movie projector was the Zoopraxiscope, invented by British photographer Eadweard Muybridge in 1879. The zoopraxiscope projected images from rotating glass disks in rapid succession to give the impression of motion, the stop-motion images were initially painted onto the glass, as silhouettes. A second series of discs, made in 1892–94, used outline drawings printed onto the discs photographically, a more sophisticated movie projector was invented by Frenchman Louis Le Prince while working in Leeds. In 1888 Le Prince took out a patent for a 16-lens device that combined a motion picture camera with a projector, in 1888, he used an updated version of his camera to film the first ever motion picture, the Roundhay Garden Scene. The pictures were exhibited in Hunslet. The Lumière brothers invented the first successful movie projector and they made their first film, Sortie de lusine Lumière de Lyon, in 1894, which was publicly screened at LEden, La Ciotat a year later. The first commercial, public screening of cinematographic films happened in Paris on 28 December 1895, the cinematograph was also exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. At the Exhibition, films made by the Lumière Brothers were projected onto a screen measuring 16 by 21 meters. In 1999, digital projectors were being tried out in some movie theatres. These early projectors played the movie stored on a server and played back through the projector, due to their relatively low resolution, the images at the time showed pixelization blocks in some scenes, much like images on early widescreen televisions. By 2006, the advent of much higher 4K resolution digital projection had removed any traces of pixelization, the systems became more compact than the larger machines of four years earlier. By 2009, movie theatres started replacing the film projectors with digital projectors, in 2013, it was estimated that 92% of movie theatres in the United States had converted to digital, with 8% still playing film. In 2015, numerous popular filmmakers—including Quentin Tarantino and Christopher Nolan—lobbied large studios to commit to purchase an amount of 35 mm film from Kodak. The decision ensured that Kodaks 35mm film production would continue for several years, nowadays film projectors are considered obsolete as high-resolution digital projectors offer many advantages over traditional film units. For example, digital projectors contain no moving parts except fans, can be operated remotely and they also allow for much easier, less expensive, and more reliable storage and distribution of content, including the ability to display live broadcasts. According to the theory of the phi phenomenon, the brain constitutes an experience of apparent movement when presented with a sequence of near-identical still images. Persistence of vision should be compared with the phenomena of beta movement
