1.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
2.
Italian Mediterranean buffalo
–
The Italian Mediterranean is an Italian breed of water buffalo. It is of the River sub-type of water buffalo and is similar to the breeds of Hungary, Romania. It is the only indigenous water buffalo breed in Italy, a herd-book was opened in 1980, and the breed was officially recognised in 2000. The buffalo may have been introduced into Italy in Roman times, in 1979 a national association of buffalo breeders, the Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Specie Bufalina, was formed, and a genealogical herd-book for the buffalo was opened in the following year. The Mediterranea Italiana breed was recognised in 2000. In the past the buffalo was widely used as a draught animal, buffalo also kept waterways and drainage channels clear of weed, swimming in the deeper parts and wading in the shallows. Other dairy products including burrata, caciotta di bufala, ricotta di bufala, scamorza di bufala, stracchino di bufala, stracciatella di bufala, lactation lasts on average 277 days, and usually yields 1600–1800 kg of milk, yields of 2000–3000 kg per lactation are not uncommon. In 2012 a total of 192,455,300 kg of milk was produced in Italy, about 1. 7% of total milk production in that year. Buffalo are butchered both for meat and for preserved meat products such as bresaola di bufalo. In 2012 a total of 118,653 buffalo were slaughtered in Italy, for a live weight of 47,416,700 kg. The average carcass yield was 50. 6%, in 1953 the total number of buffalo in Italy was estimated at 40,000 head. The numbers of buffalo reported by the Istituto Nazionale di Statistica in 2012 and 2013 were, by region, List of Italian DOP cheeses
Italian Mediterranean buffalo
–
Buffalo in the
Agro Pontino
3.
Cattle
–
Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, cattle are raised as livestock for meat, as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals. Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel, in some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning. From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago, according to an estimate from 2011, in 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft. Cattle were originally identified as three species, Bos taurus, the European or taurine cattle, Bos indicus, the zebu, and the extinct Bos primigenius. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle and these have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies, Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu, but also one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks, banteng. Hybrids such as the breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos. However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo, the aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed. Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals and it was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale principal sum of money, capital, itself derived in turn from Latin caput head. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, the word is a variant of chattel and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh cattle, property, which today as fee. The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū, from Common Indo-European gʷōus = a bovine animal, compare Persian gâv, Sanskrit go-, Welsh buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and a plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine, the Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye
Cattle
–
Cattle
Cattle
–
Żubroń, a cross between
wisent and cattle
Cattle
–
An
Ongole bull
Cattle
–
A
Hereford bull
4.
Traditional Speciality Guaranteed
–
This regulation ensures that only products genuinely originating in that region are allowed to be identified as such in commerce. The legislation first came into force in 1992 and these laws protect the names of wines, cheeses, hams, sausages, seafood, olives, olive oils, beers, Balsamic vinegar and even regional breads, fruits, raw meats and vegetables. In countries where Protected Geographical Status laws are enforced, only products which meet the various geographical, Protected indications are treated as intellectual property rights by the Customs Regulation 1383/2003, and infringing goods may be seized by customs on import. Within the European Union, enforcement measures vary, infringement may be treated as counterfeit, on 15 November 2011, the European Court of Auditors presented its report Do the design and management of the Geographical Indications Scheme allow it to be effective. The general regime governs the use of protected designations of origin and protected geographical indications for food, there are separate regimes for spirits and for aromatised drinks as well as for wines. The origin of the product is one of the criteria for use of the protected terms. The label Traditional Specialities Guaranteed is a protected term which does not impose any restrictions on the geographical origin of the product. The protection of geographical indications was extended to foodstuffs and other products in 1992. Given the widely different national provisions, this general regime gives much more power to the European Commission to ensure a harmonised protection across the European Union and it is currently governed by the Regulation on the protection of geographical indications and designations of origin for agricultural products and foodstuffs. Otherwise the protection afforded by the two terms is equivalent, an application for a PDO or a PGI is first made to the authorities of the relevant Member State. It is judged by the Member State against the criteria in the Regulation and, if found to be acceptable, applications are published at both the national and Community stages of examination, and third parties can object to proposed PDOs or PGIs which they feel would harm their business. Hence Cheddar cheese was deemed to be a name. Feta was deemed not to have become generic, and was registered as a PDO to the disappointment of cheesemakers outside of Greece. In other words, to receive the PGI status, the product must be traditionally and at least partially manufactured within the specific region. The TSG quality scheme aims to provide a protection regime for food products of specific character. Differing from PDO and PGI, this quality scheme does not certify that the food product has a link to specific geographical area. To qualify for a TSG a food must be of “specific character” and either its raw materials,3 of Regulation 1151/12 “specific character” is defined as “the characteristic production attributes which distinguish a product clearly from other similar products of the same category”. 3 of Regulation 1151/12 “traditional” is defined as “proven usage on the market for a period that allows transmission between generations, this period is to be at least 30 years”
Traditional Speciality Guaranteed
–
Vermouth
Traditional Speciality Guaranteed
–
Protected designation of origin logo
Traditional Speciality Guaranteed
–
Stilton – an example of an origin protected product.
Traditional Speciality Guaranteed
–
A PDO apple.
5.
Southern Italy
–
It generally coincides with the administrative regions of Abruzzo, Apulia, Basilicata, Campania, Calabria, Molise, Sicily, and Sardinia. Some also include the most southern and eastern parts of Lazio within the Mezzogiorno, Southern Italy carries a unique legacy of culture. It features many major tourist attractions, such as the Palace of Caserta, there are also many ancient Greek cities in Southern Italy, such as Sybaris, which were founded several centuries before the start of the Roman Republic. These same subdivisions are at the bottom of the Italian First level NUTS of the European Union, the term Mezzogiorno first came into use in the 18th century and is an Italian rendition of meridies. The term was popularised by Giuseppe Garibaldi and it eventually came into vogue after the Italian unification. In a similar manner, Southern France is colloquially known as le Midi, Southern Italy forms the lower part of the Italian boot, containing the ankle, the toe, the arch, and the heel, along with the island of Sicily. Separating the heel and the boot is the Gulf of Taranto, named after the city of Taranto and it is an arm of the Ionian Sea. The island of Sardinia, right below the French island of Corsica, on the eastern coast is the Adriatic Sea, leading into the rest of the Mediterranean through the Strait of Otranto. Along the northern coast of the Salernitan Gulf and on the south of the Sorrentine Peninsula runs the Amalfi Coast, off the tip of the peninsula is the isle of Capri. The climate is mainly Mediterranean, except at the highest elevations and the eastern stretches in Apulia, along the Ionian Sea in Calabria. The largest city of Southern Italy is Naples, a name from the Greek that it has maintained for millennia. Bari, Taranto, Reggio Calabria, Foggia, and Salerno are the next largest cities in the area. The region is very active and highly seismic, the 1980 Irpinia earthquake killed 2,914 people, injured more than 10,000. Also during this period, Greek colonies were established in places as widely separated as the eastern coast of the Black Sea, Eastern Libya and they included settlements in Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula. The Romans called the area of Sicily and the foot of Italy, Magna Graecia, the ancient geographers differed on whether the term included Sicily or merely Apulia and Calabria—Strabo being the most prominent advocate of the wider definitions. With this colonisation, Greek culture was exported to Italy, in its dialects of the Ancient Greek language, its religious rites, an original Hellenic civilization soon developed, later interacting with the native Italic and Latin civilisations. Many of the new Hellenic cities became very rich and powerful, like Neapolis, Syracuse, Acragas, other cities in Magna Graecia included Tarentum, Epizephyrian Locri, Rhegium, Croton, Thurii, Elea, Nola, Syessa, Bari, and others. After Pyrrhus of Epirus failed in his attempt to stop the spread of Roman hegemony in 282 BCE, from then to the Norman conquest of the 11th century, the south of the peninsula was constantly plunged into wars between Greece, Lombardy, and the Islamic Caliphate
Southern Italy
–
Satellite image of Southern Italy
Southern Italy
–
Greek temple of Hera,
Selinunte,
Sicily.
Southern Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by
Frederick II between 1240 and 1250 in
Andria,
Apulia.
Southern Italy
–
Castel Nuovo,
Naples: initiated by the
Anjou, it was heavily altered as it served as
Spanish headquarters until the 18th century.
6.
Dairy product
–
Dairy products or milk products are a type of food produced from or containing the milk of mammals, primarily cattle, water buffaloes, goats, sheep, and camels. Dairy products include items such as yogurt, cheese. A facility that produces dairy products is known as a dairy, dairy products are consumed worldwide, with the exception of much of East and Southeast Asia and also some parts of central Africa. Additionally dairy products can contribute significant amounts of cholesterol and saturated fat to the diet which can increase the risk of heart disease, and cause other serious health problems. However, it has shown that there is no connection between dairy consumption and cardiovascular disease, even though dairy tends to be higher in saturated fats. There is no excess cardiovascular risk with dietary calcium intake but calcium supplements are associated with a risk of coronary artery calcification. Drinking milk or other dairy products does not cause mucus production and this widely held belief stems from some people mistaking the thin coat of residue left behind after consuming milk or ice cream for mucus. Rates of dairy consumption vary widely worldwide, high-consumption countries consume more than 150 kg per capita per year, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Costa Rica, Europe, Israel, Kyrgyzstan, North America and Pakistan. Low-consumption countries consume under 30 kg per capita per year, Senegal, most of Central Africa, Some groups avoid dairy products for non-health related reasons, Religious – Some religions restrict or do not allow for the consumption of dairy products. For example, some scholars of Jainism advocate not consuming any dairy products because dairy is perceived to involve violence against cows. Strict Judaism requires that meat and dairy products not be served at the meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together. Ethical – Veganism is the avoidance of all products, including dairy products. The ethical reasons for avoiding dairy include how dairy is produced, how the animals are handled, fermented milk products List of dairy products List of dairy product companies in the United States List of foods Plant milk Britannica, Enclyclopaedia. Rankin, H. F. Imbucase, the Story of the B. C. I. C. of the Ministry of Food, Edinburgh, Edinburgh Press Questions and Answers on dairy products Guide for homemade kefir Template, Mbachilin Arsha Leo
Dairy product
–
A
dairy farm
Dairy product
–
Milk products and production relationships
Dairy product
–
A selection of three common dairy products made by a South African dairy company: a box of full cream, long life milk, a bottle of strawberry drinking yogurt, and a carton of passion fruit yogurt
Dairy product
–
The milk products of the Water buffaloes (super carabaos,
Philippine Carabao Center)
7.
Italian buffalo
–
The Italian Mediterranean is an Italian breed of water buffalo. It is of the River sub-type of water buffalo and is similar to the breeds of Hungary, Romania. It is the only indigenous water buffalo breed in Italy, a herd-book was opened in 1980, and the breed was officially recognised in 2000. The buffalo may have been introduced into Italy in Roman times, in 1979 a national association of buffalo breeders, the Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Specie Bufalina, was formed, and a genealogical herd-book for the buffalo was opened in the following year. The Mediterranea Italiana breed was recognised in 2000. In the past the buffalo was widely used as a draught animal, buffalo also kept waterways and drainage channels clear of weed, swimming in the deeper parts and wading in the shallows. Other dairy products including burrata, caciotta di bufala, ricotta di bufala, scamorza di bufala, stracchino di bufala, stracciatella di bufala, lactation lasts on average 277 days, and usually yields 1600–1800 kg of milk, yields of 2000–3000 kg per lactation are not uncommon. In 2012 a total of 192,455,300 kg of milk was produced in Italy, about 1. 7% of total milk production in that year. Buffalo are butchered both for meat and for preserved meat products such as bresaola di bufalo. In 2012 a total of 118,653 buffalo were slaughtered in Italy, for a live weight of 47,416,700 kg. The average carcass yield was 50. 6%, in 1953 the total number of buffalo in Italy was estimated at 40,000 head. The numbers of buffalo reported by the Istituto Nazionale di Statistica in 2012 and 2013 were, by region, List of Italian DOP cheeses
Italian buffalo
–
Buffalo in the
Agro Pontino
8.
Pasta filata
–
Pasta filata is a technique in the manufacture of a family of Italian cheeses also known in English as stretched-curd, pulled-curd, and plastic-curd cheeses. Stretched curd cheeses manufactured from the pasta filata technique undergo a plasticising and kneading treatment of the curd in hot water. The cheese-making begins in the normal way, the milk is warmed and curdled and allowed to rest for an hour before the curds are cut into small pieces and the whey is drained off. The curds are allowed to rest for a number of hours, the curds are steeped for some hours in a bath of very hot whey, or water. When they begin to float most of the liquid is removed, the mass of curd is divided and shaped into individual cheeses. In the case of mozzarella, the process is now essentially complete — ideally these cheeses should be eaten within a matter of a few days. For other formaggi a pasta filata, such as Provolone, Caciocavallo Silano, Pallone di Gravina and Scamorza, further processing is needed, ageing, pasta Filata/Fresh Mozzarella Information, Ingredients & Nutritional Info, Recipes, FAQ & More. How to Make Bocconcini/Pasta Filata- Illustrated Step By Step
Pasta filata
–
Mozzarella - a type of pasta filata.
Pasta filata
–
Types
9.
European Union
–
The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
European Union
–
In 1989, the
Iron Curtain fell, enabling the union to
expand further (
Berlin Wall pictured).
European Union
–
Flag
European Union
–
2009, the
Lisbon Treaty entered into force.
European Union
–
The 65,993 km (41,006 mi) coastline dominates the European climate (
Cyprus).
10.
Italian water buffalo
–
The Italian Mediterranean is an Italian breed of water buffalo. It is of the River sub-type of water buffalo and is similar to the breeds of Hungary, Romania. It is the only indigenous water buffalo breed in Italy, a herd-book was opened in 1980, and the breed was officially recognised in 2000. The buffalo may have been introduced into Italy in Roman times, in 1979 a national association of buffalo breeders, the Associazione Nazionale Allevatori Specie Bufalina, was formed, and a genealogical herd-book for the buffalo was opened in the following year. The Mediterranea Italiana breed was recognised in 2000. In the past the buffalo was widely used as a draught animal, buffalo also kept waterways and drainage channels clear of weed, swimming in the deeper parts and wading in the shallows. Other dairy products including burrata, caciotta di bufala, ricotta di bufala, scamorza di bufala, stracchino di bufala, stracciatella di bufala, lactation lasts on average 277 days, and usually yields 1600–1800 kg of milk, yields of 2000–3000 kg per lactation are not uncommon. In 2012 a total of 192,455,300 kg of milk was produced in Italy, about 1. 7% of total milk production in that year. Buffalo are butchered both for meat and for preserved meat products such as bresaola di bufalo. In 2012 a total of 118,653 buffalo were slaughtered in Italy, for a live weight of 47,416,700 kg. The average carcass yield was 50. 6%, in 1953 the total number of buffalo in Italy was estimated at 40,000 head. The numbers of buffalo reported by the Istituto Nazionale di Statistica in 2012 and 2013 were, by region, List of Italian DOP cheeses
Italian water buffalo
–
Buffalo in the
Agro Pontino
11.
Buffalo mozzarella
–
Buffalo mozzarella is a mozzarella made from the milk of the domestic Italian water buffalo. It is a product produced in Campania, especially in the provinces of Caserta. It is appreciated for its versatility and elastic texture and often called the queen of the Mediterranean cuisine, the buffalo mozzarella sold as Mozzarella di Bufala Campana has been granted the status of Denominazione di origine controllata since 1993. Since 1996 it is protected under the EUs Protected Designation of Origin. The protected name requires that it may only be produced with a recipe in select locations in the regions of Campania, Lazio, Apulia. In Italy, the cheese is produced nationwide using Italian buffalo milk under the official name of Mozzarella di Bufala Campana DOP. It is produced in areas ranging from Rome in Lazio to Paestum near Salerno in Campania, and there are areas in the province of Foggia, Apulia. Buffalo mozzarella is a €300m a year industry in Italy, which produces around 33,000 tonnes of it every year, france and Germany are the main importers, but sales to Japan and Russia are growing. Apart from Italy, its birthplace, buffalo mozzarella is manufactured in other countries around the world. Buffalo mozzarella from Campania bears the Mozzarella di Bufala Campana trademark, among the many other Italian cheeses that have PDO status are Gorgonzola, Parmigiano-Reggiano and Asiago cheese. The history of water buffalo in Italy is not settled, one theory is that Asian water buffalo were brought to Italy by Goths during the migrations of the early medieval period. The Consorzio per la Tutela also refers to fossil evidence suggesting that water buffalo may have originated in Italy, a fourth theory is that water buffalo were brought from Mesopotamia into the Near East by Arabs and then introduced into Europe by pilgrims and returning crusaders. References to cheese made from water buffalo milk appeared for the first time at the beginning of the twelfth century. Buffalo mozzarella became widespread throughout the south of Italy from the half of the eighteenth century. In 2008, traces of dioxine were found in samples of milk produced in Campania. To produce 1 kg of cheese, a cheese maker requires 8 kg of cow milk, producing 1 kg of butter requires 14 kg of cow milk but only 10 kg of buffalo milk. The steps required to produce buffalo mozzarella are, Milk storage, List of Italian PDO cheeses List of Italian cheeses Rankin, Scott A. Carol M. Chen and Dean Sommer, handbook of food science, technology, and engineering
Buffalo mozzarella
–
Buffalo mozzarella
Buffalo mozzarella
–
A water buffalo on a farm in
Paestum.
12.
Protected designation of origin
–
This regulation ensures that only products genuinely originating in that region are allowed to be identified as such in commerce. The legislation first came into force in 1992 and these laws protect the names of wines, cheeses, hams, sausages, seafood, olives, olive oils, beers, Balsamic vinegar and even regional breads, fruits, raw meats and vegetables. In countries where Protected Geographical Status laws are enforced, only products which meet the various geographical, Protected indications are treated as intellectual property rights by the Customs Regulation 1383/2003, and infringing goods may be seized by customs on import. Within the European Union, enforcement measures vary, infringement may be treated as counterfeit, on 15 November 2011, the European Court of Auditors presented its report Do the design and management of the Geographical Indications Scheme allow it to be effective. The general regime governs the use of protected designations of origin and protected geographical indications for food, there are separate regimes for spirits and for aromatised drinks as well as for wines. The origin of the product is one of the criteria for use of the protected terms. The label Traditional Specialities Guaranteed is a protected term which does not impose any restrictions on the geographical origin of the product. The protection of geographical indications was extended to foodstuffs and other products in 1992. Given the widely different national provisions, this general regime gives much more power to the European Commission to ensure a harmonised protection across the European Union and it is currently governed by the Regulation on the protection of geographical indications and designations of origin for agricultural products and foodstuffs. Otherwise the protection afforded by the two terms is equivalent, an application for a PDO or a PGI is first made to the authorities of the relevant Member State. It is judged by the Member State against the criteria in the Regulation and, if found to be acceptable, applications are published at both the national and Community stages of examination, and third parties can object to proposed PDOs or PGIs which they feel would harm their business. Hence Cheddar cheese was deemed to be a name. Feta was deemed not to have become generic, and was registered as a PDO to the disappointment of cheesemakers outside of Greece. In other words, to receive the PGI status, the product must be traditionally and at least partially manufactured within the specific region. The TSG quality scheme aims to provide a protection regime for food products of specific character. Differing from PDO and PGI, this quality scheme does not certify that the food product has a link to specific geographical area. To qualify for a TSG a food must be of “specific character” and either its raw materials,3 of Regulation 1151/12 “specific character” is defined as “the characteristic production attributes which distinguish a product clearly from other similar products of the same category”. 3 of Regulation 1151/12 “traditional” is defined as “proven usage on the market for a period that allows transmission between generations, this period is to be at least 30 years”
Protected designation of origin
–
Vermouth
Protected designation of origin
–
Protected designation of origin logo
Protected designation of origin
–
Stilton – an example of an origin protected product.
Protected designation of origin
–
A PDO apple.
13.
Campania
–
Campania is a region in Southern Italy. Located on the Italian Peninsula, with the Mediterranean Sea to the west, it includes the small Phlegraean Islands, Campania was colonised by Ancient Greeks and was part of Magna Græcia. During the Roman era, the area maintained a Greco-Roman culture, the capital city of Campania is Naples. Campania is rich in culture, especially in regard to gastronomy, music, architecture, archeological and ancient sites such as Pompeii, Herculaneum, Paestum and Velia. The name of Campania itself is derived from Latin, as the Romans knew the region as Campania felix, the rich natural sights of Campania make it highly important in the tourism industry, especially along the Amalfi Coast, Mount Vesuvius and the island of Capri. During the 8th century BC, people from Euboea in Greece, known as Cumaeans, another Oscan tribe, the Samnites, moved down from central Italy into Campania. The Roman consul Quintus Publilius Filo recaptured Neapolis by 326 BC, the Second Samnite War ended with the Romans controlling southern Campania and additional regions further to the south. Campania was a part of the Roman Republic by the end of the 4th century BC, valued for its pastures. Its Greek language and customs made it a centre of Hellenistic civilization, during the Pyrrhic War the battle took place in Campania at Maleventum in which the Romans, led by consul Curius Dentatus, were victorious. They renamed the city Beneventum, which grew in stature until it was only to Capua in southern Italy. During the Second Punic War in 216 BC, Capua, in a bid for equality with Rome, the rebellious Capuans were isolated from the rest of Campania, which remained allies of Rome. Naples resisted Hannibal due to the imposing walls, Capua was eventually starved into submission in the Roman retaking of 211 BC, and the Romans were victorious. The rest of Campania, with the exception of Naples, adopted the Latin language as official and was Romanised. As part of the Roman Empire, Campania, with Latium, Roman Emperors chose Campania as a holiday destination, among them Claudius and Tiberius, the latter of whom is infamously linked to the island of Capri. It was also during this period that Christianity came to Campania, Two of the apostles, St. Peter and St. Paul, are said to have preached in the city of Naples, and there were also several martyrs during this time. Unfortunately, the period of calm was violently interrupted by the epic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 which buried the cities of Pompeii. The area had many duchies and principalities during the Middle Ages, in the hands of the Byzantine Empire, under the Normans, the smaller independent states were brought together as part of the Kingdom of Sicily, before the mainland broke away to form the Kingdom of Naples. It was during this period elements of Spanish, French
Campania
–
Temple of Hera,
Paestum, built 550 BC
Campania
–
Campania
Campania
–
The Last Day of Pompeii –
Karl Briullov
Campania
–
Early kings ruled from
Castel Nuovo
14.
Lazio
–
Lazio is one of the 20 administrative regions of Italy, situated in the central peninsular section of the country. With almost 5.9 million residents and a GDP of more than 170 billion euros, Lazio is the second most populated region of Italy and its capital is Rome, capital and largest city of Italy. Lazio comprises an area of 17,236 km2 and it has borders with Tuscany, Umbria, and Marche to the north, Abruzzo and Molise to the east, Campania to the south. The region is flat and hilly, with small mountainous areas in the most eastern and southern districts. The coast of Lazio is mainly composed of beaches, punctuated by the headlands of Circeo. The Pontine Islands, which are part of Lazio, lie opposite the southern coast, behind the coastal strip, to the north, lies the Maremma Laziale, a coastal plain interrupted at Civitavecchia by the Tolfa Mountains. The central section of the region is occupied by the Roman Campagna, the southern districts are characterized by the flatlands of Agro Pontino, a once swampy and malarial area, that was reclaimed over the centuries. To the south of the Tiber, other groups form part of the Preapennines, the Alban Hills, also of volcanic origin. The highest peak is Mount Gorzano on the border with Abruzzo, see also, History of Italy The Italian word Lazio descends from the Latin word Latium. The name of the region also survives in the designation of the ancient population of Latins, Latini in the Latin language spoken by them. Although the demography of ancient Rome was multi-ethnic, including, for example, Etruscans and other Italics besides the Latini, in Roman mythology, the tribe of the Latini took their name from king Latinus. Much of Lazio is in flat or rolling. The lands originally inhabited by the Latini were extended into the territories of the Samnites, the Marsi, the Hernici, the Aequi, the Aurunci and the Volsci, all surrounding Italic tribes. This larger territory was still called Latium, but it was divided into Latium adiectum or Latium Novum, the lands or New Latium, and Latium Vetus, or Old Latium. The northern border of Lazio was the Tiber river, which divided it from Etruria, the emperor Augustus officially united almost all of present-day Italy into a single geo-political entity, Italia, dividing it into eleven regions. However, the wars against the Longobards weakened the region. With the Donation of Sutri in 728, the Bishop of Rome acquired the first territory in the region beyond the Duchy of Rome, the strengthening of the religious and ecclesiastical aristocracy led to continuous power struggles between secular lords and the Pope until the middle of the 16th century. Other popes tried to do the same, during the period when the papacy resided in Avignon, France, the feudal lords power increased due to the absence of the Pope from Rome
Lazio
–
Panorama of the
Aniene Valley.
Lazio
–
Latium Lazio
Lazio
–
The
Appian Way (Via Appia), a road connecting
Ancient Rome to the southern parts of Italy, remains usable even today.
15.
Apulia
–
Apulia is a region of Italy in Southern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Òtranto and Gulf of Taranto in the south. Its southernmost portion, known as the Salento peninsula, forms a stiletto on the boot of Italy, the region comprises 19,345 square kilometers, and its population is about 4 million. It is bordered by the other Italian regions of Molise to the north, Campania to the west, across the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, it faces Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, and Montenegro, The Apulia region extends as far north as Monte Gargano. Puglias coastline is longer than any other mainland Italian region, in the north, the Gargano promontory extends out into the Adriatic, while in the south, the flat and dry Salento peninsula forms the heel of Italys boot. It is home to the Alta Murgia and Gargano National Parks, see also, History of Apulia Apulia is one of the richest archaeological regions in Italy. It was first colonized by Mycenaean Greeks, a number of castles were built in the area by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, including Castel del Monte, sometimes called the Crown of Apulia. After 1282, when the island of Sicily was lost, Apulia was part of the Kingdom of Naples, as a result of the French–Spanish war of 1501–1504, Naples again came under the rule of Aragon and the Spanish Empire from 1504 to 1714. When Barbary pirates of North Africa sacked Vieste in 1554, they took an estimated 7,000 slaves, in 1861 the region became part of the Kingdom of Italy, with the new capital city at Turin. In the words of one historian, Turin was so far away that Otranto is today closer to seventeen foreign capitals than it is to Turin, the regions contribution to Italys gross value added was around 4. 6% in 2000, while its population was 7% of the total. The per capita GDP is low compared to the national average, in comparison with the country as a whole, the economy of Apulia is characterised by a greater emphasis on agriculture and services and a smaller part played by industry. In the last 20 years the base of the regions economy has changed radically. The majority of firms are financed by local capital. In certain of these sectors – especially textiles, clothing, footwear, vehicles, the region has a good network of roads but the railway network is somewhat inadequate, particularly in the south. Apulias 800 kilometers of coastline is studded with ports, which make this region an important terminal for transport and tourism to Greece, between 2007 and 2013 the economy of Apulia expanded more than that of the rest of southern Italy. Such growth, over decades, is a severe challenge to the hydrogeological system. Emigration from the depressed areas to northern Italy and the rest of Europe was very intense in the years between 1956 and 1971. Subsequently, the trend declined as economic conditions improved, to the point where there was net immigration in the years between 1982 and 1985, since 1986 the stagnation in employment has led to a new inversion of the trend, caused by a decrease in immigration. Since 1 June 2015, former judge and mayor of Bari Michele Emiliano of the Democratic Party has served as President, Apulia is divided into five administrative provinces and one metropolitan city, Cuisine plays an important role throughout Apulia
Apulia
–
Marina di Marittima,
Salento
Apulia
–
Apulia Puglia
Apulia
–
Castel del Monte, built by the
Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II between 1240 and 1250 in
Andria
Apulia
–
The medieval town
Ostuni
16.
Molise
–
Molise is a region of Southern Italy. Until 1963, it formed part of the region of Abruzzi e Molise, the split, which did not become effective until 1970, makes Molise the youngest region in Italy. The region covers 4,438 square kilometres and has a population of 313,348 The region is split into two provinces, named after their respective capitals Campobasso and Isernia, Campobasso also serves as the regional capital. Molise is bordered by Abruzzo to the north, Apulia to the east, Lazio to the west and it has 35 kilometres of sandy coastline to the northeast, lying on the Adriatic Sea in front of Tremiti islands. Territory of Molise is mostly mountainous with 55% of mountains and 45% of hills that goes down till the sea, the agricultural holdings produce wine, cereals, olive oil, vegetables, fruits and dairy products. Traditional products are Grass Pea and Farro, molises autochthonous grape is Tintilia which has been rediscovered during the last ten years, and many other PDO wines, both red and white. Though there is a large Fiat plant, the sector is dominated by the construction industry with small. Another important industry is processing, pasta, meat, milk products, oil. In the services sector the most important industries are distribution, hotels and catering, followed by transport and communications, banking, with few exceptions, in all sectors firms are small, and this explains the difficulties encountered when marketing products on a national scale. The tourists are attracted by large expanses of unspoilt beaches, a lack of congestion. The density of the population in Molise is well below the national average, in 2008, Molise registered 72.3 inhabitants per km2, compared to a national figure of 198.8. The region is subdivided into two provinces, Campobasso and Isernia, which together cover 1. 5% of Italys territory, the larger province in terms of area is Campobasso at 2,909 km2, while the smaller is Isernia at 1,529 km2. The province of Campobasso is the densely populated of the two provinces, with 79.4 inhabitants per km2, whereas Isernia registered 58.9 inhabitants per km2. At the end of 2008 the most populous towns were Campobasso, Termoli, in the period 1951-71, large-scale emigration to other countries of the European Union, to other parts of Italy and overseas led to a significant decline in the population of Molise. Negative net migration persisted until 1981, large-scale emigration has caused many of the smaller towns and villages to lose over 60% of their population, while only a small number of larger towns have recorded significant gains. From 1982 to 1994, net migration has been positive, then followed by a negative trend until 2001, between 1991 and 2001, the population of the region decreased by 3. 1%, since 2001 the population remained stable. The region is home to two ethnic minorities, the Molisan Croats, and those who speak the arbereshe dialect of Albanian in five towns of basso Molise in the province of Campobasso. Molise comprises two provinces, Molise has much tradition from the religious to the pagans, many museum, archeological sites, musical, the flavors of Molise are dominated by the many aromatic herbs that grow there
Molise
–
Monti Ortona
Molise
–
Molise
Molise
–
Castle of
Termoli
Molise
–
Campobasso 's Cathedral
17.
Brine
–
Brine is a solution of salt in water. In different contexts, brine may refer to salt solutions ranging from about 3. 5% up to about 26%, fahrenheit could reliably reproduce by freezing brine. By reference, seawater usually freezes at −2 °C, at 100 °C, saturated sodium chloride brine is about 28% salt by weight. At 0 °C, brine can only hold about 26% salt, the thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C. The majority of hydrogen produced through electrolysis is a side product in the production of chlorine. 2 NaCl +2 H2O →2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2 Brine is a fluid used in large refrigeration installations for the transport of thermal energy from place to place. The lowest freezing point obtainable for NaCl brine is −21.1 °C at 23. 3wt% NaCl and this is called the eutectic point. In lower temperatures, a solution can be used to de-ice or reduce freezing temperatures on roads. In cooking, brine is used for food brining and salting, in hydrology, brine is a form of salt water, namely, water with relatively high concentration of salt. Brine mining Saline water Brackish water
Brine
–
A NASA technician measures the concentration level of brine using a
hydrometer at a
salt evaporation pond in San Francisco.
18.
Pizza
–
Pizza is a yeasted flatbread generally topped with tomato sauce and cheese and baked in an oven. It is commonly topped with a selection of meats, vegetables, the term was first recorded in the 10th century, in a Latin manuscript from Gaeta in Central Italy. The modern pizza was invented in Naples, Italy, and the dish and its variants have become popular. In 2009, upon Italys request, Neapolitan pizza was safeguarded in the European Union as a Traditional Speciality Guaranteed dish, the Associazione Verace Pizza Napoletana is a non-profit organization founded in 1984 with headquarters in Naples. It promotes and protects the true Neapolitan pizza, Pizza is sold fresh or frozen, either whole or in portions, and is a common fast food item in Europe and North America. Various types of ovens are used to them and many varieties exist. Several similar dishes are prepared from ingredients used in pizza preparation, such as calzone. Suggested etymologies include, Byzantine Greek and Late Latin pitta > pizza, modern Greek pitta bread and the Apulia and Calabrian pitta, a round flat bread baked in the oven at high temperature sometimes with toppings. The word pitta can in turn be traced to either Ancient Greek πικτή, fermented pastry, the Lombardic word bizzo or pizzo meaning mouthful, which was brought to Italy in the middle of the 6th century AD by the invading Lombards. Foods similar to pizza have been made since the neolithic age, Records of people adding other ingredients to bread to make it more flavorful can be found throughout ancient history. An early reference to a pizza-like food occurs in the Aeneid, in Book VII, Aeneas and his men are served a meal that includes round cakes topped with cooked vegetables. When they eat the bread, they realize that these are the tables prophesied by Celaeno, modern pizza evolved from similar flatbread dishes in Naples, Italy in the 18th or early 19th century. Prior to that time, flatbread was often topped with ingredients such as garlic, salt, lard, cheese and it is uncertain when tomatoes were first added and there are many conflicting claims. Until about 1830, pizza was sold from open-air stands and out of pizza bakeries, of the three different pizzas he created, the Queen strongly preferred a pizza swathed in the colors of the Italian flag, red, green, and white. Supposedly, this kind of pizza was named after the Queen. Pizza was brought to the United States with Italian immigrants in the nineteenth century. The countrys first pizzeria, Lombardis, opened in 1905, following World War II, veterans returning from the Italian Campaign after being introduced to Italys native cuisine proved a ready market for pizza in particular. Since then pizza consumption has exploded in the U. S, Pizza chains such as Dominos, Pizza Hut, and Papa Johns, pizzas from take and bake pizzerias, and chilled or frozen pizzas from supermarkets make pizza readily available nationwide
Pizza
–
Pizza
Pizza
–
Neapolitan Pizza Margherita
Pizza
–
An uncooked neapolitan pizza on a
peel
19.
Pasta
–
Pasta is a staple food of traditional Italian cuisine, with the first reference dating to 1154 in Sicily. It can also be made with flour from other cereals or grains, pastas may be divided into two broad categories, dried and fresh. Most dried pasta is produced via an extrusion process although it can be produced in most homes. Both dried and fresh pasta come in a number of shapes and varieties, in Italy the names of specific pasta shapes or types often vary with locale. For example, the form cavatelli is known by 28 different names depending on region, common forms of pasta include long shapes, short shapes, tubes, flat shapes and sheets, miniature soup shapes, filled or stuffed and specialty or decorative shapes. As a category in Italian cuisine, both fresh and dried pastas are classically used in one of three kinds of prepared dishes, as pasta asciutta cooked pasta is plated and served with a complementary sauce or condiment. A second classification of pasta dishes is pasta in brodo in which the pasta is part of a soup-type dish, a third category is pasta al forno in which the pasta incorporated into a dish that is subsequently baked. Pasta is generally a dish, but comes in many varieties due to its versatility. Some pasta dishes are served as a first course in Italy because the portion sizes are small, Pasta is also prepared in light lunches, such as salads or large portion sizes for dinner. It can be prepared by hand or food processor and served hot or cold, Pasta sauces vary in taste, color and texture. When choosing which type of pasta and sauce to serve together, simple sauces like pesto are ideal for long and thin strands of pasta while tomato sauce combines well with thicker pastas. Thicker and chunkier sauces have the ability to cling onto the holes and cuts of short, tubular. The extra sauce left on the plate after all of the pasta is eaten is often mopped up with a piece of bread. First attested in English in 1874, the word comes from Italian pasta, in turn from Latin pasta dough, pastry cake. In the 1st century AD writings of Horace, lagana were fine sheets of fried dough and were an everyday foodstuff, an early 5th century cookbook describes a dish called lagana that consisted of layers of dough with meat stuffing, a possible ancestor of modern-day lasagna. The first concrete information concerning pasta products in Italy dates from the 13th or 14th century, historians have noted several lexical milestones relevant to pasta, none of which changes these basic characteristics. For example, the works of the 2nd century AD Greek physician Galen mention itrion, homogeneous compounds made of flour, the Jerusalem Talmud records that itrium, a kind of boiled dough, was common in Palestine from the 3rd to 5th centuries AD. A dictionary compiled by the 9th century Arab physician and lexicographer Isho bar Ali defines itriyya and its ever-flowing streams propel a number of mills
Pasta
–
Different types of pasta on display in a shop window in
Venice, Italy
Pasta
–
Pasta made from
durum wheat
Pasta
–
Making pasta; illustration from the 15th century edition of
Tacuinum Sanitatis, a Latin translation of the
Arabic work Taqwīm al-sihha by
Ibn Butlan.
Pasta
–
Boy with Spaghetti by Julius Moser, c. 1808
20.
Basil
–
Basil UK /ˈbæzəl/, US /ˈbeɪzəl/, also called great basil or Saint-Josephs-wort, is a culinary herb of the family Lamiaceae. It is also called the king of herbs and the royal herb, the name basil comes from Greek βασιλικόν φυτόν, royal/kingly plant. Basil is possibly native to India, and has been cultivated there for more than 5,000 years and it was thoroughly familiar to the Greek authors Theophrastus and Dioscorides. Depending on the species and cultivar, the leaves may taste somewhat like anise, with a strong, pungent, there are many varieties of Ocimum basilicum, as well as several related species or species hybrids also called basil. The type used in Italian food is called sweet basil, as opposed to Thai basil, lemon basil, and holy basil. While most common varieties of basil are treated as annuals, some are perennial in warm, tropical climates, including holy basil, the Oxford English Dictionary quotes speculations that basil may have been used in some royal unguent, bath, or medicine. Basil is still considered the king of herbs by many cookery authors, most commercially available basils are cultivars of sweet basil. There are over 160 named cultivars available, with new ones appearing every year, there are also a number of species sold. Here are some basils commonly sold in the US, in general, it is added at the last moment, as cooking quickly destroys the flavor. The fresh herb can be kept for a time in plastic bags in the refrigerator, or for a longer period in the freezer, after being blanched quickly in boiling water. The dried herb also loses most of its flavor, and what little flavor remains tastes very different, with a weak coumarin flavor, Basil is one of the main ingredients in pesto—a green Italian oil-and-herb sauce. The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars are Genovese, Purple Ruffles, Mammoth, Cinnamon, Lemon, Globe, the Chinese also use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods. In Taiwan, people add fresh basil leaves to thick soups and they also eat fried chicken with deep-fried basil leaves. Basil is commonly steeped in cream or milk to create a flavor in ice cream or chocolates. The leaves are not the part of basil used in culinary applications. Thai basil is also a condiment in the Vietnamese noodle soup, when soaked in water, the seeds of several basil varieties become gelatinous, and are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as faluda, sharbat-e-rihan, or hột é. Several other basils, including some other Ocimum species, are grown in regions of Asia. Most of the Asian basils have a flavor that is, in general
Basil
–
Basil
Basil
–
Dried basil leaves
Basil
–
Basil growing in the sun
Basil
–
Basil sprout at an early stage
21.
Caprese salad
–
Caprese salad is a simple Italian salad, made of sliced fresh mozzarella, tomatoes, and green basil, seasoned with salt and olive oil. It is made to resemble the colors of the Italian flag, red, white, in Italy, it is usually served as an antipasto, not a contorno. While Caprese salad is traditionally seasoned with oil and basil, there are variations seasoned with pesto and other sauces. Some variations substitute basil with rucola, in further variations other non-traditional ingredients, like chopped garlic, parsley, olives, or romaine lettuce, are also added. Many people also add ground black pepper, List of Italian dishes List of tomato dishes
Caprese salad
–
Caprese salad
Caprese salad
–
A British variant - Mozzarella and tomato salad
Caprese salad
–
Caprese salad skewer appetizers
22.
Oregano
–
Oregano (US /ɔːˈrɛɡənoʊ/ or /əˈrɛɡənoʊ/, UK /ˌɒrɪˈɡɑːnoʊ/, scientific name Origanum vulgare, is a flowering plant in the mint family. It is native to western and southwestern Eurasia and the Mediterranean region. Oregano is a herb, growing from 20–80 cm tall. The flowers are purple, 3–4 mm long, produced in erect spikes and it is sometimes called wild marjoram, and its close relative O. majorana is known as sweet marjoram. Oregano is the form of the Italian word origano, or possibly of the medieval Latin organum. The etymology of the Greek term is given as oros ὄρος mountain + ganos γάνος brightness. Oregano is related to the herb marjoram, sometimes being referred to as wild marjoram, oregano has purple flowers and spade-shaped, olive-green leaves. It is a perennial, although it is grown as an annual in colder climates, oregano is planted in early spring, the plants being spaced 30 cm apart in fairly dry soil, with full sun. Oregano will grow in a pH range between 6.0 and 9.0, with a range between 6.0 and 8.0. It prefers a hot, relatively dry climate, but does well in other environments, many subspecies and strains of oregano have been developed by humans over centuries for their unique flavours or other characteristics. Tastes range from spicy or astringent to more complicated and sweet and it can pollinate other more sophisticated strains, but the offspring are rarely better in quality. The related species, Origanum onites and O. syriacum, have similar flavours, a closely related plant is marjoram from Turkey, which differs significantly in taste though, because phenolic compounds are missing from its essential oil. Some varieties show an intermediate between oregano and marjoram. - Tunisia, Algeria O. v. subsp, gracile Ietsw. has glossy green leaves and pink flowers. It grows well in pots or containers, and is often grown for added ornamental value than other oregano. The flavor is pungent and spicy, - Central Asia, Iran, India, Turkey, Afghanistan, Pakistan. Hirtum Ietsw. - is a source of cultivars with a different aroma from those of O. v. gracile. Growth is vigorous and very hardy, with green, slightly hairy foliage
Oregano
–
Oregano
Oregano
–
Syrian oregano (Origanum syriacum)
Oregano
–
Pollination with
white-tailed bumblebee
Oregano
–
Dried oregano for culinary use
23.
Neapolitan language
–
Neapolitan is the language of much of southern continental Italy, including the city of Naples. It is not named after the city but rather the Kingdom of Naples, on October 14,2008, a law by the Region of Campania stated that Neapolitan was to be protected. Neapolitan was originally derived from Latin, but later influenced by the Spanish, French, Neapolitan has had a significant influence on the intonation of Rioplatense Spanish, of the Buenos Aires region of Argentina, and the whole of Uruguay. In western Abruzzo and Lazio the dialects give way to Central Italian dialects such as Romanesco, in central Calabria and southern Apulia, the dialects give way to the Sicilian language. However, in the United States traditional Neapolitan has had contact with English. English words are used in place of Neapolitan words, especially among second-generation speakers. There are notable differences among the dialects, but they are all generally mutually intelligible. The Italian language and Neapolitan are of variable mutual comprehensibility, depending on factors both affective and linguistic, there are notable grammatical differences such as nouns in the neuter form and unique plural formation, and historical phonological developments that often obscure the cognacy of lexical items. Its evolution has been similar to that of Italian and other Romance languages from their roots in Vulgar Latin. It may reflect a pre-Latin Oscan influence in the pronunciation of the d sound as an r sound, another purported Oscan influence is historical assimilation of the consonant cluster /nd/ as /nn/, pronounced, along with the development of /mb/ as /mm/, also consistently reflected in spelling. Other effects of the Oscan substratum are postulated too, although claims are highly controversial. In addition, the language was affected by the Greek language. There have never been any successful attempts to standardize the language, Neapolitan has enjoyed a rich literary, musical and theatrical history. The language has no status within Italy and is not taught in schools. There are also ongoing legislative attempts at the level to have it recognized as an official minority language of Italy. It is however a recognized ISO639 Joint Advisory Committee language with the code of nap. For comparison, The Lords Prayer is reproduced in the Neapolitan spoken in Naples and in a northern Calabrian dialect, in contrast with a variety of southern Calabrian, Italian and Latin. The Neapolitan alphabet, like the Italian alphabet, is almost the same as the English alphabet except that it consists of only 22 letters and it does not contain k, w, x, or y even though these letters might be found in some foreign words
Neapolitan language
–
Neapolitan dialects
Neapolitan language
–
Giambattista Basile (1566–1632), author of a
collection of fairy tales in Neapolitan that includes the earliest known versions of
Rapunzel and
Cinderella
24.
Bartolomeo Scappi
–
Bartolomeo Scappi was a famous Italian Renaissance chef. His origins had been the subject of speculation, but recent research shows that he came from the town of Dumenza in Lombardy, according to the inscription on a stone plaque in the church of Luino. Prior to this, the first known fact in his life had been that in April 1536 he organised a banquet while he was in the service of Cardinal Lorenzo Campeggio. He served several other cardinals after this, then began to serve pope Pius IV and he continued to work as a chef for the pope Pius V. Scappi is often considered one of the first internationally renowned celebrity chefs. He acquired fame in 1570 when his monumental cookbook Opera dellarte del cucinare was published, in the book he lists approximately 1000 recipes of the Renaissance cuisine and describes cooking techniques and tools, giving the first known picture of a fork. Reprints of Opera were continually published from 1570 to 1643, Scappi died on 13 April 1577 and was buried in the church of SS. Vincenzo and Anastasio alla Regola, dedicated to cooks and bakers, the Opera dellarte del cucinare was partially translated in Spanish and Dutch. An English translation was done by the food historian Terence Scully in 2008, a Dutch translation was done by Ika Cialona in 2015. Ginor, Michael A. Foie Gras, A Passion, John Wiley & Sons, levillain, Philippe, The Papacy, An Encyclopedia, Routledge, ISBN0415922283. Riley, Gillian, The Oxford Companion to Italian Food, Oxford University Press, the Food Encyclopedia, Robert Rose, ISBN0778801500. Schildermans, Jozef M. Lieve schat, wat vind je lekker, het Koocboec van Antonius Magirus en de Italiaanse keuken van de renaissance, Davidsfonds, ISBN9789058265005. Benporat, Claudio, Bartolomeo Scappi, il mistero svelato, Appunti di gastronomia, nr.46
Bartolomeo Scappi
–
Bartolomeo Scappi
Bartolomeo Scappi
–
Edition of 1622
25.
Saline water
–
Saline water is water that contains a significant concentration of dissolved salts. The salt concentration is expressed in parts per thousand or parts per million. The United States Geological Survey classifies saline water in three salinity categories. Salt concentration in slightly saline water is around 1,000 to 3,000 ppm, in saline water 3,000 to 10,000 ppm. Seawater has a salinity of roughly 35,000 ppm, equivalent to 35 grams of salt per one liter of water, the saturation level is dependent on the temperature of the water. At 20 °C one milliliter of water can dissolve about 0.357 grams of salt, at boiling the amount that can be dissolved in one milliliter of water increases to about 0.391 grams or 28. 1% saline solution. Some industries make use of water, such as mining. In the United States,14 percent of all used in 2000 was saline. Almost all saline withdrawals, over 92 percent, were used by the power industry to cool electricity-generating equipment. About three percent of the saline water was used for mining and other industrial purposes. Due to their proximity to the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, states near the coast make the most use of saline water, almost 40% of all saline water use in 2000 occurred in California, Florida, and Maryland. The use of water, as with freshwater, has been trending downward since a peak in 1968. But, in the period between 1950 and 1968, the use of water increased at a much higher rate than freshwater use. The thermal conductivity of seawater is 0.6 W/mK at 25 °C, brackish water Brine Media related to Saline water at Wikimedia Commons
Saline water
–
Water salinity diagram
26.
Whey
–
WHEY is a non-commercial educational radio station licensed to serve North Muskegon, Michigan, United States. The station is owned and operated by Muskegon Community Radio Broadcast Company, WHEY broadcasts a Christian Alternative Rock music format serving the Muskegon, Michigan, area. This station received its construction permit from the Federal Communications Commission on June 4,2008. The new station was assigned the call letters WHEY by the FCC on June 20,2008, WHEY received its license to cover from the FCC on November 25,2008. Hey 88.9 Online Query the FCCs FM station database for WHEY Radio-Locator information on WHEY Query Nielsen Audios FM station database for WHEY
Whey
27.
Citric acid
–
Citric acid is a weak organic tricarboxylic acid having the chemical formula C6H8O7. It occurs naturally in citrus fruits, in biochemistry, it is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the metabolism of all aerobic organisms. More than a million tons of acid are manufactured every year. It is used widely as an acidifier, as a flavoring and chelating agent, a citrate is a derivative of citric acid, that is, the salts, esters, and the polyatomic anion found in solution. An example of the former, a salt is trisodium citrate, when part of a salt, the formula of the citrate ion is written as C6H5O73− or C3H5O33−. Citric acid exists in greater than trace amounts in a variety of fruits and vegetables, lemons and limes have particularly high concentrations of the acid, it can constitute as much as 8% of the dry weight of these fruits. The concentrations of acid in citrus fruits range from 0.005 mol/L for oranges and grapefruits to 0.30 mol/L in lemons. Within species, these values vary depending on the cultivar and the circumstances in which the fruit was grown, wehmer discovered Penicillium mold could produce citric acid from sugar. However, microbial production of citric acid did not become important until World War I disrupted Italian citrus exports. In this production technique, which is still the major route to citric acid used today. The source of sugar is corn steep liquor, molasses, hydrolyzed corn starch or other inexpensive sugary solutions, in 1977, a patent was granted to Lever Brothers for the chemical synthesis of citric acid starting either from aconitic or isocitrate/alloisocitrate calcium salts under high pressure conditions. This produced citric acid in near quantitative conversion under what appeared to be a reverse non-enzymatic Krebs cycle reaction, in 2007, worldwide annual production stood at approximately 1,600,000 tons. More than 50% of this volume was produced in China, citric acid was first isolated in 1784 by the chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who crystallized it from lemon juice. It can exist either in a form or as a monohydrate. The anhydrous form crystallizes from hot water, while the forms when citric acid is crystallized from cold water. The monohydrate can be converted to the form at about 78 °C. Citric acid also dissolves in ethanol at 15 °C. It decomposes with loss of carbon dioxide above about 175 °C, citric acid is normally considered to be a tribasic acid, with pKa values, extrapolated to zero ionic strength, of 5.21,4.28 and 2.92 at 25 °C
Citric acid
–
Citric acid crystal under polarized light, enlarged 200x
Citric acid
Citric acid
–
Lemons, oranges, limes, and other citrus fruits possess high concentrations of citric acid
28.
Lasagna
–
Lasagne are wide, flat-shaped pasta, and possibly one of the oldest types of pasta. The word lasagne, and, in many languages, the singular lasagna, can also refer to a dish made with several layers of lasagne sheets alternated with sauces. Traditional lasagne is made by interleaving layers of pasta with layers of sauce, made with ragù, bechamel, Parmigiano-Reggiano, in all cases, the lasagne are oven-baked. Traditionally, pasta dough prepared in Southern Italy used semolina and water and in the northern regions, today in Italy, since the only type of wheat allowed for commercially sold pasta is durum wheat, commercial lasagne are made of semolina. The first theory is that comes from Greek λάγανον, a flat sheet of pasta dough cut into strips. The word λαγάνα is still used in Greek to mean a flat type of unleavened bread baked for the Clean Monday holiday. Another theory is that the word comes from the Greek λάσανα or λάσανον meaning trivet or stand for a pot. The Romans borrowed the word as lasanum, meaning cooking pot in Latin, the Italians used the word to refer to the dish in which lasagne is made. Later, the name of the food took on the name of the serving dish and this recipe has similarities to modern lasagne in both its recipe, which features a layering of ingredients between pasta sheets and its name. An important difference is the lack of tomatoes, which did not arrive in Europe until after Columbus reached America in 1492, in English, lasagne is usually used for the dish, and some redundantism like lasagna noodles can be used for just the pasta
Lasagna
–
Baked lasagne
Lasagna
–
Uncooked lasagne on a bed of
bechamel and
ragù
Lasagna
–
A close-up view of lasagne
29.
Bocconcini
–
Bocconcini are small mozzarella cheeses the size of an egg. Like other mozzarellas, they are semi-soft, white and rindless unripened mild cheeses which originated in Naples and were made only from milk of water buffaloes. Nowadays they are made from a combination of water buffalo. Bocconcini are packaged in whey or water, have a spongy texture and this cheese is described by its Italian name which means small mouthfuls. It is made in the pasta filata manner by dipping curds into hot whey, each cheese is about the size, shape and colour of a hardboiled egg, indeed an alternative name used is Uova di bufala, or “Buffalo eggs”. Baby bocconcini can also be purchased, these are a version about the size of large grapes. A Bocconcino di Bufala Campana DOP is also made, which is simply Mozzarella di Bufala Campana DOP, Bocconcini of whole cows milk are also manufactured, where the higher liquid content, in comparison to standard mozzarella, lends them the soft consistency of fior di latte. Bocconcini can be bought at most Italian supermarkets and is used in tomato and basil salads. Bocconcini Information, Ingredients & Nutritional Info, Recipes, FAQ & More, how to Make Bocconcini- Illustrated Step By Step. Nutrimundo. com Nowtoronto. com Mozzarelladibufala. org Latteriamortaretta. it Prodottitipici. com Bocconcini alla panna di bufala Prodottitipici. com Uova di bufala
Bocconcini
–
Bocconcini
30.
Browning (food process)
–
Browning is the process of food turning brown due to the chemical reactions that take place within. The process of food browning is one of the most important reactions that take place in chemistry and represents an interesting research topic regarding health, nutrition. Though there are different ways food chemically changes over time, browning in particular falls into main 2 categories. The browning process of foods may yield desirable or undesirable results, browning has many important implications on the food industry relating to nutrition, technology, and economic cost. Researchers are especially interested in studying the control of browning and the different methods that can be employed to maximize this inhibition, enzymatic browning is one of the most important reactions that takes place in most fruits and vegetables as well as in seafood. These processes affect the taste, color, and value of such foods, generally, it is a chemical reaction involving polyphenol oxidase, catechol oxidase, and other enzymes that create melanins and benzoquinone from natural phenols. Enzymatic browning requires exposure to oxygen and it begins with the oxidation of Phenols by Polyphenol oxidase into Quinones, whose strong electrophilic state causes high susceptibility to a nucleophilic attack from other proteins. These Quinones are then polymerized in a series of reactions, eventually resulting in the formation of brown pigments on the surface of the food, the rate of enzymatic browning is reflected by the amount of active polyphenol oxidases present in the food. Hence most research investigating methods to inhibit enzymatic browning has focused on hindering polyphenol oxidase activity, however, not all browning of food produces negative effects. Examples of beneficial enzymatic browning, Developing color and flavor in Coffee, Cocoa beans, Developing color and flavor in dried fruit such as figs and raisins. Examples of non-beneficial enzymatic browning, Fresh fruit and vegetables, including apples, potatoes, bananas, polyphenols oxidases is the major reaction in the formation of Melanosis in crustaceans such as shrimp. A variety of methods are used to prevent or slow down enzymatic browning of foods, the control of enzymatic browning has always been a challenge for the food industry. In addition, the use of chemicals to inhibit browning, such as sulfite have been reconsidered due to the hazards it causes along with its activity. Much research has been conducted regarding the types of control mechanisms that take place when confronted with these enzymatic process. The different types of enzymatic browning control can be classified different groups, low temperatures can also prevent enzymatic browning by reducing rate of reaction. Use of ascorbic acid in certain pHs to control browning of apples under certain conditions by changing their phenolase activity, different pH values affect phenolase activity of apples differently. The two main forms of non-enzymatic browning are caramelization and the Maillard reaction, caramelization is a process involving the pyrolysis of sugar. It is used extensively in cooking for the desired nutty flavor, as the process occurs, volatile chemicals are released, producing the characteristic caramel flavor
Browning (food process)
–
Caramelization in sucrose: the brown color in the photograph is entirely a result of caramelization, as sucrose is normally colorless
Browning (food process)
–
An example of enzymatic browning in the skin of a banana
Browning (food process)
–
The crust of
brioche bread, which is golden-brown due to the Maillard reaction
Browning (food process)
–
Aged
white wine with brown color.
31.
Pizza cheese
–
Pizza cheese encompasses several varieties and types of cheeses and dairy products that are designed and manufactured for use specifically on pizza. These include processed and modified cheese such as mozzarella-like processed cheeses, the term can also refer to any type of cheese suitable for use on pizza. The most popular used in the preparation of pizza are mozzarella, provolone, cheddar. Emmental, Romano and ricotta are often used as toppings, some mass-produced pizza cheeses are frozen after manufacturing and shipped frozen. Processed pizza cheese is manufactured to produce optimal qualities in browning, melting, stretchiness and fat, several studies and experiments have analyzed the impact of vegetable oil, manufacturing and culture processes, denatured whey proteins and other changes to create ideal and economical pizza cheeses. The trend of steadily-increasing production and consumption of mozzarella and pizza cheese continued into the first decade of the 21st century in the United States, the International Dictionary of Food and Cooking defines pizza cheese as a soft spun-curd cheese similar to Mozzarella made from cows milk. That is. used particularly for pizzas and contains less water than real Mozzarella. Most are at least 95 percent Mozzarella, with different moisture, cheese for frozen pizzas may be comminuted, in which the cheese is processed into minute granules or fragments. Low-moisture Mozzarella can be formulated specifically for pizza, cheese may be processed into blocks, from which the product can be grated, made into granules or sliced for use on pizza or other foods. Pizza cheese frequently consists of a blend of two or more cheeses, such as low-moisture Mozzarella or Provolone, low-moisture Mozzarella was first manufactured in dairy factories in the Midwestern United States, and was originally called pizza cheese. Compared to standard Mozzarella, low-moisture Mozzarella has a texture, is easier to grate, has better browning and melting characteristics. Globally, Mozzarella is the most popular pizza cheese, however, it has been estimated that in the United States only 30% of all pizza cheese used is actual Mozzarella. Provolone is the second most popular one, Cheddar may be mixed with Mozzarella to preserve chewiness. Grated Parmesan may be added to the top of a pizza, a diverse variety of processed pizza cheeses are produced, including analogue cheese. Other pizza cheeses include Emmental, Romano and Ricotta for calzones or as a topping, several cheeses may be mixed together in its formulation, and each has individual browning and blistering characteristics. Pasteurized and processed cheese dairy products that are designed to melt well and remain chewy are used on many mass-produced pizzas in North America. Each year in the United States,700 million frozen pizzas are sold, analogue pizza cheeses may be formulated for processing with less sophisticated cheese-making equipment than is required for Mozzarella cheese, such as using simple mixing and molding. They tend to have a texture and once melted, may have a slightly stringy quality when pulled or bitten into
Pizza cheese
–
A wrapped
frozen pizza
Pizza cheese
–
Provel pizza cheese in a five-pound block. This product is commonly used in the preparation of
St. Louis-style pizza.
Pizza cheese
–
A Swedish processed pizza cheese mix prepared with milk and vegetable fat, with a total fat content of 26%
32.
Mozzarella di bufala campana
–
Buffalo mozzarella is a mozzarella made from the milk of the domestic Italian water buffalo. It is a product produced in Campania, especially in the provinces of Caserta. It is appreciated for its versatility and elastic texture and often called the queen of the Mediterranean cuisine, the buffalo mozzarella sold as Mozzarella di Bufala Campana has been granted the status of Denominazione di origine controllata since 1993. Since 1996 it is protected under the EUs Protected Designation of Origin. The protected name requires that it may only be produced with a recipe in select locations in the regions of Campania, Lazio, Apulia. In Italy, the cheese is produced nationwide using Italian buffalo milk under the official name of Mozzarella di Bufala Campana DOP. It is produced in areas ranging from Rome in Lazio to Paestum near Salerno in Campania, and there are areas in the province of Foggia, Apulia. Buffalo mozzarella is a €300m a year industry in Italy, which produces around 33,000 tonnes of it every year, france and Germany are the main importers, but sales to Japan and Russia are growing. Apart from Italy, its birthplace, buffalo mozzarella is manufactured in other countries around the world. Buffalo mozzarella from Campania bears the Mozzarella di Bufala Campana trademark, among the many other Italian cheeses that have PDO status are Gorgonzola, Parmigiano-Reggiano and Asiago cheese. The history of water buffalo in Italy is not settled, one theory is that Asian water buffalo were brought to Italy by Goths during the migrations of the early medieval period. The Consorzio per la Tutela also refers to fossil evidence suggesting that water buffalo may have originated in Italy, a fourth theory is that water buffalo were brought from Mesopotamia into the Near East by Arabs and then introduced into Europe by pilgrims and returning crusaders. References to cheese made from water buffalo milk appeared for the first time at the beginning of the twelfth century. Buffalo mozzarella became widespread throughout the south of Italy from the half of the eighteenth century. In 2008, traces of dioxine were found in samples of milk produced in Campania. To produce 1 kg of cheese, a cheese maker requires 8 kg of cow milk, producing 1 kg of butter requires 14 kg of cow milk but only 10 kg of buffalo milk. The steps required to produce buffalo mozzarella are, Milk storage, List of Italian PDO cheeses List of Italian cheeses Rankin, Scott A. Carol M. Chen and Dean Sommer, handbook of food science, technology, and engineering
Mozzarella di bufala campana
–
Buffalo mozzarella
Mozzarella di bufala campana
–
A water buffalo on a farm in
Paestum.
33.
Cow
–
Cattle—colloquially cows—are the most common type of large domesticated ungulates. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae, are the most widespread species of the genus Bos, cattle are raised as livestock for meat, as dairy animals for milk and other dairy products, and as draft animals. Other products include leather and dung for manure or fuel, in some regions, such as parts of India, cattle have significant religious meaning. From as few as 80 progenitors domesticated in southeast Turkey about 10,500 years ago, according to an estimate from 2011, in 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome. Some consider cattle the oldest form of wealth, and cattle raiding consequently one of the earliest forms of theft. Cattle were originally identified as three species, Bos taurus, the European or taurine cattle, Bos indicus, the zebu, and the extinct Bos primigenius. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle and these have been reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with three subspecies, Bos taurus primigenius, Bos taurus indicus, and Bos taurus taurus. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu, but also one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks, banteng. Hybrids such as the breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos. However, cattle cannot successfully be hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo, the aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed. Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals and it was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale principal sum of money, capital, itself derived in turn from Latin caput head. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, the word is a variant of chattel and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh cattle, property, which today as fee. The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū, from Common Indo-European gʷōus = a bovine animal, compare Persian gâv, Sanskrit go-, Welsh buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and a plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine, the Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye
Cow
–
Cattle
Cow
–
Żubroń, a cross between
wisent and cattle
Cow
–
An
Ongole bull
Cow
–
A
Hereford bull
34.
Smoking (cooking)
–
Smoking is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meats and fish are the most common smoked foods, though cheeses, vegetables, and ingredients used to make such as whisky, smoked beer. In Europe, alder is the traditional smoking wood, but oak is often used now. In North America, hickory, mesquite, oak, pecan, alder, maple, and fruit-tree woods, such as apple, cherry, other biomass besides wood can also be employed, sometimes with the addition of flavoring ingredients. Chinese tea-smoking uses a mixture of uncooked rice, sugar, and tea, some North American ham and bacon makers smoke their products over burning corncobs. Peat is burned to dry and smoke the barley used to make whisky. In New Zealand, sawdust from the native manuka is commonly used for hot smoking fish, in Iceland, dried sheep dung is used to cold-smoke fish, lamb, mutton and whale. Historically, farms in the Western world included a building termed the smokehouse. This was generally well-separated from other buildings both because of the danger and because of the smoke emanations. The smoking of food directly with wood smoke is known to contaminate the food with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, the smoking of food dates back to the time of primitive cavemen. As caves or simple huts lacked chimneys, these dwellings could become very smoky, until the modern era, smoking was of a more heavy duty nature as the main goal was to preserve the food. Large quantities of salt were used in the process and smoking times were quite long. The advent of modern transportation made it easier to transport food products long distances. Smoking became more of a way to flavor than to preserve food, in 1939 a device called the Torry Kiln was invented at the Torry Research Station in Scotland. The kiln allowed for uniform mass-smoking and is considered the prototype for all modern large-scale commercial smokers, smokehouse temperatures for cold smoking are typically done between 20 to 30 °C. In this temperature range, foods take on a smoked flavor, cold smoking does not cook foods. Meats should be cured before cold smoking. Cold smoking can be used as an enhancer for items such as chicken breasts, beef, pork chops, salmon, scallops
Smoking (cooking)
–
Pork ribs being smoked
Smoking (cooking)
–
A
Montreal Smoked Meat Sandwich, a well-known Canadian dish
Smoking (cooking)
–
Hot-smoked
chum salmon
Smoking (cooking)
–
A "Little Chief" home smoker and racks with hot smoked
Pacific halibut
35.
Sheep milk
–
Sheeps milk is the milk of domestic sheep. It is commonly used to make cultured dairy products such as cheese, some of the most popular sheep cheeses include feta, ricotta, and Roquefort. Specialized dairy breeds of sheep yield higher amounts of milk compared to other breeds of sheep. Some of the most common dairy breeds include, East Friesian Sarda Lacaune British Milk Sheep Chios Awassi Assaf In the U. S. the most common breeds are the East Friesian. Female sheep do not produce milk constantly, rather, they produce milk during the 80–100 days after lambing. Lambing which naturally occurs in the winter or early spring. Milk production decreases and eventually stops when lambs are weaned or when the day length becomes shorter, generally, sheep breed in the fall which means that a majority of lambs are born in the late winter or early spring. This inconsistency of lambs means that milk cannot be produced year round, through the use of controlled internal drug release, ewes can be bred out of season. CIDR drugs contain progesterone, which is released into the bloodstream once inserted. This means that ewes can be bred at different times throughout the year, meat and wool breeds of sheep lactate for 90-150 days, while dairy breeds can lactate for 120-240 days. Dairy sheep are able to produce yields of milk per ewe per year. Dairy sheep can produce 400-1100 lbs of milk per year while others sheep produce 100-200 lbs of milk per year, crossbred ewes produce 300-650 lbs of milk per year. Yogurts, especially forms of strained yogurt, may also be made from sheeps milk. Milk composition analysis, per 100 grams, Sheep milk is high in fat. There is also an amount of solids present in the milk. This makes sheep milk an excellent choice for making cheese and it produces higher yields of cheese compared to other milk producing species. For example,1 liter of cow milk will yield an amount of cheese while 1 liter of sheep milk will produce a much higher amount of cheese. Goat milk Moose milk Donkey milk List of dairy products List of sheep milk cheeses Sheep dairying at sheep101. com Sheep dairying documentary by Cooking Up A Story
Sheep milk
–
Lacaune dairy sheep in rotary parlour,
Aveyron,
France.
Sheep milk
–
Mechanical sheep milker, South Island, NZ.
36.
Sardinia
–
Sardinia is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and an autonomous region of Italy. It is located in the Western Mediterranean, just south of the French island of Corsica, the regions official name is Regione Autonoma della Sardegna / Regione Autònoma de Sardigna, and its capital and largest city is Cagliari. It is divided into four provinces and a metropolitan city and its indigenous language and the other minority languages spoken by the Sardinians enjoy equal dignity with Italian under regional law. The name Sardinia is from the pre-Roman noun *srd-, later romanised as sardus and it makes its first appearance on the Nora Stone, where the word Šrdn testifies to the names existence when the Phoenician merchants first arrived. According to Timaeus, one of Platos dialogues, Sardinia and its people as well might have named after Sardò. There has also been speculation that identifies the ancient Nuragic Sards with the Sherden, in Classical antiquity, Sardinia was called Ichnusa, Σανδάλιον Sandal, Sardinia and Sardó. Sardinia is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 24,100 square kilometres and it is situated between 38°51 and 41°18 latitude north and 8°8 and 9°50 east longitude. To the west of Sardinia is the Sea of Sardinia, a unit of the Mediterranean Sea, to Sardinias east is the Tyrrhenian Sea, the nearest land masses are the island of Corsica, the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Tunisia, the Balearic Islands, and Provence. The Tyrrhenian Sea portion of the Mediterranean Sea is directly to the east of Sardinia between the Sardinian east coast and the west coast of the Italian mainland peninsula, the Strait of Bonifacio is directly north of Sardinia and separates Sardinia from the French island of Corsica. The island has an ancient geoformation and, unlike Sicily and mainland Italy, is not earthquake-prone and its rocks date in fact from the Palaeozoic Era. Due to long erosion processes, the highlands, formed of granite, schist, trachyte, basalt, sandstone and dolomite limestone. The highest peak is Punta La Marmora, part of the Gennargentu Ranges in the centre of the island. The islands ranges and plateaux are separated by wide valleys and flatlands. Sardinia has few rivers, the largest being the Tirso,151 km long, which flows into the Sea of Sardinia, the Coghinas. There are 54 artificial lakes and dams that supply water and electricity, the main ones are Lake Omodeo and Lake Coghinas. The only natural lake is Lago di Baratz. A number of large, shallow, salt-water lagoons and pools are located along the 1,850 km of the coastline, the climate of the island is variable from area to area, due to several factors including the extension in latitude and the elevation. During the year there is a concentration of rainfall in the winter and autumn, some heavy showers in the spring
Sardinia
–
Cala Goloritzé,
Baunei
Sardinia
–
Sardinia Sardegna (
Italian) Sardìnnia (
Sardinian) Sardenya (
Catalan)
Sardinia
–
View of
Gennargentu, the highest massif of Sardinia
Sardinia
–
Lake Omodeo, the largest reservoir in Italy
37.
Food energy
–
Food energy is chemical energy that animals derive from food and molecular oxygen through the process of cellular respiration. Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of energy to sustain their metabolism. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, water, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as organic acids, polyols. Some diet components that provide little or no energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down, fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body. Ruminants can extract energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens. Using the International System of Units, researchers measure energy in joules or in its multiples, the kilojoule is most often used for food-related quantities. An older metric system unit of energy, still used in food-related contexts, is the calorie, more precisely. Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie and kilojoule appear on nutrition labels, in many countries, only one of the units is displayed, in the US and Canada labels spell out the unit as calorie or as Calorie. Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of energy per gram,37 and 29 kJ/g. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g, carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g and 13 kJ/g respectively, the amount of water, fat, and fiber in foods determines those foods energy density. Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using the Gibbs free energy of combustion, however, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction producing liquid water. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century, based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system was improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, in the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In Australia and New Zealand, the energy must be stated in kilojoules
Food energy
–
The nutritional information label on a pack of
Basmati rice in the United Kingdom
38.
Carbohydrate
–
A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2,1, in other words, with the empirical formula Cmn. This formula holds true for monosaccharides, some exceptions exist, for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C5H10O4. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon, structurally it is accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that includes sugars, starch, the saccharides are divided into four chemical groups, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest carbohydrates, are referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον, meaning sugar, while the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose. Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms, polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy and as structural components. The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA, the related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting. In food science and in informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch or simple carbohydrates. Often in lists of information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term carbohydrate is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash. This will include chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, carbohydrates are found in wide variety of foods. The important sources are cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, fruits, table sugar, bread, milk, starch and sugar are the important carbohydrates in our diet. Starch is abundant in potatoes, maize, rice and other cereals, sugar appears in our diet mainly as sucrose which is added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Glucose and fructose are found naturally in fruits and some vegetables. Glycogen is carbohydrate found in the liver and muscles, cellulose in the cell wall of all plant tissue is a carbohydrate. It is important in our diet as fibre which helps to maintain a healthy digestive system, formerly the name carbohydrate was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cm n
Carbohydrate
–
Grain products: rich sources of carbohydrates
Carbohydrate
39.
Sugar
–
Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
Sugar
–
Closeup of raw (unrefined, unbleached) sugar
Sugar
–
Ant feeding on sugar crystals.
Sugar
–
Sugar cane plantation
Sugar
–
Still-Life with Bread and Confectionary, by
George Flegel, first half of 17th century
40.
Fat
–
Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
Fat
–
The
obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.
Fat
–
A fat, or
triglyceride, molecule. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.
41.
Saturated fat
–
A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acids all have single bonds. A fat is made of two kinds of molecules, monoglyceride and fatty acids. Fats are made of chains of carbon atoms. Some carbon atoms are linked by bonds and others are linked by double bonds. Double bonds can react with hydrogen to form single bonds and they are called saturated, because the second bond is broken up and each half of the bond is attached to a hydrogen atom. The fats of plants and fish are generally unsaturated, various fats contain different proportions of saturated and unsaturated fat. Certain vegetable products have high saturated fat content, such as coconut oil, many prepared foods are high in saturated fat content, such as pizza, dairy desserts, and sausage. The effect of saturated fat on risk of disease is controversial, many reviews recommend a diet low in saturated fat and argue it will lower risks of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, or death. However, other reviews have rejected those arguments or advocated for examining the proportion of saturated to unsaturated fat in the diet, while nutrition labels regularly combine them, the saturated fatty acids appear in different proportions among food groups. Lauric and myristic acids are most commonly found in tropical oils, the saturated fat in meat, eggs, cacao, and nuts is primarily the triglycerides of palmitic and stearic acids. Sources of lower saturated fat but higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids include olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil, avocados, safflower, corn, sunflower, soy, the effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease is controversial. Until the picture becomes clearer, experts recommend people stick to the current guidelines on fat consumption, the consumption of saturated fat is generally considered a risk factor for dyslipidemia, which in turn is a risk factor for some types of cardiovascular disease. There are strong, consistent, and graded relationships between saturated fat intake, blood levels, and the mass occurrence of cardiovascular disease. The relationships are accepted as causal, meta-analyses have found a significant relationship between saturated fat and serum cholesterol levels. High total cholesterol levels, which may be caused by many factors, are associated with a risk of cardiovascular disease. However, other indicators measuring cholesterol such as high total/HDL cholesterol ratio are more predictive than total serum cholesterol, in a study of myocardial infarction in 52 countries, the ApoB/ApoA1 ratio was the strongest predictor of CVD among all risk factors. Different saturated fatty acids have differing effects on various lipid levels, a meta-analysis published in 2003 found a significant positive relationship in both control and cohort studies between saturated fat and breast cancer. However two subsequent reviews have found weak or insignificant associations of saturated fat intake and breast cancer risk, one review found limited evidence for a positive relationship between consuming animal fat and incidence of colorectal cancer
Saturated fat
42.
Monounsaturated fat
–
In biochemistry and nutrition, monounsaturated fatty acids are fatty acids that have one double bond in the fatty acid chain with all of the remainder carbon atoms being single-bonded. By contrast, polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one double bond, Fatty acids are long-chained molecules having an alkyl group at one end and a carboxylic acid group at the other end. Monounsaturated fatty acids are liquids at room temperature and semisolid or solid when refrigerated, common monounsaturated fatty acids are palmitoleic acid, cis-vaccenic acid and oleic acid. Palmitoleic acid has 16 carbon atoms with the first double bond occurring 7 carbon atoms away from the methyl group and it can be lengthened to the 18-carbon cis-vaccenic acid. Oleic acid has 18 carbon atoms with the first double bond occurring 9 carbon atoms away from the acid group. The illustrations below show a molecule of acid in Lewis formula. Polyunsaturated fats protect against cardiovascular disease by providing more membrane fluidity than monounsaturated fats, the large scale KANWU study found that increasing monounsaturated fat and decreasing saturated fat intake could improve insulin sensitivity, but only when the overall fat intake of the diet was low. However, some monounsaturated fatty acids may promote resistance, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids may be protective against insulin resistance. Studies have shown that substituting dietary monounsaturated fat for saturated fat is associated with increased physical activity. More physical activity was associated with a higher-oleic acid diet than one of a palmitic acid diet, from the study, it is shown that more monounsaturated fats lead to less anger and irritability. Foods containing monounsaturated fats reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, while possibly increasing high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, however, their true ability to raise HDL is still in debate. Levels of oleic along with other monounsaturated fatty acids in red cell membranes were positively associated with breast cancer risk. The saturation index of the same membranes was inversely associated with breast cancer risk, monounsaturated fats and low SI in erythrocyte membranes are predictors of postmenopausal breast cancer. Both of these depend on the activity of the enzyme delta-9 desaturase. In children, consumption of monounsaturated oils is associated with healthier serum lipid profiles, the Mediterranean Diet is one heavily influenced by monounsaturated fats. The diet in Crete is fairly high in total fat yet affords a protection from coronary heart disease. Monounsaturated fats are found in foods such as red meat, whole milk products, nuts and high fat fruits such as olives. Olive oil is about 75% monounsaturated fat, the high oleic variety sunflower oil contains as much as 85% monounsaturated fat
Monounsaturated fat
43.
Protein (nutrient)
–
Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body. They are one of the blocks of body tissue. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates,4 kcal per gram, in contrast, the most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition. Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds, during human digestion, proteins are broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the synthesis of the amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body. There are nine amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to prevent protein-energy malnutrition. They are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, there are five dispensable amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and these six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine. Humans need the essential amino acids in certain ratios, some protein sources contain amino acids in a more or less complete sense. This has given rise to various ranking systems for protein sources, Dietary sources of protein include both animals and plants, meats, dairy products, fish and eggs as well as grains, legumes and nuts. Vegetarians and vegans can get enough essential amino acids by eating a variety of plant proteins and it is commonly believed that athletes should consume a higher-than-normal protein intake to maintain optimal physical performance. Protein is a nutrient needed by the body for growth. Aside from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body, Protein can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin, proteins are also used in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino acids, they are used as precursors to acid, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells, proteins are believed to increase performance in terms of athletics. Amino acids, the blocks of proteins, are used for building muscle tissue. Protein is only used as fuel when carbohydrates are low
Protein (nutrient)
–
Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common
bodybuilding supplement.
Protein (nutrient)
–
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein.
Protein (nutrient)
–
An education campaign launched by the United States Department of Agriculture about 100 years ago, on cottage cheese as a lower-cost protein substitute for meat.
Protein (nutrient)
–
A child in Nigeria during the
Biafra War suffering from
kwashiorkor – one of the
three protein energy malnutrition ailments afflicting over 10 million children in developing countries.
44.
Dietary element
–
In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. Minerals originate in the earth and cannot be made by living organisms, most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, the five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the elements in a human body are called trace elements. The trace elements that have a specific function in the human body are iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine. Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds, plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, one element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells. At least twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes, however, as many as twenty-nine elements in total are suggested to be used by mammals, as inferred by biochemical and uptake studies. Phosphorus makes up about 1% of a body weight. The last four major minerals make up only about 0. 85% of the weight of the body, together these eleven chemical elements make up 99. 85% of the body. Minerals are present in a human beings blood at certain mass. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the elements discussed in this article. Depending on the concentrations, some are in part of the picture. The figure includes the values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple, dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element of interest. The elements may be present in the food or added to the food. The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the elemental components
Dietary element
–
Reference ranges for blood tests, sorted logarithmically by
mass above the scale and by
molarity below.
45.
Calcium
–
Calcium is a chemical element with symbol Ca and atomic number 20. Calcium is a soft grayish-yellow alkaline earth metal, fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earths crust, the ion Ca2+ is also the fifth-most-abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, magnesium, and sulfate. Free calcium metal is too reactive to occur in nature, Calcium is produced in supernova nucleosynthesis. Calcium is a trace element in living organisms. It is the most abundant metal by mass in animals, and it is an important constituent of bone, teeth. In cell biology, the movement of the calcium ion into, Calcium carbonate and calcium citrate are often taken as dietary supplements. Calcium is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Calcium has a wide variety of applications, almost all of which are associated with calcium compounds and salts. Calcium metal is used as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, and decarbonizer for production of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. In steelmaking and production of iron, Ca reacts with oxygen, Calcium carbonate is used in manufacturing cement and mortar, lime, limestone and aids in production in the glass industry. It also has chemical and optical uses as mineral specimens in toothpastes, Calcium hydroxide solution is used to detect the presence of carbon dioxide in a gas sample bubbled through a solution. The solution turns cloudy where CO2 is present, Calcium arsenate is used in insecticides. Calcium carbide is used to make acetylene gas and various plastics, Calcium chloride is used in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, as a conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for automobile tires. Calcium citrate is used as a food preservative, Calcium cyclamate is used as a sweetening agent in several countries. In the United States, it has been outlawed as a suspected carcinogen, Calcium gluconate is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills. Calcium hypochlorite is used as a swimming pool disinfectant, as an agent, as an ingredient in deodorant. Calcium permanganate is used in rocket propellant, textile production, as a water sterilizing agent. Calcium phosphate is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass. Calcium phosphide is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes, Calcium sulfate is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its hemihydrate form, Plaster of Paris
Calcium
–
Calcium, 20 Ca
Calcium
–
Travertine terraces
Pamukkale, Turkey
Calcium
–
'Ain Ghazal figure
Calcium
–
500 milligram calcium supplements made from
calcium carbonate
46.
Phosphorus
–
Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but because it is reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. At 0. 099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogen in the Earths crust, with few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidised state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white phosphorus — a process now termed chemiluminescence, together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphates are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ash was an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is present in the deposits of animal remains. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in aquatic systems. The vast majority of compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents. Phosphorus exists as several forms that exhibit different properties. The two most common allotropes are white phosphorus and red phosphorus, from the perspective of applications and chemical literature, the most important form of elemental phosphorus is white phosphorus, often abbreviated as WP. It is a soft and waxy solid consists of tetrahedral P4 molecules. This P4 tetrahedron is also present in liquid and gaseous phosphorus up to the temperature of 800 °C when it starts decomposing to P2 molecules, White phosphorus exists in two crystalline forms, α and β. At room temperature, the α-form is stable, which is common and it has cubic crystal structure and at 195.2 K, it transforms into β-form. These forms differ in terms of the orientations of the constituent P4 tetrahedra. White phosphorus is the least stable, the most reactive, the most volatile, the least dense, White phosphorus gradually changes to red phosphorus. This transformation is accelerated by light and heat, and samples of white phosphorus almost always some red phosphorus. For this reason, white phosphorus that is aged or otherwise impure is also called yellow phosphorus, when exposed to oxygen, white phosphorus glows in the dark with a very faint tinge of green and blue
Phosphorus
–
waxy white (yellow cut), red (granules centre left, chunk centre right), and violet phosphorus
Phosphorus
–
P 4 molecule
Phosphorus
–
White phosphorus
Phosphorus
–
Crystal structure of red phosphorus
47.
Sodium
–
Sodium is a chemical element with symbol Na and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal, Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table, because it has a single electron in its outer shell that it readily donates, creating a positively charged atom—the Na+ cation. Its only stable isotope is 23Na, the free metal does not occur in nature, but must be prepared from compounds. Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the Earths crust, Sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. Among many other useful compounds, sodium hydroxide is used in soap manufacture, and sodium chloride is a de-icing agent. Sodium is an element for all animals and some plants. Sodium ions are the major cation in the fluid and as such are the major contributor to the ECF osmotic pressure. Loss of water from the ECF compartment increases the sodium concentration, isotonic loss of water and sodium from the ECF compartment decreases the size of that compartment in a condition called ECF hypovolemia. In nerve cells, the charge across the cell membrane enables transmission of the nerve impulse—an action potential—when the charge is dissipated. The melting and boiling points of sodium are lower than those of lithium but higher than those of the alkali metals potassium, rubidium. All of these high-pressure allotropes are insulators and electrides.3 nm, spin-orbit interactions involving the electron in the 3p orbital split the D line into two, at 589.0 and 589.6 nm, hyperfine structures involving both orbitals cause many more lines. Twenty isotopes of sodium are known, but only 23Na is stable, 23Na is created in the carbon-burning process in stars by fusing two carbon atoms together, this requires temperatures above 600 megakelvins and a star of at least three solar masses. Two nuclear isomers have been discovered, the one being 24mNa with a half-life of around 20.2 milliseconds. Sodium atoms have 11 electrons, one more than the stable configuration of the noble gas neon. This process requires so little energy that sodium is oxidized by giving up its 11th electron. In contrast, the ionization energy is very high, because the 10th electron is closer to the nucleus than the 11th electron. As a result, sodium usually forms ionic compounds involving the Na+ cation, the most common oxidation state for sodium is +1. It is generally less reactive than potassium and more reactive than lithium, Sodium metal is highly reducing, with the reduction of sodium ions requiring −2.71 volts, though potassium and lithium have even more negative potentials
Sodium
–
Sodium, 11 Na
Sodium
–
Spectral lines of sodium
Sodium
–
Emission spectrum for sodium, showing the
D line.
Sodium
–
A positive
flame test for sodium has a bright yellow color.
48.
Milligram
–
The kilogram or kilogramme is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units and is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram. The avoirdupois pound, used in both the imperial and US customary systems, is defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg, making one kilogram approximately equal to 2.2046 avoirdupois pounds. Other traditional units of weight and mass around the world are also defined in terms of the kilogram, the gram, 1/1000 of a kilogram, was provisionally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at the melting point of ice. The final kilogram, manufactured as a prototype in 1799 and from which the IPK was derived in 1875, had an equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of water at its maximum density. The kilogram is the only SI base unit with an SI prefix as part of its name and it is also the only SI unit that is still directly defined by an artifact rather than a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. Three other base units and 17 derived units in the SI system are defined relative to the kilogram, only 8 other units do not require the kilogram in their definition, temperature, time and frequency, length, and angle. At its 2011 meeting, the CGPM agreed in principle that the kilogram should be redefined in terms of the Planck constant, the decision was originally deferred until 2014, in 2014 it was deferred again until the next meeting. There are currently several different proposals for the redefinition, these are described in the Proposed Future Definitions section below, the International Prototype Kilogram is rarely used or handled. In the decree of 1795, the term gramme thus replaced gravet, the French spelling was adopted in the United Kingdom when the word was used for the first time in English in 1797, with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the United States. In the United Kingdom both spellings are used, with kilogram having become by far the more common, UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling. In the 19th century the French word kilo, a shortening of kilogramme, was imported into the English language where it has used to mean both kilogram and kilometre. In 1935 this was adopted by the IEC as the Giorgi system, now known as MKS system. In 1948 the CGPM commissioned the CIPM to make recommendations for a practical system of units of measurement. This led to the launch of SI in 1960 and the subsequent publication of the SI Brochure, the kilogram is a unit of mass, a property which corresponds to the common perception of how heavy an object is. Mass is a property, that is, it is related to the tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest, or if in motion to remain in motion at a constant velocity. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor, they are weightless. However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, the ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects, measured by the scale, is equal to the ratio of their masses. On April 7,1795, the gram was decreed in France to be the weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the metre
Milligram
–
A domestic-quality one-kilogram weight made of
cast iron (the
credit card is for scale). The shape follows
OIML recommendation R52 for cast-iron hexagonal weights
Milligram
–
Measurement of weight – gravitational attraction of the measurand causes a distortion of the spring
Milligram
–
Measurement of mass – the gravitational force on the measurand is balanced against the gravitational force on the weights.
Milligram
–
The Arago kilogram, an exact copy of the "Kilogramme des Archives" commissioned in 1821 by the US under supervision of French physicist
François Arago that served as the US's first kilogram standard of mass until 1889, when the US converted to primary metric standards and received its current kilogram prototypes, K4 and K20.
49.
Braid
–
A braid is a complex structure or pattern formed by interlacing three or more strands of flexible material such as textile yarns, wire, or hair. The most common braid is a flat, solid, three-stranded structure, more complex braids can be constructed from an arbitrary number of strands to create a wider range of structures. Braids have been made for thousands of years in different cultures. Traditionally, the used in braids have depended on the indigenous plants. When the Industrial Revolution arrived, mechanized braiding equipment was invented to increase production, the braiding technique was used to make ropes, with both natural and synthetic fibers, and coaxial cables for radios using copper wire. In more recent times it has used to create a covering for fuel pipes in jet aircraft and ships, first using glass fibre, then stainless steel. Pipes for domestic plumbing are often covered with stainless steel braid and it has been disputed whether or not she wears braided hair or some sort of a woven basket on her head. The Venus of Brassempouy is estimated to be about 25,000 years old and shows, ostensibly, another sample of a different origin was traced back to a burial site called Saqqara located on the Nile River, during the first dynasty of Pharaoh Menes. In some regions, a braid was a means of communication, at a glance, one individual could distinguish a wealth of information about another, whether they were married, mourning, or of age for courtship, simply by observing their hairstyle. Braids were a means of social stratification, certain hairstyles were distinctive to particular tribes or nations. Other styles informed others of a status in society. African people such as the Himba people of Namibia have been braiding their hair for centuries, in many African tribes hairstyles are unique and used to identify each tribe. Braid patterns or hairstyles can be an indication of a community, age, marital status, wealth, power, social position. Braiding is traditionally a social art, because of the time it takes to braid hair, people have often taken time to socialize while braiding and having their hair braided. It begins with the elders making simple knots and braids for younger children, older children watch and learn from them, start practicing on younger children, and eventually learn the traditional designs. This carries on a tradition of bonding between elders and the new generation, early braids had many uses, such as costume decoration, animal regalia, sword decoration, bowls and hats, locks, and weapons. Materials that are used in braids can vary depending on local materials, for instance, South Americans used the very fine fibers from the wool of alpaca and llama, while North American people made use of bison fibers. Throughout the world, vegetable fibers such as grass, nettle, in China, Korea, and Japan silk still remains the main material used
Braid
–
The braid (1887) by
Auguste Renoir
Braid
–
The
Venus of Willendorf with braided hair (or wearing a woven basket)
Braid
–
Nuba tribes woman from
Sudan wearing braids
Braid
–
The
Venus of Brassempouy with a hairstyle or geometrically decorated hood
50.
Burrata
–
Burrata is a fresh Italian cheese made from mozzarella and cream. The outer shell is solid mozzarella, while the inside contains stracciatella and cream, giving it an unusual and it is also defined by some sources as an outer shell of mozzarella filled with butter or a mixture of butter and sugar. It is usually served fresh and at room temperature, the word burrata means buttered in Italian. Burrata is a product of Murgia in the south of Italy. It is produced from milk, rennet, and cream. Burrata was probably first made around 1920, but may have origins dating back to about 1900 on the Bianchini farm in the city of Andria within Murgia, an area in the Apulian region. In the 1950s, it more widely available after some local cheese factories began producing it and it can be a useful way of using up the ritagli of mozzarella. Established as a cheese, burrata maintained its premium-product status even after it began to be made commercially in factories throughout Apulia. Burrata is also produced in the United States, particularly in artisanal cheese shops in cities on the East Coast with historically large populations of Italian Americans, burrata starts out much like mozzarella and many other cheeses, with rennet used to curdle the warm milk. When making burrata, the cheese is formed into a pouch. The finished burrata is traditionally wrapped in the leaves of asphodel, tied to form a little brioche-like topknot, the asphodel leaves should still be green when the cheese is served to indicate the cheeses freshness. More recently, the cheese is sold in a plastic bag or container. When the burrata is sliced open, a spurt of thickened cream flows out, the cheese has a rich, buttery flavor and retains its fresh milkiness. It is best when eaten within 24 hours and is considered past its prime after 48 hours. The flavor and different textures of the inside and outside make it go well with salad, prosciutto crudo, crusty bread, fresh tomatoes with olive oil, cracked black pepper, or pasta
Burrata
–
A small whole burrata
Burrata
–
Burrata cheese on a salad
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