1.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
2.
Tibetan alphabet
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The Tibetan alphabet is an abugida used to write the Tibetic languages such as Tibetan, as well as Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Ladakhi, and sometimes Balti. The printed form of the alphabet is called uchen script while the cursive form used in everyday writing is called umê script. The alphabet is closely linked to a broad ethnic Tibetan identity, spanning across areas in Tibet, Bhutan, India. The Tibetan alphabet is of Indic origin and it is ancestral to the Limbu alphabet, the Lepcha alphabet, the creation of the Tibetan alphabet is attributed to Thonmi Sambhota of the mid-7th century. Tradition holds that Thonmi Sambhota, a minister of Songtsen Gampo, was sent to India to study the art of writing, the form of the letters is based on an Indic alphabet of that period. The most important, an official orthography aimed to facilitate the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Standard orthography has not altered since then, while the spoken language has changed by, for example, losing complex consonant clusters. As a result, in all modern Tibetan dialects, in particular in the Standard Tibetan of Lhasa and this divergence is the basis of an argument in favour of spelling reform, to write Tibetan as it is pronounced, for example, writing Kagyu instead of Bka-rgyud. In contrast, the pronunciation of the Balti, Ladakhi and Burig languages adheres more closely to the archaic spelling, in the Tibetan script, the syllables are written from left to right. Syllables are separated by a tsek, since many Tibetan words are monosyllabic, spaces are not used to divide words. The Tibetan alphabet has thirty basic letters, sometimes known as radicals, as in other Indic scripts, each consonant letter assumes an inherent vowel, in the Tibetan script its ཨ /a/. The alphabet ཨ /a/ is also the base for dependent vowels marks, although some Tibetan dialects are tonal, the language had no tone at the time of the scripts invention, and there are no dedicated symbols for tone. However, since tones developed from segmental features they can usually be predicted by the archaic spelling of Tibetan words. The unique aspect of the Tibetan script is that the consonants can be either as radicals, or they can be written in other forms. To understand how this works, one can look at the radical ཀ /ka/, in both cases, the symbol for ཀ /ka/ is used, but when the ར /ra/ is in the middle of the consonant and vowel, it is added as a subscript. On the other hand, when the ར /ra/ comes before the consonant and vowel, ར /ra/ actually changes form when it is above most other consonants, thus རྐ rka. However, an exception to this is the cluster རྙ /rnya/, similarly, the consonants ཝ /wa/, ར /ra/, and ཡ /ja/ change form when they are beneath other consonants, thus ཀྭ /kwa/, ཀྲ /kra/, ཀྱ /kja/. Besides being written as subscripts and superscripts, some consonants can also be placed in prescript, postscript, the third position, the post-postscript position is solely for the consonants ད /tʰa/ and ས /sa/. The superscript position above a radical is reserved for the consonants ར /ra/, ལ /la/, the vowels used in the alphabet are ཨ /a/, ཨི /i/, ཨུ /u/, ཨེ /e/, and ཨོ /o/
3.
Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
4.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
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Iconography
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The word iconography comes from the Greek εἰκών and γράφειν. A secondary meaning is the production of images, called icons, in the Byzantine and Orthodox Christian tradition. In art history, an iconography may also mean a depiction of a subject in terms of the content of the image, such as the number of figures used, their placing. Sometimes distinctions have been made between iconology and iconography, although the definitions, and so the distinction made, varies, when referring to movies, genres are immediately recognizable through their iconography, motifs that become associated with a specific genre through repetition. Gian Pietro Bellori, a 17th-century biographer of artists of his own time, describes and analyses, not always correctly, many works. Lessings study of the classical figure Amor with a torch was an early attempt to use a study of a type of image to explain the culture it originated in. These early contributions paved the way for encyclopedias, manuals, mâles lArt religieux du XIIIe siècle en France translated into English as The Gothic Image, Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth Century has remained continuously in print. In the United States, to which Panofsky immigrated in 1931, students such as Frederick Hartt, the period from 1940 can be seen as one where iconography was especially prominent in art history. These are now being digitised and made online, usually on a restricted basis. For example, the Iconclass code 71H7131 is for the subject of Bathsheba with Davids letter, whereas 71 is the whole Old Testament and 71H the story of David. A number of collections of different types have been classified using Iconclass, notably types of old master print, the collections of the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. These are available, usually on-line or on DVD, the system can also be used outside pure art history, for example on sites like Flickr. Central to the iconography and hagiography of Indian religions are mudra or gestures with specific meanings, the symbolic use of colour to denote the Classical Elements or Mahabhuta and letters and bija syllables from sacred alphabetic scripts are other features. Under the influence of art developed esoteric meanings, accessible only to initiates. The art of Indian Religions esp, for example, Narasimha an incarnation of Vishnu though considered a wrathful deity but in few contexts is depicted in pacified mood. Conversely, in Hindu art, narrative scenes have become more common in recent centuries, especially in miniature paintings of the lives of Krishna. Eventually the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, after the period of Byzantine iconoclasm iconographical innovation was regarded as unhealthy, if not heretical, in the Eastern Church, though it still continued at a glacial pace. More than in the West, traditional depictions were often considered to have authentic or miraculous origins, the Eastern church also never accepted the use of monumental high relief or free-standing sculpture, which it found too reminiscent of paganism
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Indian religions
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These religions are also classified as Eastern religions. Although Indian religions are connected through the history of India, they constitute a wide range of religious communities, evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings. The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which lasted from 3300 to 1300 BCE, had an early urbanised culture which predates the Vedic religion. The documented history of Indian religions begins with the historical Vedic religion, the practices of the early Indo-Iranians. The period of the composition, redaction and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period, the Reform or Shramanic Period between 800–200 BCE marks a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions. This period also saw the writing of the Upanishads and the rise of Vedanta, the early Islamic period also gave rise to new movements. Sikhism was founded in the 15th century on the teachings of Guru Nanak, the vast majority of its adherents originate in the Punjab region. With the colonial dominance of the British a reinterpretation and synthesis of Hinduism arose, james Mill, in his The History of British India, distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been criticised, for the misconceptions it has given rise to, another periodisation is the division into ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods, although this periodization has also received criticism. The division in Ancient-Medieval-Modern overlooks the fact that the Muslim-conquests took place between the eight and the century, while the south was never completely conquered. According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on significant social and economic changes, smart and Michaels seem to follow Mills periodisation, while Flood and Muesse follow the ancient, classical, mediaeval and modern periods periodisation. Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka, depicting dances, neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic. Marshalls interpretations have been debated, and sometimes disputed over the following decades. One Indus valley seal shows a seated, possibly ithyphallic and tricephalic, figure with a horned headdress, surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as a form of the Hindu god Shiva, who is associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga, regarded as a lord of animals. The seal has hence come to be known as the Pashupati Seal, after Pashupati, while Marshalls work has earned some support, many critics and even supporters have raised several objections. Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three faces, or yogic posture, and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals. Despite the criticisms of Marshalls association of the seal with a proto-Shiva icon, historians like Heinrich Zimmer, Thomas McEvilley are of the opinion that there exists some link between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha & Indus Valley civilisation
7.
Hatha yoga
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Hatha yoga is a branch of yoga that emphasizes physical exercises to master the body along with mind exercises to withdraw it from external objects. The word haṭha literally means force in Sanskrit, and may have this association because the early Indians believed that its practice was challenging, the term Hatha yoga connotes a system of supplementary physical techniques within the broader concept of Yoga. The Hatha yoga origins have been credited by scholars to the Nath yogi tradition of Shaivism. However, according to James Mallinson, Hatha yoga has more ancient roots, Hatha yoga was a broad movement that developed over a range of sectarian yoga traditions in India, one that was available to all and practiced by the householders. Important innovations in Hatha yoga, for example, are associated with the Dashanami Sampradaya, the methodology sometimes includes sequences such as the Surya Namaskara, or salute to the sun, which consists of several asanas performed as a fluid movement sequence. The aims of Hatha yoga have traditionally been the same as those of varieties of yoga. They include physical siddhis and spiritual liberation and it is now colloquially termed as simply yoga. It has also developed into new movements and styles, such as the Iyengar Yoga, but these are not same as the traditional Hatha yoga. According to Mallinson, an Oxford scholar known for his studies on Hatha yoga, its techniques can be traced back to the 1st millennium BCE texts such as the Sanskrit epics and the Pali canon. However, the first explicit use of the phrase Hatha yoga appears for the first time in Sanskrit texts of about the 11th-century CE, the Vedic era sage Kapila of Samkhya school fame is attributed in section 29 of the Dattatreya yogasasta text to have developed early Hatha yoga techniques. Kapilas methods, states this text, contrasted with the eight fold yoga methodology of another Vedic sage named Yajnavalkya. Hathayoga, states Mallinson, overlapped with major traditions of Hinduism of the 1st millennium, ancient Sanskrit texts do not use the phrase Hatha yoga, but their verses describe physical exercises and postures that appear in later Hatha yoga texts, though sometimes in a different poetic meter. According to Nicholas Tarling, the Pancaratrika doctrines crystallized by the first two centuries of the common era, gerald Larson and other scholars date the yoga-containing Vaishnava Pancaratra text Ahirbudhnya Samhita to somewhere between 300 and 800 CE. In the earliest texts, Hatha Yoga is not opposed to Patanjali Yoga, rather it is supplementary, with a different aim. Hatha Yoga in these texts aim to conserve physical essence of life, in contrast, later texts describe kundalini energy through a system of cakras. The texts state that being able to preserve and use this energy through Yoga is a means to achieve various siddhi, the Pali canon contains three passages in which Khecharividya, the practice of pressing the tongue against the palate, are mentioned. Two of these state that they help bring mind under control, while the passage states it suppresses thirst. The canon also mentions the Hatha yoga-style practices of Ajivika ascetics – an ancient Indian tradition that became extinct, prior to the composition of the Hathapradīpikā, all medieval Hatha Yoga literature is in Sanskrit
8.
Pranayama
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Prāṇāyāma is a Sanskrit word alternatively translated as extension of the prāṇa or breath control. The word is composed from two Sanskrit words, prana meaning life force, and either ayama or the negative form ayāma and it is a yogic discipline with origins in ancient India. V. S. Thomas McEvilley translates prāṇa as spirit-energy, the breath is understood to be its most subtle material form, but is also believed to be present in the blood, and most concentrated in mens semen and womens vaginal fluid. Monier-Williams defines the compound prāṇāyāma as N. of the three breath-exercises performed during Saṃdhyā (See pūrak, rechak, kumbhak and this technical definition refers to a particular system of breath control with three processes as explained by Bhattacharyya, pūrak, kumbhak, and rechak. There are also other processes of prāṇāyāma in addition to this three-step model, macdonell gives the etymology as prāṇa + āyāma and defines it as m. suspension of breath. Aptes definition of āyāmaḥ derives it from ā + yām and provides several variant meanings for it used in compounds. An alternative etymology for the compound is cited by Ramamurti Mishra, prāṇāyāma is mentioned in verse 4.29 of the Bhagavad Gītā. According to Bhagavad-Gītā As It Is, prāṇāyāma is translated to trance induced by stopping all breathing, pranayama is the fourth limb of the eight limbs of Ashtanga Yoga mentioned in verse 2.29 in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Patanjali, a Hindu Rishi, discusses his specific approach to pranayama in verses 2.49 through 2.51, Patanjali does not fully elucidate the nature of prana, and the theory and practice of pranayama seem to have undergone significant development after him. He presents pranayama as essentially an exercise that is preliminary to concentration, many yoga teachers advise that pranayama should be part of an overall practice that includes the other limbs of Patanjalis Raja Yoga teachings, especially Yama, Niyama, and Asana. Prāṇāyāma techniques and forms include, Agni-prasana or Agni Prana like kapalabhati, agnisar prāṇāyāma - an abdominal breath. Anuloma prāṇāyāma - a form of alternate nostril breath, bhastrika prāṇāyāma - fast and forceful inhales and exhales driven by diaphragmatic breathing. Bhastrika is a cleansing kriya to clear the nadis, nostrils, bhramari prāṇāyāma - making a humming sound while breathing. Kapalabhati prāṇāyāma - similar to bhastrika, but with a passive inhale and a forceful exhale, powered mainly by the diaphragm, kumbhaka prāṇāyāma - controlling both antara and bahya. Pratiloma prāṇāyāma - the inverse of anuloma, the inhale is drawn through one nostril, sama vṛtti prāṇāyāma - the inhale and exhale are of equal size and duration. Shitali prāṇāyāma - Inhalation is drawn over the curled and extended tongue, shitkari prāṇāyāma - Similar to shitali but the tongue is held between the teeth. Surya bhedana prāṇāyāma and Chandra bhedana prāṇāyāma - Channeling breath in one side and out the other without alternating, the right nostril is associated with the sun and left nostril with the moon. Udgeeth prāṇāyāma - often done with the chanting of the Om mantra, ujjayi prāṇāyāma - also known as victorious or conquering breath is breathing with the glottis slightly engaged, producing a soft sound
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Shukra
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Shukra is a Sanskrit word that means lucid, clear, bright. It also has other meanings, such as the name of an ancient sage who counseled Asuras in Vedic mythology, in medieval mythology and Hindu astrology, the term refers to the planet Venus, one of the Navagrahas. In one mythology, Shukra is the name of a son of Bhrigu, of the third Manu and he was the guru of Daityas / Asuras, and is also referred to as Shukracharya or Asuracharya in various Hindu texts. In another mythology, found in the Mahabharata, Shukra divided himself into two, one becoming the knowledge source for the Devas and the other half being the knowledge source of the Asuras. In the Mahabharata, Shukracharya is mentioned as one of the mentors of Bhishma and these texts present Shukra as one of the planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion. Other texts such as Surya Siddhanta dated to have been sometime between the 5th century and 10th century present their chapters on various planets with deity mythologies. The manuscripts of texts exist in slightly different versions, present Shukras motion in the skies. ShukraVar is found in most Indian languages, and Shukara Graha is driven by the planet Venus in Hindu astrology, the word Friday in the Greco-Roman and other Indo-European calendars is also based on planet Venus. The zodiac and naming system of Hindu astrology likely developed in the centuries after the arrival of Greek astrology with Alexander the Great, in Buddhist and Hindu astrology, Shukra is a part of the medieval astrological explanations offered for various ailments. In his iconography, he is of white complexion, middle-aged and he is described variously as mounted on a camel, horse or crocodile. He holds a stick, beads and a lotus and sometimes a bow and arrow, varuna Asura Ahura Mazda Venus Venus Pingree, David. The Mesopotamian Origin of Early Indian Mathematical Astronomy, journal for the History of Astronomy
10.
Amrita
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Amrit or Amata is a word that literally means immortality and is often referred to in texts as nectar. Amṛta is etymologically related to the Greek ambrosia and carries the same meaning, the words earliest occurrence is in the Rigveda, where it is one of several synonyms for soma, the drink which confers immortality upon the gods. Amrit has varying significance in different Indian religions, Amrit is also a common first name for Hindus, the feminine form is Amritā. Amrit is repeatedly referred to as the drink of the devas which grants them immortality, Amrit features in the samudra manthan legend, which describes how the devas, because of a curse from the sage Durvasa, begin to lose their immortality. Assisted by their enemies, the asuras, they churn the ocean and release amrit. Amrit is sometimes said to form on, or flow from. The substance is consumed by worshippers and is alleged to be sweet-tasting, Amrit was the last of the fourteen treasure jewels that emerged from the churning of the ocean and contained in a pot borne by Dhanvantari, the physician of the Gods. Amrit is the name of the water used in the baptism ceremony or Amrit Sanchar in Sikhism. This ceremony is observed to initiate the Sikhs into the Khalsa and this is created by mixing a number of soluble ingredients, including sugar, and is then rolled with a khanda with the accompaniment of scriptural recitation of five sacred verses. Metaphorically, Gods name is referred to as a nectar, According to Thanissaro Bhikkhu. In the Amata Sutta, the Buddha advises monks to stay with the four Satipatthana, Monks, dont let the deathless be lost to you. Nectar, sire, has pointed out by the Blessed One. It is mindfulness occupied with the body, and this too, sire, was said by the Blessed One, Monks, they partake of nectar who partake of mindfulness that is occupied with the body. This, sire, is called the Blessed Ones nectar shop, — Miln 335 Amrit also plays a significant role in Vajrayana Buddhism as a sacramental drink which is consumed at the beginning of all important rituals such as the abhisheka, ganachakra, and homa. In the Tibetan tradition, dütsi is made during drubchens - lengthy ceremonies involving many high lamas and it usually takes the form of small, dark-brown grains that are taken with water, or dissolved in very weak solutions of alcohol and is said to improve physical and spiritual well-being. The foundational text of traditional Tibetan medicine, the Four Tantras, is known by the name The Heart of Amrita. The Immaculate Crystal Garland describes the origin of amrita in a version of the samudra manthan legend retold in Buddhist terms, in this Vajrayana version, the monster Rahu steals the amrita and is blasted by Vajrapanis thunderbolt. As Rahu has already drunk the amrita he cannot die, but his blood, dripping onto the surface of this earth, at the behest of all the Buddhas, Vajrapani reassembles Rahu who eventually becomes a protector of Buddhism according to the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism
11.
Mula Bandha
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Mūla Bandha is a Sanskrit compound term, Mūla denotes root, base, beginning, foundation, origin or cause, basis, source, Bandha denotes bondage, fetter, posture, joining together, catching hold of. Iyengar defines Mūla Bandha as, A posture where the body from the anus to the navel is contracted and lifted up and this is qualified in that the actual muscle contracted is not the sphincter muscle nor the muscle which cessates urination, but the muscle equidistant between the two. Maehle defines it as root lock and further specifies that, The root referred to here is the root of the spine, the floor or, more precisely, the centre of the pelvic floor. The perineum is the body between the anus and the genitals. Mula Bandha is said to move prana into the channel, called sushumna. Mūla Bandha is the principal, key and primary Bandha of the Yogic traditions, Mūla Bandha is endemic to all safe, grounded workings of bodymind disciplines. Mūla Bandha should be held as a restraint only after kumbhaka, Iyengar likens the functionality of the Bandha and especially Mūla Bandha to safety-valves which should be kept shut during the practice of kumbhakas. Iyengar cautions that, Mūla Bandha should be attempted first in antara kumbhaka, the region of the lower abdomen between the navel and the anus is contracted towards the spine and pulled up to the diaphragm. Iyengar states that, While practicing Mūla Bandha, the attempts to reach the true source or mūla of creation. ISBN 1-57731-606-1 & ISBN 978-1-57731-606-0 Iyengar, B. K. S, thorsons, An Imprint of Harper Collins Publishers, Hammersmith, London
12.
Viparita Karani
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Viparita Karani literally Upside-Down is considered alternately as an asana or a mudra in haṭha yoga. The name comes from the Sanskrit words viparita meaning inverted or reversed, viparita Karani refers to any practice where one is upside down. This can include the asanas of shoulder stand, headstand, or handstand, variations include bringing the soles of the feet together such as in Baddha Konasana or letting the legs fall outward into a straddle. List of asanas Iyengar, B. K. S. Illustrated Light On Yoga, Yoga, Tantra and Meditation in Daily Life. A Systematic Course in the Ancient Tantric Techniques of Yoga and Kriya
13.
Chinese language
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Chinese is a group of related, but in many cases mutually unintelligible, language varieties, forming a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Chinese is spoken by the Han majority and many ethnic groups in China. Nearly 1.2 billion people speak some form of Chinese as their first language, the varieties of Chinese are usually described by native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, but linguists note that they are as diverse as a language family. The internal diversity of Chinese has been likened to that of the Romance languages, There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese, of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin, followed by Wu, Min, and Yue. Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and certain Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms, all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. Standard Chinese is a form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. It is the language of China and Taiwan, as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six languages of the United Nations. The written form of the language, based on the logograms known as Chinese characters, is shared by literate speakers of otherwise unintelligible dialects. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is the spoken language and official in Hong Kong and Macau. It is also influential in Guangdong province and much of Guangxi, dialects of Southern Min, part of the Min group, are widely spoken in southern Fujian, with notable variants also spoken in neighboring Taiwan and in Southeast Asia. Hakka also has a diaspora in Taiwan and southeast Asia. Shanghainese and other Wu varieties are prominent in the lower Yangtze region of eastern China, Chinese can be traced back to a hypothetical Sino-Tibetan proto-language. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty, as the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have sought to promulgate a unified standard. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, in addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, and are often also sensitive border zones. Without a secure reconstruction of proto-Sino-Tibetan, the structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, the earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BCE in the late Shang dynasty
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Pinyin
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Pinyin, or Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in mainland China, Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan. It is often used to teach Standard Chinese, which is written using Chinese characters. The system includes four diacritics denoting tones, Pinyin without tone marks is used to spell Chinese names and words in languages written with the Latin alphabet, and also in certain computer input methods to enter Chinese characters. The pinyin system was developed in the 1950s by many linguists, including Zhou Youguang and it was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times. The International Organization for Standardization adopted pinyin as a standard in 1982. The system was adopted as the standard in Taiwan in 2009. The word Hànyǔ means the language of the Han people. In 1605, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci published Xizi Qiji in Beijing and this was the first book to use the Roman alphabet to write the Chinese language. Twenty years later, another Jesuit in China, Nicolas Trigault, neither book had much immediate impact on the way in which Chinese thought about their writing system, and the romanizations they described were intended more for Westerners than for the Chinese. One of the earliest Chinese thinkers to relate Western alphabets to Chinese was late Ming to early Qing Dynasty scholar-official, the first late Qing reformer to propose that China adopt a system of spelling was Song Shu. A student of the great scholars Yu Yue and Zhang Taiyan, Song had been to Japan and observed the effect of the kana syllabaries. This galvanized him into activity on a number of fronts, one of the most important being reform of the script, while Song did not himself actually create a system for spelling Sinitic languages, his discussion proved fertile and led to a proliferation of schemes for phonetic scripts. The Wade–Giles system was produced by Thomas Wade in 1859, and it was popular and used in English-language publications outside China until 1979. This Sin Wenz or New Writing was much more sophisticated than earlier alphabets. In 1940, several members attended a Border Region Sin Wenz Society convention. Mao Zedong and Zhu De, head of the army, both contributed their calligraphy for the masthead of the Sin Wenz Societys new journal. Outside the CCP, other prominent supporters included Sun Yat-sens son, Sun Fo, Cai Yuanpei, the countrys most prestigious educator, Tao Xingzhi, an educational reformer. Over thirty journals soon appeared written in Sin Wenz, plus large numbers of translations, biographies, some contemporary Chinese literature, and a spectrum of textbooks
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Buddhist art
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Buddhist art is the artistic practices that are influenced by Buddhism. Buddhist art followed believers as the spread, adapted. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art, in India, Buddhist art flourished and co-developed with Hindu and Jain art, with cave temple complexes built together, each likely influencing the other. During the 2nd to 1st century BCE, sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha’s life and these took the form of votive tablets or friezes, usually in relation to the decoration of stupas. Although India had a sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form. This period may have been aniconic, artists were reluctant to depict the Buddha anthropomorphically, and developed sophisticated aniconic symbols to avoid doing so. This tendency remained as late as the 2nd century CE in the parts of India. It has been argued that earlier anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha may have made of wood. However, no related archaeological evidence has been found, the earliest works of Buddhist art in India date back to the 1st century B. C. The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya became a model for similar structures in Burma, the frescoes at Sigiriya are said to be even older than the Ajanta Caves paintings. Anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha started to emerge from the 1st century CE in Northern India, the two main centers of creation have been identified as Gandhara in today’s North West Frontier Province, in Pakistan, and the region of Mathura, in central northern India. Gandharan Buddhist sculpture displays Greek artistic influence, and it has suggested that the concept of the man-god was essentially inspired by Greek mythological culture. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, the Mathuran school contributed clothes covering the left shoulder of thin muslin, the wheel on the palm, the lotus seat, etc. Mathura and Gandhara also strongly influenced each other, during their artistic florescence, the two regions were even united politically under the Kushans, both being capitals of the empire. This expression of the Buddha as both man and God became the canon for subsequent Buddhist art. It is interesting to note that the Buddha is an extensively used subject in plastic arts such as sculpture, paintings and literature, Buddhist art continued to develop in India for a few more centuries. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta period to reach a high fineness of execution. The art of the Gupta school was extremely influential almost everywhere in the rest of Asia, at the end of the 12th century A. D. Buddhism in its full glory came to be preserved only in the Himalayan regions in India
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Indian subcontinent
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Geologically, the Indian subcontinent is related to the land mass that rifted from Gondwana and merged with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago. Geographically, it is the region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west. Politically, the Indian subcontinent usually includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, sometimes, the term South Asia is used interchangeably with Indian subcontinent. There is no consensus about which countries should be included in each and it is first attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. Its use to refer to the Indian subcontinent is seen from the twentieth century. It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both the British India and the states under British Paramountcy. The term Indian subcontinent also has a geological significance and it was, like the various continents, a part of the supercontinent of Gondwana. A series of tectonic splits caused formation of basins, each drifting in various directions. The geological region called the Greater India once included the Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, as a geological term, Indian subcontinent has meant that region formed from the collision of the Indian basin with Eurasia nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. The Indian subcontinent has been a particularly common in the British Empire. The region, state Mittal and Thursby, has also labelled as India, Greater India. The BBC and some sources refer to the region as the Asian Subcontinent. Some academics refer to it as South Asian Subcontinent, the terms Indian subcontinent and South Asia are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or Indian subcontinent. In dictionary entries, the term subcontinent signifies a large, distinguishable subdivision of a continent, the region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antartica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago and this geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains one of the active areas. The English term mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent, physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east
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Natya Shastra
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The Nāṭya Śāstra is a Sanskrit Hindu text on the performing arts. The text is attributed to sage Bharata Muni, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE, the text consists of 36 chapters with a cumulative total of 6000 poetic verses describing performance arts. The Nāṭya Śāstra is notable as an ancient encyclopedic treatise on the arts, one which has influenced dance, music, the text has inspired secondary literature such as Sanskrit bhasya such as by the 10th century Abhinavagupta. The title of the text is composed of two words, Nāṭya and Śāstra, the root of the Sanskrit word Natya is Nat which means act, represent. The word Shastra means precept, rules, manual, compendium, book or treatise, the composition date of Natyashastra is unknown, estimates vary between 500 BCE to 500 CE. The Natya Shastra is traditionally alleged to be linked to a 36,000 verse Vedic composition called Adibharata, the text has survived into the modern age in several manuscript versions, wherein the title of the chapters vary and in some cases the content of the few chapters differ. Some recensions show significant interpolations and corruption of the text, along with internal contradictions, the author of the text is unknown, and the Hindu tradition attributes it to the Rishi Bharata. It may be the work of authors, but scholars disagree. Bharat Gupt states that the text stylistically shows characteristics of a compiler in the existing version. The Natyashastra is the oldest surviving ancient Indian work on performance arts, the roots of the text extend at least as far back as the Natasutras, dated to around the mid 1st millennium BCE. The Natasutras are mentioned in the text of Panini, the sage who wrote the classic on Sanskrit grammar, Richmond et al estimate the Natasutras to have been composed around 600 BCE. The Gandharva subgenre also implied celestial, divine associations, while the Gana was free form art, the Vedanga texts such as verse 1.4.29 of Panini Sutras mention these as well. The roots of the Natyashastra thus likely trace to the ancient vedic traditions of integrating ritual recitation, dialogue. The Sanskrit verses in chapter 13.2 of Shatapatha Brahmana, the Vedic sacrifice is presented as a kind of drama, with its actors, its dialogues, its portion to be set to music, its interludes, and its climaxes. The most studied version of the text, consisting of about 6000 poetic verses, is structured into 36 chapters, the tradition believes that the text originally had 12,000 verses. Somewhat different versions of the manuscripts exist, and these contain 37 or 38 chapters. Predominant number of its verses are in precise Anustubh meter, some verses are in Arya meter, the structure of the text harmoniously compiles aspects of the theatrical arts into separate chapters. The text opens with the genesis and history of drama, mentions the role of different Hindu deities in various aspects of the arts
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Asana
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In yoga, asana refers both to the place in which a practitioner sits and the posture in which he or she sits. In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali defines asana as to be seated in a position that is firm, Patanjali mentions the ability to sit for extended periods as one of the eight limbs of his system, known as ashtanga yoga. Asanas are also performed as physical exercise where they are referred to as yoga postures or yoga positions. Some asanas are arguably performed by many practitioners just for health purposes, Asanas do promote good health, although in different ways compared to physical exercises, placing the physical body in positions that cultivate also awareness, relaxation and concentration. Asana originally meant a sitting position, the word asana in Sanskrit does appear in many contexts denoting a static physical position, although traditional usage is specific to the practice of yoga. Traditional usage defines asana as both singular and plural, in English, plural for asana is defined as asanas. In addition, English usage within the context of yoga practice sometimes specifies yogasana or yoga asana, in the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali describes asana as the third of the eight limbs of classical, or Raja Yoga. Asanas are the movements of yoga practice and, in combination with pranayama or breathing techniques. In the Yoga Sutra, Patanjali describes asana as a steady and comfortable posture, referring specifically to the seated and he further suggests that meditation is the path to samādhi, transpersonal self-realization. The eight limbs are, in order, the yamas, niyamas, asanas, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, in the Yoga Sutras, the only rule Patanjali suggests for practicing asana is that it be steady and comfortable. The body is held poised with the practitioner experiencing no discomfort, listed below are traditional rules for performing asanas, The stomach should be empty. Force or pressure should not be used, and the body should not tremble, lower the head and other parts of the body slowly, in particular, raised heels should be lowered slowly. The benefits of asanas increase if the specific pranayama to the type is performed. If the body is stressed, perform Corpse Pose or Child Pose Such asanas as Sukhasana or Shavasana help to reduce headaches, pranayama, or breath control, is the Fourth Limb of ashtanga, as set out by Patanjali in the Yoga Sutra. The practice is an part of both Hatha Yoga and Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga but while performing asanas. They are to be practiced and perfected as individual practices of their own, Patanjali discusses his specific approach to pranayama in verses 2.49 through 2.51, and devotes verses 2.52 and 2.53 of the Sutra to explaining the benefits of the practice. Patanjali describes pranayama as the control of the life force that is a result of practicing the various breathing techniques. The entirety of breathing practices includes those classified as pranayama, as well as others called svarodaya and it is a vast practice that goes far beyond the limits of pranayama as applied to asana
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Meditation
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The word meditation carries different meanings in different contexts. Meditation has been practiced since antiquity as a component of religious traditions. Meditation often involves an internal effort to self-regulate the mind in some way, Meditation is often used to clear the mind and ease many health concerns, such as high blood pressure, depression, and anxiety. It may be sitting, or in an active way—for instance. Prayer beads or other objects are commonly used during meditation in order to keep track of or remind the practitioner about some aspect of that training. The term meditation can refer to the state itself, as well as to practices or techniques employed to cultivate the state, Meditation may also involve repeating a mantra and closing the eyes. The mantra is chosen based on its suitability to the individual meditator, Meditation has a calming effect and directs awareness inward until pure awareness is achieved, described as being awake inside without being aware of anything except awareness itself. In brief, there are dozens of styles of meditation practice. The English meditation is derived from the Latin meditatio, from a verb meditari, meaning to think, contemplate, devise, in the Old Testament, hāgâ means to sigh or murmur, and also, to meditate. When the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek, hāgâ became the Greek melete, the Latin Bible then translated hāgâ/melete into meditatio. The use of the term meditatio as part of a formal, the term meditation in English may also refer to practices from Islamic Sufism, or other traditions such as Jewish Kabbalah and Christian Hesychasm. An edited book about meditation published in 2003, for example, included contributions by authors describing Hindu, Buddhist, Taoist, Jewish, Christian. Christian, Judaic, and Islamic forms of meditation are typically devotional, scriptural or thematic, the history of meditation is intimately bound up with the religious context within which it was practiced. Some of the earliest references to meditation are found in the Hindu Vedas of Nepal, wilson translates the most famous Vedic mantra Gayatri thus, We meditate on that desirable light of the divine Savitri, who influences our pious rites. Around the 6th to 5th centuries BC, other forms of meditation developed via Confucianism and Taoism in China as well as Hinduism, Jainism, and early Buddhism in Nepal and India. In the west, by 20 BC Philo of Alexandria had written on some form of exercises involving attention and concentration. The Pāli Canon, which dates to 1st century BC considers Indian Buddhist meditation as a step towards liberation, by the time Buddhism was spreading in China, the Vimalakirti Sutra which dates to 100 AD included a number of passages on meditation, clearly pointing to Zen. The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism introduced meditation to other Asian countries, returning from China around 1227, Dōgen wrote the instructions for zazen
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Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand
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The Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand is referred to as pang phraputtarup th, ปางพระพุทธรูป, and a given pose as pang Thai, ปาง episode. In other Buddhist countries, different but related iconography is used, the Buddha is always represented with certain physical attributes, and in specified dress and specified poses. Each pose, and particularly the position and gestures of the Buddhas hands, has a meaning which is familiar to Buddhists. Although the Buddha is not a god, Buddhists seek to communicate with the world through Buddha images, making offerings to them. Buddha images are not intended to be representations of what Gautama Buddha looked like. There are no images of him, and the oldest Buddha images date from 500 to 600 years after his lifetime. But Buddhists believe that Buddha images represent an ideal reality of the Buddha, when creating a Buddha image, the artist is expected to be in a spiritual and mental state that will enable him to visualise this ideal reality. There is no requirement that every Buddha image be identical, and in there is a wide variety of artistic styles. There are, however, certain rules of representation that must be adhered to, by the end of the Gupta Empire, the canon of representation had become more varied, with the seated meditative position becoming common, particularly in Sri Lanka. By the 7th century CE the canon was largely as it is seen today, as Buddhism spread from India to other countries, variations in the depiction of the Buddha evolved. This article describes the canon of Buddha representation in Thailand and Laos and this canon was not formalised until the 19th century, as part of the general project of modernisation that followed the Buddhist worlds encounter with Western civilisation. At the request of King Rama III, Paramanuchit described and represented 40 different postures of the Buddha in a treatise called Pathama Sambodhikatha. Some of these, such as Buddha threading a needle, were new, paramanuchits illustrations were later rendered as bronze miniatures, which can be seen today at Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok and serve as templates for the creation of modern Buddhist imagery. Th, ปางปรินิพพาน The Dīgha Nikāya, a Pāli text of the 1st century BCE, gives a list of 32 physical attributes of the Buddha. Some of these are poetic or fanciful, while others are specific, feet with level tread, projecting heels, long and slender fingers and toes. Although it is not required that Buddha images reflect all of these attributes, most curiously, the Buddha is said to have had a protuberance on the top of his skull, the usnīsa. This is sometimes shown as a spire or spike, and sometimes only as a small bump, the Buddha always has a serene expression or a faint smile. The Buddha is also depicted with very long earlobes
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Jamgon Kongtrul
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Jamgön Kongtrül Lodrö Thayé, born in Rongyap, Kham, Tibet, was one of the most prominent Buddhist masters in Tibet in the 19th century. He is credited as one of the founders of the Rimé movement of Tibetan Buddhism and he achieved great renown as a scholar and writer, and authored more than one hundred volumes of scriptures. Without Khyentse and Kongtruls collecting and printing of works, the later suppression of Buddhism by the Communists would have been much more final. The biography of Khakyab Dorje, 15th Karmapa Lama mentions he had a vision in which he saw 25 simultaneous emanations of the master Jamgön Kongtrül, preeminent among these was Karsé Kongtrül. Karsé Kongtrül was born as the son of the 15th Karmapa and his formal religious name was as Jamyang Khyentsé Özer. Karsé Kongtrül was identified and enthroned by his father at age twelve in 1902, Karsé Kongtrül resided at Tsadra Rinchen Drak, the seat of his predecessor in eastern Tibet. He received the education and lineage transmission from the Karmapa. Among his other teachers were Surmang Trungpa Chökyi Nyinche, the 10th Trungpa tulku and he attained realization of the ultimate lineage, was one of the most renowned Mahamudra masters and transmitted the innermost teachings to Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, 16th Karmapa. Karsé Kongtrül died on 10 May 1952 at the age of 49, the 3rd Jamgon Kongtrul, Karma Lodrö Chökyi Senge, a tulku of Khyentse Özer, was born on 1 October 1954. He fled to India in 1959 in the aftermath of the 1959 Tibetan uprising and grew up at Rumtek Monastery under the care of Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, following the Karmapas death, the 3rd Jamgon Kongtrul was actively involved in the search for his successor. However, he died in a car accident on 26 April 1992 before the search could be completed, the 4th Jamgon Kongtrul Migyur Drakpa Senge was born on 17 December 1995 in the Kathmandu valley, as son of Beru Khyentse Rinpoche. The day before he was born, the late Chogye Trichen Rinpoche said in front of many Lamas and Tulkus, “Like prophesied_today Jamgon Rinpoche arrived. ”In 1996, when the 17th Gyalwang Karmapa Trinley Thaye Dorje, arrived in Bodhgaya, when he met the young Jamgon Rinpoche for the first time. Yangsi Rinpoche despite his age was able to spontaneously pick up some rice and toss it into the air as a mandala offering, Straight away he exclaimed, “This is the Jamgon Yangsi indeed. ”He then issued a recognition letter. From when he was five years old, he started to read books and memorizing the rituals, from the age of 14, he stayed in buddhist institute where he studied the great texts and buddhist philosophy. He received many Vajrayana empowerments from mainly Karma Kagyu lineage and other Guru Practices, furthermore, he has received training and transmission, oral instructions on Mahamudra. Kalu Rinpoche, also recognized post-facto as the incarnation of Lodrö Thayes activity, was never enthroned as such, according to the 15th Karmapa, there were 25 simultaneous reincarnations. The main corpus of Jamgön Kongtrül Lodrö Thaye vast scholarly activities is known as the Great Treasuries, The Treasury of Encyclopedic Knowledge, summarizing the entire sutric and tantric paths. The Treasury of Precious Instructions, a compendium of empowerments and oral instructions of what he formulated as the Eight Great Chariots of the lineages in Tibet
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Hevajra
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Hevajra is one of the main yidams in Tantric, or Vajrayana Buddhism. The Hevajra Tantra, a yoginītantra of the class, is believed to have originated between the late 8th, and the late 9th or early 10th centuries, in Eastern India. Tāranātha lists Saroruha and Kampala as its bringers and he also conferred abhiṣeka on his own disciples. After this, two ācāryas Lva-va-pā and Saroruha brought the Hevajra Tantra, siddha Sarouha was the first to bring the Hevajra-pitṛ-sādhana Another lineage, mentioned by Kongtrul, goes from Vilāśyavajra to Anangavajra to Saroruha and thence to Indrabhuti. Jamgon Amyeshab, the 28th throne holder of Sakya, considers the Hevajra Tantra to have revealed to Virupa by the Nirmanakaya Vajranairatma. He, in turn, passed on his knowledge of this tantra to Marpa, Marpa also received instruction in the Hevajratantra from Maitrīpa, alias Advayavajra, who was banished from Vikramashila for practicing with a yoginī during the time of Atīśas abbothood. Kanha was one of the authors of Caryapada, drakpa Gyeltsen writes in his Chronicle of the Indic Masters, Now Lachen first went to Nepal and entered into the door of mantra through Bhāro Ham-thung. Then he went to India itself and, realizing that the Āchārya Ratnākaraśānti was both greatly renowned and learned, he heard extensively the Vinaya, Prajñapāramitā, and mantra. From Bhikṣu Vīravajra he heard extensively the mantra material of the three tantras of Hevajra, complete in all their branches and he also requested the many instruction manuals of Acintyakrama and so forth, so that he heard the Lamdré without the fundamental text as well. In this way, Drokmi lived in India for twelve years and this was the beginning of the close relationship between the Sakya Order and the Hevajratantra. In the Blue Annals, Gos lotsawa suggests that both the Havajra as well as the Kalachakra Tantras are commentaries on, or introductions to, the Guhyasamāja. The Chinese version of the Hevajra Tantra was translated by Fa-hu at the Institute for Canonical Translations in the capital of the Northern Sung, Bian liang, the five-volume translation was presented to the Emperor Jen-tsung at the end of Zhi he 1. However, the Hevajra Tantra did not become popular in China, the title of the Chinese version reads The Scriptural Text of the Ritual of The Great King of the Teaching The Adamantine One with Great Compassion and Knowledge of the Void explained by Buddha. The preface reads, From among the 32 sections of the general tantra of Mahāmāyā one has taken 2 rituals with Nairātmyā. Surviving images indicate that the Hevajra Tantra was brought to Cambodia during the Khmer Empire, in 1244 the grandson of Genghis Khan, Prince Godan, invited Sakya Pandita to Mongolia and was initiated by him into the Hevajra teachings. In 1253 Kublai Khan invited Sakya Panditas Nephew Chogyal Phagpa to court, as a result, Buddhism was declared the state religion and Phagpa was given authority over three of Tibets provinces. The Hevajra Tantra became the first major Buddhist Tantra to be translated in its entirety into a Western language when David Snellgrove published his The Hevajra Tantra, A Critical Study in 1959. This work is in two volumes, the first volume containing his introduction including an apology explaining why such a text is worthy of study, the second volume contains his editions of the Sanskrit and Tibetan texts as well as a Sanskrit text of the Yogaratnamālā
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Wrathful deities
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In Buddhism, wrathful deities are enlightened beings who take on wrathful forms in order to lead sentient beings to enlightenment. They are a feature of the iconography of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. A wrathful deity is often a manifestation of a bodhisattva or other normally peaceful figure. In Tibetan art, wrathful deities are presented as fearsome, demonic beings adorned with human skulls, wrathful deities are representations of negative karmas, in the same way as peaceful deities are representations of positive karmas. The symbol of the wrathful ones is the kapala, a half skull filled with blood, dakinis are their feminine counterparts, sometimes depicted with a heruka and sometimes as independent deities. The most prevalent wrathful dakinis are Vajrayogini and Vajravārāhī and these vary in the level of realization attributed to them. This can be anything from fully enlightened to an oath-bound worldly spirit, most of the major Dharmapalas are said to be enlightened. Among the Dharmapāla, one of the most common categories are The Eight Dharmapalas and they are supernatural beings with the rank of bodhisattva who are supposed to wage war without any mercy against the demons and enemies of Buddhism
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Indian classical dance
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The number of recognized classical dances range from eight to more, depending on the source and scholar. The Sangeet Natak Akademi recognizes eight – Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Kuchipudi, Odissi, Kathakali, Sattriya, Manipuri, scholars such as Drid Williams add Chhau, Yaksagana and Bhagavata Mela to the list. The Culture Ministry of the Government of India includes Chhau in its classical list and these dances have been regional, all of them include music and recitation in local language or Sanskrit, and they represent a unity of core ideas in a diversity of styles, costumes and expression. The Natya Shastra is the treatise for classical dances of India. Its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE, the most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters. Dance and performance arts, states this ancient text, are a form of expression of ideas, virtues. The term classical denotes the Natya Shastra-based performing arts, as a religious art, they are either performed inside the sanctum of a Hindu temple, or near it. The Natya Shastra mentions four Pravrittis of ancient dance-drama in vogue when it was composed – Avanti, Dakshinatya, Panchali, sources differ in their list of Indian classical dance forms. The Sangeet Natak Akademi has given recognition to eight Indian dances, the Indian governments Ministry of Culture includes eleven dance forms. Scholars such as Drid Williams and others include Chhau, Yaksagana and these are Nritta, Nritya and Natya, The Nritta performance is abstract, fast and rhythmic aspect of the dance. The viewer is presented with pure movement, wherein the emphasis is the beauty in motion, form, speed, range and this part of the repertoire has no interpretative aspect, no telling of story. It is a performance, and aims to engage the senses of the audience. The Nritya is slower and expressive aspect of the dance that attempts to communicate feelings, in a nritya, the dance-acting expands to include silent expression of words through gestures and body motion set to musical notes. The actor articulates a legend or a spiritual message and this part of the repertoire is more than sensory enjoyment, it aims to engage the emotions and mind of the viewer. A Natya incorporates the elements of a Nritya, all classical dances of India used similar symbolism and rules of gestures in abhinaya. The roots of abhinaya are found in the Natyashastra text which defines drama in verse 6, drama in this ancient Sanskrit text, thus is an art to engage every aspect of life, in order to glorify and gift a state of joyful consciousness. The communication through symbols is in the form of expressive gestures, the gestures and facial expressions convey the ras and bhava of the underlying story. In Hindu classical dances, the artist successfully expresses the ideas by paying attention to four aspects of a performance, Angika, Vachika, Aharya
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Bharatanatyam
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Bharatanatyam or Bharathanatiyam is a major genre of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamil Nadu. Bharatanatyam is quite possibly the oldest classical dance tradition of India, the dance is accompanied by music and a singer, and typically her guru is present as the director and conductor of the performance. The dance has traditionally been a form of a narration of mythical legends. The performance repertoire of Bharatanatyam, like other classical dances, includes nrita, modern stage productions of Bharatanatyam have incorporated technical performances, pure dance based on non-religious ideas and fusion themes. The term Bharatanatyam is a compound of two words, Bharata and Natyam, the term Bharata in Bharatanaytam, in the Hindu tradition, is not named after the famous performance art sage to whom the ancient Natya Shastra is attributed. The tradition states that the word Bharata is a mnemonic, consisting of bha–ra–ta, the bha stands for bhava, ra stands for raga, and ta stands for tala. The term Natyam is a Sanskrit word for dance, the compound word Bharatanatyam thus connotes a dance which harmoniously expresses bhava, raga and tala. In its history, Bharatanatyam has also been called Sadir, the theoretical foundations of Bharatanatyam are found in Natya Shastra, the ancient Hindu text of performance arts. Natya Shastra is attributed to the ancient scholar Bharata Muni, the most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters. Dance and performance arts, states this ancient text, are a form of expression of ideas, virtues. More direct historical references to Bharatnatyam is found in the Tamil epics Silappatikaram, the ancient text Silappatikaram, includes a story of a dancing girl named Madhavi, it describes the dance training regimen called Arangatrau Kathai of Madhavi in verses 113 through 159. The carvings in Kanchipurams Shiva temple that have dated to 6th to 9th century CE suggest Bharatanatyam was a well developed performance art by about the mid 1st millennium CE. Many of the ancient Shiva sculptures in Hindu temples are same as the Bharata Natyam dance poses, for example, the Cave 1 of Badami cave temples, dated to 7th-century, portrays the Tandava-dancing Shiva as Nataraja. The image,5 feet tall, has 18 arms in a form that expresses the dance positions arranged in a geometric pattern, the arms of Shiva express mudras, that are found in Bharatanatyam. Bharatanatyam, state Allen Noble and Ashok Dutt, has been a source of inspiration to the musicians, poets. Some colonial Indologists and modern authors have stated Bharatanatyam is a descendant of an ancient Devadasi culture, modern scholarship has questioned this theory for lack of any direct textual or archeological evidence. According to James Lochtefeld, Bharatanatyam remained exclusive to Hindu temples through the 19th century, the anti-dance camp accused the dance form as a front for prostitution, while revivalists questioned the constructed histories by the colonial writers. In 1910, the Madras Presidency of the British Empire altogether banned temple dancing, the 1910 ban triggered powerful protests against the stereotyping and dehumanization of temple dancers
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Kathakali
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Kathakali is one of the major forms of classical Indian dance. It is another story play genre of art, but one distinguished by its elaborately colorful make-up, costumes and face masks wearing actor-dancers, Kathakali primarily developed as a Hindu performance art in the Malayalam-speaking southwestern region of India. A Kathakali performance, like all classical dance arts of India, includes music, vocal performers, hand and facial gestures to express ideas, however, Kathakali differs in its style and incorporates movements from the ancient martial arts and athletic traditions of south India. The traditional themes of the Kathakali are folk mythologies, religious legends and spiritual ideas from the Hindu epics, the vocal performance has traditionally been Sanskritised Malayalam. In modern compositions, Indian Kathakali troupes have included artists, as well as adapted Western stories and plays such as those by Shakespeare. The term Kathakali is derived from Katha which means story, or a conversation, or a traditional tale, according to Phillip Zarrilli, elements and aspects of Kathakali can be found in ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Natya Shastra. The Natya Shastra is attributed to sage Bharata, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary between 500 BCE and 500 CE. The most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters, Dance and performance arts, states this ancient Hindu text, are a form of expression of spiritual ideas, virtues and the essence of scriptures. The roots of Kathakali are unclear, jones and Ryan state it is more than 500 years old. According to Phillip Zarrilli, Kathakali emerged as a genre of performance art during the 16th and 17th centuries in a coastal population of south India that spoke Malayalam. The roots of Kathakali, states Mahinder Singh, are more ancient, the Kutiyattam, adds Richmond, is one of the oldest continuously performed theatre forms in India, and it may well be the oldest surviving art form of the ancient world. Kutiyattam, traditionally, was performed in specially designed and attached to Hindu temples, particularly dedicated to the older Shiva tradition. The theatre design matches the dimensions and architecture recommended as ideal in the ancient Natya Shastra, Krishnanattam is the likely immediate precursor of Kathakali, states Zarrilli. Krishnanattam is dance-drama art form about the life and activities of Hindu god Krishna, that developed under the sponsorship of Sri Manavedan Raja, the traditional legend states that Kottarakkara Thampuran requested the services of a Krishnanattam troupe, but his request was denied. The south Indian martial art of Kalarippayattu has influenced Kathakali, Kathakali also expanded the performance repertoire, style and standardized the costume making it easier for the audience to understand the various performances and new plays. Kathakali is structured around plays called Attakatha, written in Sanskritized Malayalam and these plays are written in a particular format that helps identify the action and the dialogue parts of the performance. The Shloka part is the verse, written in third person – often entirely in Sanskrit. The Pada part contains the dialogue part, a Kathakali repertoire is an operatic performance where an ancient story is playfully dramatized
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Odissi
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Odissi, also referred to as Orissi in older literature, is a major ancient Indian classical dance that originated in the Hindu temples of Odisha – an eastern coastal state of India. Odissi, in its history, was performed predominantly by women, Odissi performances have also expressed ideas of other traditions such as those related to Hindu gods Shiva and Surya, as well as Hindu goddesses. The Odissi dance tradition declined during the Islamic rule era, and was suppressed under the British Rule, the suppression was protested by the Indians, followed by its revival, reconstruction and expansion since India gained independence from the colonial rule. Odissi is learnt and performed as a composite of basic dance motif called the Bhangas and it involves lower, mid and upper as three sources of perfecting expression and audience engagement with geometric symmetry and rhythmic musical resonance. An Odissi performance repertoire includes invocation, nritta, nritya, natya, modern Odissi productions by Indian artists have presented a diverse range of experimental ideas, culture fusion, themes and plays. The foundations of Odissi are found in Natya Shastra, the ancient Hindu Sanskrit text of performance arts, the basic dance units described in Natyashastra, all 108 of them, are identical to those in Odissi. Natya Shastra is attributed to the ancient scholar Bharata Muni, the most studied version of the Natya Shastra text consists of about 6000 verses structured into 36 chapters. Dance and performance arts, states this ancient text, are a form of expression of ideas, virtues. The Natya Shastra refers to four vrittis in vogue – Avanti, Dakshinatya, Panchali and Odra-Magadhi, of these, the Odra refers to Odisha. More direct historical evidence of dance and music as an ancient performance art are found in sites such as caves and in temple carvings of Bhubaneswar, Konarak. The Manchapuri cave in Udayagiri shows carvings of dance and musicians, — Hathigumpha inscription, Line 5, ~ 2nd-1st century BCE The musical tradition of Odisha also has ancient roots. Archeologists have reported the discovery of 20-key, carefully shaped polished basalt lithophone in Sankarjang, the highlands of Odisha, which is dated to about 1000 BCE. The Buddhist, Jaina and Hindu archaeological sites in Odisha state, particularly the Assia range of hills show inscriptions, important sites include the Ranigumpha in Udaygiri, and various caves and temples at Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and Alatgiri sites. The Buddhist icons, for example, are depicted as dancing gods and goddesses, with Haruka, Vajravarahi, historical evidence, states Alexandra Carter, shows that Odissi Maharis and dance halls architecture were in vogue at least by the 9th century CE. However, the Jaina manuscripts use the dance poses as decorative art in the margins and cover, but do not describe or discuss the dance. Hindu dance texts such as the Abhinaya Chandrika and Abhinaya Darpana provide a description of the movements of the feet, hands, the standing postures, the movement. It includes illustrations of the Karanãs mentioned in NãtyaShãstra, similarly, the illustrated Hindu text on temple architecture from Odisha, the Shilpaprakãsha, deals with Odia architecture and sculpture, and includes Odissi postures. Actual sculptures that have survived into the era and panel reliefs in Odia temples, dated to be from the 10th to 14th century
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Rambhadracharya
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He is one of four incumbent Jagadguru Ramanandacharya, and has held this title since 1988. Rambhadracharya is the founder and head of Tulsi Peeth, a religious, Rambhadracharya has been blind since the age of two months, had no formal education till the age of seventeen years, and has never used Braille or any other aid to learn or compose. Rambhadracharya can speak 22 languages and is a poet and writer in Sanskrit, Hindi, Awadhi, Maithili. He is acknowledged for his knowledge in fields including Sanskrit grammar, Nyaya. He is regarded as one of the greatest authorities on Tulsidas in India and he is a Katha artist for the Ramayana and the Bhagavata. His Katha programmes are regularly in different cities in India and other countries. He is also a leader of the Vishva Hindu Parishad and he was born on Makara Sankranti day,14 January 1950. Born to mother Shachidevi and father Pandit Rajdev Mishra, he was named Giridhar by his great aunt, a paternal cousin of his paternal grandfather, Pandit Suryabali Mishra. The great aunt was a devotee of Mirabai, a saint of the Bhakti era in medieval India. Giridhar lost his eyesight at the age of two months, on 24 March 1950, his eyes were infected by trachoma. There were no advanced facilities for treatment in the village, so he was taken to a woman in a nearby village who was known to cure trachoma boils to provide relief. The woman applied a paste of myrobalan to Giridhars eyes to burst the lumps and his family took him to the King George Hospital in Lucknow, where his eyes were treated for 21 days, but his sight could not be restored. Various Ayurvedic, Homeopathic, Allopathic, and other practitioners were approached in Sitapur, Lucknow, and Bombay, Rambhadracharya has been blind ever since. He cannot read or write, as he not use Braille, he learns by listening. In June 1953, at a jugglers monkey dance show in the village, Giridhar fell into a small dry well and was trapped for some time, until a teenage girl rescued him. Giridhars grandfather asked him to recite the verse always, and from then on, Giridhars initial education came from his paternal grandfather, as his father worked in Bombay. In the afternoons, his grandfather would narrate to him various episodes of the Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, and devotional works like Vishramsagar, Sukhsagar, Premsagar, at the age of three, Giridhar composed his first piece of poetry—in Awadhi —and recited it to his grandfather. In this verse, Krishnas foster mother Yashoda is fighting with a Gopi for hurting Krishna
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Mandakini River
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Mandakini is a tributary of the Alaknanda River. Mandakini originates from the Chorabari Glacier near Kedarnath in Uttarakhand, India, Mandakini is fed by Vasukiganga River at Sonprayag. Alaknanda then proceeds towards Devaprayag where it joins with Bhagirathi River to form the Ganges River, Mandakini river flows along NH-109 in Rudraprayag district and turns violent during monsoon, often destroying parts of highway and adjoining villages. The prefix mand means calm and unhurried, and Mandakini thus signifies she who flows calmly, the Mandakini is mentioned as one of the transcendental rivers in the holy religious work Srimad Bhagavatam. John Leydens 1810 Malay Annals mention that, Parameswara, the founder of the Sultanate of Malacca, the sword is now a part of the Sultan of Peraks official regalia. The sword is believed to be of Indian origin and between 800 and 1,000 years old, the Mandakini is a runnable low volume river from October to April and can be unpredictable in the Monsoon months when all rivers in the area become swollen torrents. The Mandakini is a river with a lot of class 3 rapids and some class 4. The upper mandakini and the lower mandakini are considered to be class 4+ sections while there is a stretch of water in the part of the river that is largely class 2-class 3. Ganges Kedarnath Documentary by Mandakini Mathur The River Goddess by Vijay Singh
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Vajrasana (yoga)
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Vajrasana वज्रासन, vajra Pose, is a sitting asana in yoga. It is a kneeling position sitting on the heels, a person need not be sitting in an erect position to do it. The name comes from the Sanskrit words vajra meaning thunderbolt or diamond like, the practitioner sits on the heels with the calves beneath the thighs. There is a four finger gap between the kneecaps, and the first toe of both the feet touch each other and sit erect and this asana may help in digestive issues like constipation. It also strengthens the muscles of the legs and back, some orthopaedic surgeons claim Vajrasana may be harmful to knees. In this context it has been called yoga foot drop, list of asanas Seiza- Japanese traditional formal sitting posture Iyengar, B. K. S. Illustrated Light On Yoga. Yoga, Tantra and Meditation in Daily Life, a Systematic Course in the Ancient Tantric Techniques of Yoga and Kriya
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Siddhasana
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Siddhasana or Accomplished Pose for men is an asana. The name comes from the Sanskrit words siddha meaning both perfect and adept, and asana meaning posture or seat, from a seated position, one heel is brought to press on the perineum with the sole of the foot flat against the inner thigh. The body sits on top of this heel, adjustments are made until the body is comfortable and the pressure is firmly applied. Then the opposite ankle is placed over the first, so the bones are touching. The genitals will then lie in between the two heels, the toes and outer edge of the top foot are pushed down into the space between the calf and thigh muscles. The toes of the foot are pulled up into the similar space on the opposite side. A small meditation cushion or zafu is sometimes used to aid vertical back alignment, siddhasana and Padmasana are the two asanas traditionally used for dhyana and pranayama exercises. Sukhasana is a substitute that is easier on the knees, siddhasana is considered the most effective meditation pose, superior than Padmasana, Sukhasana and Swastikasana. It is a posture for moolabandha and kundalini kriya for higher attainments while directly influencing molladhar. The Hatha Yoga Pradipika asks, When siddhaasana is mastered, of use are the various other postures. Padmasana Sukhasana List of asanas Iyengar, B. K. S. Illustrated Light On Yoga, Yoga, Tantra and Meditation in Daily Life. A Systematic Course in the Ancient Tantric Techniques of Yoga and Kriya, siddhasana Benefits Accomplished Pose for Women
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Korea
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Korea is a historical state in East Asia, since 1945 divided into two distinct sovereign states, North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by China to the northwest and it is separated from Japan to the east by the Korea Strait and the Sea of Japan. Korea emerged as a political entity after centuries of conflict among the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Later Silla divided into three states during the Later Three Kingdoms period. Goryeo, which had succeeded Goguryeo, defeated the two states and united the Korean Peninsula. Around the same time, Balhae collapsed and its last crown prince fled south to Goryeo, Goryeo, whose name developed into the modern exonym Korea, was a highly cultured state that created the worlds first metal movable type in 1234. However, multiple invasions by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty during the 13th century greatly weakened the nation, following the Yuan Dynastys collapse, severe political strife followed, and Goryeo eventually fell to a coup led by General Yi Seong-gye, who established Joseon in 1388. The first 200 years of Joseon were marked by peace and saw the creation of the Korean alphabet by Sejong the Great in the 14th century. During the later part of the dynasty, however, Koreas isolationist policy earned it the Western nickname of the Hermit Kingdom, by the late 19th century, the country became the object of imperial design by the Empire of Japan. Despite attempts at modernization by the Korean Empire, in 1910 Korea was annexed by Japan and these circumstances soon became the basis for the division of Korea by the two superpowers, exacerbated by their incapability to agree on the terms of Korean independence. To date, both continue to compete with each other as the sole legitimate government of all of Korea. Korea is the spelling of Corea, a name attested in English as early as 1614. It is a derived from Cauli, Marco Polos transcription of the Chinese 高麗. This was the Hanja for the Korean kingdom of Goryeo or Koryŏ, Goryeos name was a continuation of the earlier Goguryeo or Koguryŏ, the northernmost of the Samguk, which was officially known by the shortened form Goryeo after the 5th-century reign of King Jangsu. The original name was a combination of the go with the name of a local Yemaek tribe. The name Korea is now used in English contexts by both North and South Korea. In South Korea, Korea as a whole is referred to as Hanguk, the name references the Samhan—Ma, Jin, and Byeon—who preceded the Three Kingdoms in the southern and central end of the peninsula during the 1st centuries BC and AD. It has been linked with the title khan used by the nomads of Manchuria
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Abhayamudra
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The Abhayamudrā gesture of fearlessness is a mudrā that is the gesture of reassurance and safety, which dispels fear and accords divine protection and bliss in many Indian religions. The right hand is held upright, and the palm is facing outwards and this is one of the earliest mudrās found depicted on a number of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain images. The abhayamudrā represents protection, peace, benevolence and the dispelling of fear, the Hindu god Nataraja is depicted with the second right hand making the Abhaya Mudra, bestowing protection from both evil and ignorance to those who follow the righteousness of dharma. In Thailand and Laos, this mudra is associated with the walking Buddha, the abhayamudrā was probably used before the onset of Buddhism as a symbol of good intentions proposing friendship when approaching strangers. In the art of Gandhara, it is present when showing the action of preaching and it was also used in China during the Northern Wei and Sui eras of the 4th and 7th centuries. The gesture was used by Gautama Buddha when attacked by an elephant, subduing it as shown in several frescos, in Mahayana Buddhism, deities often paired it with another mudrā using the other hand. Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend
listen); Sanskrit "seal", "mark", or "gesture"; Tibetan: ཕྱག་རྒྱ་, THL: chakgya) is a symbolic or ritual gesture in Hinduism and Buddhism.[1] While some mudras involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers.[2] A mudrā is a spiritual gesture and an energetic seal of authenticity employed in the iconography and spiritual practice of Indian religions.
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