1.
Mughal Empire
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The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was Persianate in terms of culture. The Mughal empire extended over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur. During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire, the classic period of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as harmony. Akbar was a warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi. By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, during the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon. Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term Mughal was used for the emperor, and by extension, the use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists, similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including Mogul and Moghul. Nevertheless, Baburs ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture, ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, Baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayuns triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River
2.
Burhanpur
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Burhanpur is a mid-size city in Madhya Pradesh state, India. It is the seat of Burhanpur District. It is situated on the bank of the Tapti River,340 kilometres southwest of Bhopal and 540 kilometres northeast of Mumbai. The city has a Municipal Corporation, and also is one of the headquarters of the state of Madhya Pradesh. Burhanpur was an important city under Rashtrakuta Dynasty during 753–982, during excavations in Tapti River & Asirgarh Fort many coins, goddess idols and temples discovered which belongs to prehistoric era. But, Burhanpur got its name and fame during medieval time, in 1388, Malik Nasir Khan, the Faruqi dynasty Sultan of Khandesh discovered Burhanpur, at the behest of Shaikh Zainuddin and renamed it after a well-known medieval sufi saint, Burhan-ud-Din. Burhanpur became the capital of the Khandesh sultanate, later, Miran Adil Khan II, another sultan of this dynasty, built a citadel and a number of palaces in Burhanpur. During his long reign, Burhanpur was transformed into a centre for trade. In 1609 Jahangir appointed his second son Parviz to the governorship of the Mughal provinces of the Deccan, and it became a beautiful city with a lot of surviving historical monuments existing in its expanse, primarily from the ruling times of Shah Jahan, the great Mughal emperor. Burhanpur was an important outpost of the Mughals, Shah Jahan spent a considerable time in this city, and helped add to the Shahi Qila. The Shahi Qila is one majestic palace in Burhanpur, located to the west of the Tapti River, diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas were built on the terrace of the Qila. Little of it today as the Qila is mostly in ruins now. However, the parts of the palace still stands displays amazing works of sculpture. The main attraction at the palace is the hamam or the royal bath and it was specifically built for Shah Jahans wife, Begum Mumtaz Mahal, so that she could enjoy a luxurious bath. It is said that she died here, giving birth to her fourteenth child, even today, the ceiling has many intricate paintings. One of these depicts a monument which is said to have been the inspiration for the Taj Mahal. In 1681, Burhanpur was raided by Sambhaji, joined by his general Hambirrao Mohite, Santaji Ghorpade attacked Burhanpur and Khandesh subha to force Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to deploy more forces in Khandesh. This act by Santaji relieved some pressure of Mughal armies from Karnataka, the city was taken by Peshwa Bajirao during his reign to Malwa and Delhi by a Maratha army under Sadashivrao Bhau who defeated the Nizam of Hyderabad and took control of the town
3.
Taj Mahal
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The Taj Mahal is an ivory-white marble mausoleum on the south bank of the Yamuna river in the Indian city of Agra. It was commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan, to house the tomb of his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The tomb is the centrepiece of a 17-hectare complex, which includes a mosque and a guest house, construction of the mausoleum was essentially completed in 1643 but work continued on other phases of the project for another 10 years. The construction project employed some 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by the architect to the emperor. The Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 for being the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the worlds heritage. Described by Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore as the tear-drop on the cheek of time, it is regarded by many as the best example of Mughal architecture, the Taj Mahal attracts 7–8 million visitors a year. In 2007, it was declared a winner of the New7Wonders of the World initiative. The Taj Mahal was commissioned by Shah Jahan in 1631, to be built in the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632. The imperial court documenting Shah Jahans grief after the death of Mumtaz Mahal illustrate the story held as the inspiration for Taj Mahal. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1643 and the surrounding buildings, the Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including the Gur-e Amir, Humayuns Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulahs Tomb, while earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones. Buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement, the tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. It is a large, white marble standing on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan topped by a large dome. Like most Mughal tombs, the elements are Persian in origin. The base structure is a large multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners forming an unequal eight-sided structure that is approximately 55 metres on each of the four long sides. Each side of the iwan is framed with a huge pishtaq or vaulted archway with two similarly shaped arched balconies stacked on either side and this motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners, the main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan, the actual graves are at a lower level. The most spectacular feature is the dome that surmounts the tomb
4.
Shah Jahan
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Shahab-ud-Din Muḥammad Khurram better known by his regnal name, Shah Jahan, was the fifth Mughal emperor, who reigned from 1628 to 1658. Emperor Jahangirs death, in late 1627, was a signal for a last paroxysm of fighting among his sons and these fratricidal conflicts were carried out with ruthlessness and Jahangirs third son, Khurram, proved the most ruthless of all. He was crowned at Agra and his name, Shah Jahan, was read at the Jama Masjid there in January 1628. Shah Jahan maintained an aggressive military pressure along the frontiers of the Mughal Empire, as his predecessors had. His building programme was capped by the new capital in Delhi named for himself Shahjahanabad. Here, he erected a new fortress-palace, the Red Fort, in matters of religion, his plain straightforward creed permitted no licence, although he never became a bigot. In 1633, Shah Jahan ordered the demolition of Hindu temples which had begun in the previous reign. These orders were followed by a prohibition of the erection of new shrines or the repair of older buildings, intermarriage between Hindus and Muslims was forbidden in 1634. Shah Jahan, himself, sustained the established alliances at a level and did not marry Hindu women, like his father. Mass conversions of Hindus to Islam were also encouraged, and in cases were forcibly effected. All these acts, however, were dictated rather by the desire to maintain the strict tenets of Islam than to pursue the course of iconoclasm which was adopted by his son Aurangzeb. In September 1657, Shah Jahan fell seriously ill, which set off a war of succession among his sons, Shah Jahan recovered from his illness, but Aurangzeb kept his father under house arrest in Agra Fort from June 1658 until his death in 1666. On 31 July 1658, Aurangzeb crowned himself emperor with the title of Alamgir, the Mughal Empire reached the pinnacle of its glory during Shah Jahans reign and he is widely considered to be one of the greatest Mughal emperors. His reign is described as the Golden Age of the Mughals. Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram was born on 5 January 1592 in Lahore to Prince Salim and his second wife, the name Khurram was chosen for the young prince by his grandfather, Akbar, with whom he shared an extremely close relationship. Just prior to Khurrams birth, a soothsayer had predicted to the childless Empress Ruqaiya Sultan Begum that the still unborn child was destined for imperial greatness. Ruqaiya assumed the responsibility for Khurrams upbringing and he grew up under her care. Her step-son, Jahangir, noted that Ruqaiya had loved his son, Khurram, Khurram remained with her until he had turned 13
5.
Jahanara Begum
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Jahanara Begum Sahib was a Mughal princess and the eldest daughter of Emperor Shah Jahan from his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. She was also the sister of her fathers successor and the sixth Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Jahanaras early education was entrusted to Sati al-Nisa Khanam, the sister to Jahangirs poet laureate, Sati al-Nisa Khanam was known for her knowledge of the Quran and Persian literature as well as for her knowledge of etiquette, housekeeping and medicine. She also served as principal lady-in-waiting for Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanaras mother, many of the women in the royal household were accomplished at reading and writing poetry and painting. They also played chess, polo and hunted outdoors. The women had access to Akbars library, full of books on world religions and Persian, Turkish and she was engaged in her daily game of chess with her father Shah Jahan when they first learned of Mumtaz Mahals difficulty with labor. Jaharnara rushed to her mothers side but could do nothing to save her, upon the death of Mumtaz in 1631, Jahanara, aged 17, took the place of her mother as First Lady of the Empire, despite her father having three other wives. Her father frequently took her advice and entrusted her with charge of the Imperial Seal, in 1644 when Aurangzeb angered his father Shah Jahan, d office Jahanara interceded on Aurangzebs behalf and convinced Shah Jahan to pardon him and restore his rank. Shah Jahans fondness for his daughter was reflected in the titles that he bestowed upon her. Her power was such that, unlike the imperial princesses, she was allowed to live in her own palace. In March 1644, just days after her birthday, Jahanara suffered serious burns to her body. Shah Jahan ordered that vast sums of alms be given to the poor, prisoners be released, Aurangzeb, Murad, and Shiastah Khan returned to Delhi to see her. Accounts differ as to what happened, some say Jahanaras garments, doused in fragrant perfume oils, caught fire. Others accounts assert that the princesss favorite dancing-womans dress caught fire, during her illness, Shah Jahan, was so concerned for the welfare of his favourite daughter, that he made only brief appearances at his daily durbar in the diwan-i-am. Royal physicians failed to heal Jahanaras burns, a year after the accident, Jahanara had fully recovered. After the accident, the princess went on a pilgrimage to Moinuddin Chishti’s shrine in Ajmer, after her recovery, Shah Jahan gave Jahanara rare gems and jewellery and bestowed upon her the revenues of the port of Surat. She later visited Ajmer, following the set by her great-grandfather Akbar. In honor of his coronation,6 February 1628, Shah Jahan awarded his wife Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanaras mother,100,000 ashrafis,600,000 rupees, Jahanara received 100,000 ashrafis,400,000 rupees and an annual grant of 600,000. Upon Mumtaz Mahals death her personal fortune was divided by Shah Jahan between Jahanara Begum and the rest of Mumtaz Mahals surviving children, the pargana of Panipat was also granted to her
6.
Dara Shukoh
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Dara Shikoh, also known as Dara Shukoh M20 March 1615 –30 August 1659 Julian/9 September 1659 Gregorian) was the eldest son and the heir-apparent of the fifth Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan. His name ″دارا شكوه″ in Persian means as magnificent as Dara, the course of the history of the Indian subcontinent, had Dara Shikoh prevailed over Aurangzeb, has been a matter of some conjecture among historians. Dara Shikoh was born Taragarh fort Ajmer on 28 October 1615, when he was 12, his grandfather, Emperor Jahangir, died, and his father succeeded as emperor. Daras siblings included his elder sister Jahanara Begum and their youngers siblings Shah Shuja, Roshanara Begum, Aurangzeb, Murad Bakhsh, Aurangzeb became the sixth Mughal Emperor. On 1 February 1633, Dara Shikoh married his first cousin, Nadira Banu Begum, by all accounts, it was an extremely happy and successful marriage. Both Dara Shikoh and Nadira were devoted to other, so much so that Dara Shikoh never contracted any other marriage after marrying Nadira. The couple had eight children, of two sons and two daughters survived to adulthood. As was common for all Mughal sons, Dara Shikoh was appointed as a commander at an early age, receiving an appointment as commander of 12. On 10 September 1642, Shah Jahan formally confirmed Dara Shikoh as his heir, granting him the title of Shahzada-e-Buland Iqbal and promoting him to command of 20, in 1645, he was appointed as subahdar of Allahabad. He was promoted to a command of 30, 000-foot and 20,000 horse on 18 April 1648, as his fathers health began to decline, Dara Shikoh received a series of increasingly prominent commands. He was appointed Governor of Multan and Kabul on 16 August 1652 and he was promoted to command of 40, 000-foot and 20,000 horse on 21 January 1656, and to command of 50, 000-foot and 40,000 horse on 16 September 1657. Shah Shuja was the first to make his move, declaring himself Mughal Emperor in Bengal, Murad Baksh allied himself with Aurangzeb. At the end of 1657, Dara Shikoh was appointed Governor of the province of Bihar, subsequently Aurangzeb took over Agra fort and deposed emperor Shah Jahan on 8 June 1658. After the defeat, Dara Shikoh retreated from Agra to Delhi and his next destination was Multan and then to Thatta. He occupied Surat and advanced towards Ajmer, after this defeat he fled to Sindh and sought refuge under Malik Jiwan, an Afghan chieftain, whose life had on more than one occasion been saved by the Mughal prince from the wrath of Shah Jahan. However, the treacherous Junaid betrayed Dara Shikoh and turned him over to Aurangzebs army on 10 June 1659, after death the remains of Dara Shikoh were buried in an unindentified grave in Humayans tomb in Delhi. Dara Shikoh is widely renowned as a paragon of the harmonious coexistence of heterodox traditions on the Indian subcontinent. He was a champion of mystical religious speculation and a poetic diviner of syncretic cultural interaction among people of all faiths
7.
Shah Shuja (Mughal prince)
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Shah Shuja was the second son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and empress Mumtaz Mahal. He was the governor of Bengal and Odissa and had his capital at Dhaka, Shah Shuja was born on 23 June 1616, in Ajmer. He was the son and child of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan. Shujas siblings were Jahanara Begum, Dara Shikoh, Roshanara Begum, Aurangzeb, Murad Baksh, Gauhara Begum and he had three sons - Sultan Zain-ul-Din, Buland Akhtar and Zainul Abidin and four daughters - Gulrukh Banu, Roshanara Begum and Amina Begum. Shah Shuja married firstly Bilqis Banu Begum, the daughter of Rustam Mirza, the marriage was arranged by Princess Jahanara Begum. Rupees 1,60,000 in cash and one lakh worth lakh of goods were sent as sachak to the mansion of Mirza Rustam, on 23 February 1633, the wedding presents worth Rupees 10 lakhs were displayed by Jahanara Begum and Sati-un-nissa Khanum. The following year she gave birth to a daughter, and died in childbirth and she was buried in a separate mausoleum named Khabuza Mahal, at Burhanpur. He daughter was named Dipazir Banu Begum by Shah Jahan, on the death of his first wife, he married Piari Banu Begum, daughter of Azam Khan, second governor of Bengal during Shah Jahans reign. In 1660, she fled to Arakan with her husband, sons and his sons were put to death. Piari Banu Begum, and her two daughters commited suicide, the remaining daughter, Amina Banu Begum, was brought into the palace, where from grief she died an early death. According to another source, one of Shujas daughters was married to King Sanda Thudhamma, a year later he scented a plot and starved all of them to death, while his wife was in an advanced stage of pregnancy by himself. His third wife was the daughter of Raja Tamsen of Kishtwar and she was the mother of Shahzada Buland Akhtar who was born in August 1645. Shazada Muhammad Shah Shuja was appointed by Shah Jahan as the Subahdar of Bengal and Bihar from 1641 and his father Shah Jahan apointed his deputy The Rajput Prince of Nagpur Kunwar Raghav Singh. During his governorship, he built the official residence Bara Katra in the capital Dhaka, after the illness of Shah Jahan in September 1657, a power crisis occurred among the brothers. Shah Shuja proclaimed himself as Emperor, but Aurangzeb ascended the throne of Dheli, Shuja was defeated in the Battle of Khajwa on 5 January 1659. He retreated first to Tandah and then to Dhaka on 12 April 1660 and he left Dhaka on 6 May and boarded ships near present-day Bhulua on 12 May heading Arakan. Mir Jumla reached Dhaka on 9 May 1660 and was appointed by Aurangzeb as the next Subahdar of Bengal. When Shah Jahan fell ill, a struggle for the throne started between his four sons - Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh, Shuja immediately crowned himself the emperor and took imperial titles, November 1657
8.
Roshanara Begum
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Roshanara Begum was a Mughal princess and the second daughter of Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and his chief consort, Empress Mumtaz Mahal. Today, however, Roshanara is best known for the Roshanara Bagh, the present-day Roshanara Club which was constructed in the late 19th century by the British is a famous country club that was actually originally a part of the Roshanara Bagh. Of Roshanaras four brothers, the oldest, Dara Shikoh, was Shah Jahans favourite son, Shah Shuja, the second son, was the rebellious Governor of Bengal, with open designs on his fathers throne. Aurangzeb, the son, was the nominal Governor of Deccan. This precipitated a struggle between Shah Jahan and his embittered younger sons, who resolved to depose the aging emperor. During this power struggle, Dara Shikoh received the support of his oldest sister, Jahanara Begum while Roshanara Begum sided with Aurangzeb, Roshanaras rise to power began when she successfully foiled a plot by her father and Dara Shikoh to kill Aurangzeb. According to history, Shah Jahan sent a letter of invitation to Aurangzeb to visit Delhi, in truth, however, Shah Jahan planned to capture, imprison and kill Aurangazeb in prison as he viewed his third son as a serious threat to the throne. When Roshanara got wind of her fathers plots, she sent a messenger to Aurangzeb, outlining their fathers true intentions, Aurangazeb was extremely grateful to Roshanara for her timely warning. When the war of succession was resolved in favour of Aurangzeb, fearing that Dara Shikoh would kill her for her role in the war of succession if he ever returned to power, Roshanara insisted that Aurangazeb order Daras execution. Legend has it that Dara was bound in chains, paraded around Chandni Chowk, Roshanara then had his bloody head wrapped in a golden turban, packaged neatly and sent to her father as a gift from Aurangzeb and her. Shah Jahan, who opened the package just as he was sitting down to dinner, was so distressed by the sight of his sons head that he fell unconscious to the floor. He remained in a stupor for many days after the incident, Roshanaras relationship with her older sister, Jahanara, was troubled and tinged by jealousy as the latter was undisputedly their fathers favourite daughter. Eventually, however, Roshanara and Aurangzeb fell out with each other, Mughal princesses were obliged to remain single since the time of Akbar so their offspring would not make a challenge for the throne. Roshanara was rumoured to have taken on lovers, which was not viewed well by Aurangzeb, in addition, she ruled Aurangzebs harem with an iron hand and earned the hatred of her brothers many wives. She also had a love of gold and land, and accumulated wealth on a large scale and this resulted in numerous complaints against her, none of which were brought to justice due to her position at Court. In addition, she blatantly misused the sweeping powers Aurangazeb had granted her just before leaving for his military campaign in the Deccan. Her enemies soon brought these acts of financial and moral turpitude to Aurangazebs notice, himself a very strict Muslim, Aurangzeb frowned on Roshanaras libertine lifestyle and her greedy nature. On his return to Delhi, he stripped Roshanara of her powers, banished her from his court, after Aurangzeb’s rule was established, Roshanara was still afraid of the implications of her actions and asked Aurangzeb to build a palace for her away from the walled city
9.
Aurangzeb
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Abul Muzaffar Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad, commonly known as Aurangzeb or by his regnal title Alamgir, was the sixth, and widely considered the last effective Mughal Emperor. He ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent during some parts of his reign, Aurangzeb was a notable expansionist and during his reign, the Mughal Empire temporarily reached its greatest extent. During his reign,4.6 million people were said have died due to war, Aurangzebs policies partly abandoned the legacy of pluralism, which remains a very controversial aspect of his reign and led to the downfall of the Mughal Empire. Rebellions and wars led to the exhaustion of the imperial Mughal treasury and he was a strong-handed authoritarian ruler, and following his death the expansionary period of the Mughal Empire came to an end. Nevertheless, the territory of the Mughal Empire still remained intact more or less until the reign of Muhammad Shah. Aurangzeb was born on 3 November 1618, in Dahod, Gujarat and he was the third son and sixth child of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. In June 1626, after a rebellion by his father, Aurangzeb. His daily allowance was fixed at Rs.500 which he spent on religious education, on 28 May 1633, Aurangzeb escaped death when a powerful war elephant stampeded through the Mughal Imperial encampment. He rode against the elephant and struck its trunk with a lance, Aurangzebs valour was appreciated by his father who conferred him the title of Bahadur and had him weighed in gold and presented gifts worth Rs.200,000. This event was celebrated in Persian and Urdu verses and Aurangzeb said, If the fight had ended fatally for me, death drops the curtain even on Emperors, it is no dishonor. The shame lay in what my brothers did, by arrangement, Aurangzeb stayed in the rear, away from the fighting, and took the advice of his generals as the Mughal Army gathered and commenced the Siege of Orchha in 1635. The campaign was successful and Singh was removed from power, Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of the Deccan in 1636. In 1637, Aurangzeb married the Safavid princess, Dilras Banu Begum and she was his first wife and chief consort. He also had an infatuation with a girl, Hira Bai. In his old age, he was under the charms of his concubine, the latter had formerly been a companion to Dara Shikoh. In the same year,1637, Aurangzeb was placed in charge of annexing the small Rajput kingdom of Baglana, in 1644, Aurangzebs sister, Jahanara, was burned when the chemicals in her perfume were ignited by a nearby lamp while in Agra. This event precipitated a crisis with political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his fathers displeasure by not returning to Agra immediately, Shah Jahan had been nursing Jahanara back to health in that time and thousands of vassals had arrived in Agra to pay their respects
10.
Murad Bakhsh
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Muhammad Murad Bakhsh was a Mughal prince as the youngest son of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan and his Empress consort Mumtaz Mahal. He was the Subedar of Balkh until he was replaced by his elder brother Aurangzeb in the year 1647, Muhammad Murad Bakhsh was born on 9 October 1624, at the Rohtasgarh Fort in Bihar, as the youngest son of Emperor Shah Jahan and his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. In 1638, Murad Bakhsh, at the age of fourteen years married the Safavid princess, Sakina Banu Begum and she was the younger sister of his elder sister-in-law, Dilras Banu Begum, who was Aurangzebs wife. He was appointed to Subadar of Multan, of Balkh, of Kashmir, of Deccan, and Kabul, of Gujarat, Raja Aman Khan Bahadur - Died 1661 Mewat Darar Khan - Died 1673 Mewat Muhammad Rustam Shaikh - Died 1648 at Deccan. Muhammad Allahauddin Shaikh - Died 1655 He was brother of Rustam Shaikh Miah Khan - Died 1653 at Deccan, Rajkumar Hariram Singh - 1622-1678 The Deputy of Murad Baksh from 1646-1651. He was second son of Raja Gaj Singh of Nagpur and Brother of Raja Amar Singh of Nagpur Rajkumar Veer Singh - 1636-1680 Eldest son of Amar Singh of Nagpur, on 30 November 1657, he proclaimed himself emperor at Ahmadabad, after reports that his father was ill. During the same year he received the Ottoman ambassador Manzada Husain Agha, Manzada Husain Agha mentions his disappointment regarding the wars between Shah Jahans sons. Murad Bakhsh joined hands with Aurangzeb to defeat Dara Shikhoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, in fact it was the ferocious charge led by Murad Bakhsh and his Sowars that eventually turned the outcome of the battle in favor of Aurangzeb during the Battle of Samugarh. On 7 July 1658, while he was in a tent with his brother Aurangzeb, he was intoxicated and was sent to the prison. He faced a trial sentenced him to death for having murdered former Diwan clerk named Ali Naqi. Aurangzeb then replaced Murad Bakhsh as the Subedar of Gujarat and placed Inayat Khan as the new Mughal commander of Surat. 1642 -5,0001646 -9,0001648 -11,0001656 -30,0001658 -33,000 On 14 December 1661, with the last of his brothers now dead, Aurangzeb was the undisputed emperor of the Mughal Empire
11.
Dynasty
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A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family, usually in the context of a feudal or monarchical system but sometimes also appearing in elective republics. The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a house, historians periodize the histories of many sovereign states, such as Ancient Egypt, the Carolingian Empire and Imperial China, using a framework of successive dynasties. As such, the dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which the family reigned and to describe events, trends. The word dynasty itself is often dropped from such adjectival references, until the 19th century, it was taken for granted that a legitimate function of a monarch was to aggrandize his dynasty, that is, to increase the territory, wealth, and power of his family members. The longest-surviving dynasty in the world is the Imperial House of Japan, dynasties throughout the world have traditionally been reckoned patrilineally, such as under the Frankish Salic law. Succession through a daughter when permitted was considered to establish a new dynasty in her husbands ruling house, however, some states in Africa, determined descent matrilineally, while rulers have at other times adopted the name of their mothers dynasty when coming into her inheritance. It is also extended to unrelated people such as poets of the same school or various rosters of a single sports team. The word dynasty derives via Latin dynastia from Greek dynastéia, where it referred to power, dominion and it was the abstract noun of dynástēs, the agent noun of dynamis, power or ability, from dýnamai, to be able. A ruler in a dynasty is referred to as a dynast. For example, following his abdication, Edward VIII of the United Kingdom ceased to be a member of the House of Windsor. A dynastic marriage is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, the marriage of Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange, to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, for example, and their eldest child is expected to inherit the Dutch crown eventually. But the marriage of his younger brother Prince Friso to Mabel Wisse Smit in 2003 lacked government support, thus Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession, lost his title as a Prince of the Netherlands, and left his children without dynastic rights. In historical and monarchist references to formerly reigning families, a dynast is a member who would have had succession rights, were the monarchys rules still in force. Even since abolition of the Austrian monarchy, Max and his descendants have not been considered the rightful pretenders by Austrian monarchists, nor have they claimed that position. The term dynast is sometimes used only to refer to descendants of a realms monarchs. The term can therefore describe overlapping but distinct sets of people, yet he is not a male-line member of the royal family, and is therefore not a dynast of the House of Windsor. Thus, in 1999 he requested and obtained permission from Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco. Yet a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time and that exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts prior to triggering it by marriage to a Catholic
12.
Abu'l-Hasan Asaf Khan
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Asaf Khan was also the elder brother of empress Nur Jahan, the consort of Shah Jahans father, Jahangir. His other daughter Parwar Khanam was married to Mohtashim Khan, the son of Mughal Emperor Jahangirs foster brother Qutubuddin Koka and her mausoleum is located in Sheikhpur, Budaun. Mirza Abul Hasan Asaf Khan was appointed Governor of Lahore by Emperor Jahangir in 1625. Asaf Khan enjoyed an even more elevated than in the preceding reign and retained it until 1632. His tomb was built in Shahdara Bagh by Shah Jahan in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan
13.
Shia Islam
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Shia is a branch of Islam which holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib as his successor. Shia Islam primarily contrasts with Sunni Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor, instead they consider Abu Bakr to be the correct Caliph. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shias of Ali, Shias or the Shia as a collective or Shii individually, Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam, in 2009, Shia Muslims constituted 10–13% of the worlds Muslim population. Twelver Shia is the largest branch of Shia Islam, in 2012 it was estimated that perhaps 85 percent of Shias were Twelvers. Shia Islam is based on the Quran and the message of Muhammad attested in hadith, Shia consider Ali to have been divinely appointed as the successor to Muhammad, and as the first Imam. The word Shia means follower and is the form of the historic phrase shīʻatu ʻAlī, meaning followers of Ali, faction of Ali. Shia and Shiism are forms used in English, while Shiite or Shiite, as well as Shia, the term for the first time was used at the time of Muhammad. At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the community after Muhammad belongs to Ali, nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims that at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded Ali as the Imam and Caliph. Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that Ali is designated as the Heir, Imam and caliph by Muhammad, for the Shia, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and history of Islam. And Allah is Hearing and Knowing, Shia search for the true meaning of the revelation to get the purpose of the life blood and the human destiny. Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone and they believe God chose Ali to be Muhammads successor, infallible, the first caliph of Islam. The Shias believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by Gods command, Ali was Muhammads first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammads daughter Fatimah. Ali would eventually become the fourth Muslim caliph, after the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad ordered the gathering of Muslims at the pond of Khumm and it was there that Shia Muslims believe Muhammad nominated Ali to be his successor. The hadith of the pond of Khumm was narrated on 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah of 10 AH in the Islamic calendar at a place called Ghadir Khumm, located near the city of al-Juhfah, Saudi Arabia. Muhammad there stated, Shia Muslims believe this to be Muhammads appointment of Ali as his successor, when Muhammad died in 632 CE, Ali and Muhammads closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali and his family accepted the appointment for the sake of unity in the early Muslim community. Alis rule over the early Muslim community was often contested, as a result, he had to struggle to maintain his power against the groups who betrayed him after giving allegiance to his succession, or those who wished to take his position. This dispute eventually led to the First Fitna, which was the first major civil war within the Islamic Caliphate, the Fitna began as a series of revolts fought against Ali ibn Abi Talib, caused by the assassination of his political predecessor, Uthman ibn Affan
14.
Agra
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Agra is a city on the banks of the river Yamuna in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is 378 kilometres west of the capital, Lucknow,206 kilometres south of the national capital New Delhi and 125 kilometres north of Gwalior. Agra is one of the most populous cities in Uttar Pradesh, Agra is a major tourist destination because of its many splendid Mughal-era buildings, most notably the Tāj Mahal, Agra Fort and Fatehpūr Sikrī, all three of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Agra falls within the Braj cultural region, the city was first mentioned in the epic Mahābhārata, where it was called Agrevaṇa. Legend ascribes the founding of the city to Raja Badal Singh, however, the 11th century Persian poet Masūd Sad Salmān writes of a desperate assault on the fortress of Agra, then held by the Shāhī King Jayapala, by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. It was mentioned for the first time in 1080 AD when a Ghaznavide force captured it, Sultan Sikandar Lodī was the first to move his capital from Delhi to Agra in 1506. He governed the country from here and Agra assumed the importance of the second capital. He died in 1517 and his son, Ibrāhīm Lodī, remained in there for nine more years and several palaces, wells. Finally being defeated at the Battle of Panipat in 1526, between 1540 and 1556, Afghans, beginning with Sher Shah Suri ruled the area. It achieved fame as the capital of the Mughal Empire from 1556 to 1658, Agra features a semiarid climate that borders on a humid subtropical climate. The city features mild winters, hot and dry summers and a monsoon season, however the monsoons, though substantial in Agra, are not quite as heavy as the monsoon in other parts of India. This is a factor in Agra featuring a semiarid climate as opposed to a humid subtropical climate. As of 2011 India census, Agra city has a population of 1,585,704, the urban agglomeration of Agra has a population of 1,760,285. Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%, Agra city has an average literacy rate of 73. 11%, lower than the national average of 74%. Literacy rate of males is considerably higher than that of women, the sex ratio in the city was 875 females per thousand males while child sex ratio stood at 857. Agra district literacy rate is 62. 56%, Agra is dominated by Yadavs and Jats. According to the 2011 census, Agra district has a population of 4,380,793 and this gives it a ranking of 41st in India. The district has a density of 1,084 inhabitants per square kilometre
15.
Wonders of the World
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Various lists of the Wonders of the World have been compiled from antiquity to the present day, to catalogue the worlds most spectacular natural wonders and manmade structures. The number seven was chosen because the Greeks believed it represented perfection and plenty, many similar lists have been made. The historian Herodotus, and the scholar Callimachus of Cyrene at the Museum of Alexandria and their writings have not survived, except as references. Brewers Dictionary of Phrase and Fable refers to them as later list suggesting the lists were created after the Middle Ages, many of the structures on these lists were built much earlier than the Medieval Ages, but were well known. Some of the most notable lists are presented below, good Morning America announced one wonder per day over a period of a week. An eighth wonder was chosen on November 24,2006 from viewer feedback, similar to the other lists of wonders, there is no consensus on a list of seven natural wonders of the world, and there has been debate over how large the list should be. Twenty-one finalists were announced January 1,2006, in response, Giza was named an honorary Candidate. Iguazu Falls Halong Bay Jeju Island Puerto Princesa Underground River Table Mountain Komodo Island Amazon Rainforest New7Wonders Cities is the global vote organized by New7Wonders. In 1989 CEDAM brought together a panel of scientists, including Dr. Eugenie Clark. In 2003, the BBC aired a seven-part docudrama exploring the same feats, travel writer Howard Hillman published two books on the subject, one with 10 man-made wonders, and one with 10 natural wonders. British biographer, science writer, and novelist Ronald W. Clark published a book of man-made and natural wonders titled Wonders of the World, in a 1999 article, Astronomy magazine listed the Seven Wonders of the Solar System. This article was made into a video. In Civilization V, natural wonders such as Mount Fuji and Old Faithful were added, similar mechanics of wonders are found in another video game series, Rise of Nations. Board games following the Civilization mould have also allowed players to build a number of wonders from the ancient and these games include Through the Ages, A Story of Civilization and Patchistory, as well as the official Civilization board games
16.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
17.
Nobility
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The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be largely honorary, and vary from country to country and era to era. There is often a variety of ranks within the noble class. g, san Marino and the Vatican City in Europe. Hereditary titles often distinguish nobles from non-nobles, although in many nations most of the nobility have been un-titled, some countries have had non-hereditary nobility, such as the Empire of Brazil. The term derives from Latin nobilitas, the noun of the adjective nobilis. In modern usage, nobility is applied to the highest social class in pre-modern societies and it rapidly came to be seen as a hereditary caste, sometimes associated with a right to bear a hereditary title and, for example in pre-revolutionary France, enjoying fiscal and other privileges. Nobility is a historical, social and often legal notion, differing from high socio-economic status in that the latter is based on income. Being wealthy or influential cannot, ipso facto, make one noble, various republics, including former Iron Curtain countries, Greece, Mexico, and Austria have expressly abolished the conferral and use of titles of nobility for their citizens. Not all of the benefits of nobility derived from noble status per se, usually privileges were granted or recognised by the monarch in association with possession of a specific title, office or estate. Most nobles wealth derived from one or more estates, large or small and it also included infrastructure such as castle, well and mill to which local peasants were allowed some access, although often at a price. Nobles were expected to live nobly, that is, from the proceeds of these possessions, work involving manual labour or subordination to those of lower rank was either forbidden or frowned upon socially. In some countries, the lord could impose restrictions on such a commoners movements. Nobles exclusively enjoyed the privilege of hunting, in France, nobles were exempt from paying the taille, the major direct tax. In some parts of Europe the right of war long remained the privilege of every noble. During the early Renaissance, duelling established the status of a respectable gentleman, Nobility came to be associated with social rather than legal privilege, expressed in a general expectation of deference from those of lower rank. By the 21st century even that deference had become increasingly minimised, in France, a seigneurie might include one or more manors surrounded by land and villages subject to a nobles prerogatives and disposition. Seigneuries could be bought, sold or mortgaged, if erected by the crown into, e. g. a barony or countship, it became legally entailed for a specific family, which could use it as their title. Yet most French nobles were untitled, in other parts of Europe, sovereign rulers arrogated to themselves the exclusive prerogative to act as fons honorum within their realms. Nobility might be inherited or conferred by a fons honorum
18.
Nur Jahan
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Nur Jahan was Empress consort of the Mughal Empire from 25 May 1611 to 28 October 1627 and was the eighteenth and most beloved wife of the Mughal emperor Jahangir. She acted as his consort and Padshah Begum, officially from 1620–1627, after the titles previous holder. She was a woman when Prince Salim, Akbars eldest son. Two years after Akbar died and Salim became Emperor, Sher Afgan met his death, however, three more years were to pass before a grieving Nur Jahan consented to marry the Emperor Jahangir. In fact, the relationship between Jahangir and Nur Jahan was even more scandalous in its time than the legend of Anarkali, after the wedding, Nur Jehan quickly gained ascendency over her husband. More decisive and pro-active than her husband, she is considered by historians to have been the power behind the throne for more than fifteen years. Nur Jehan was granted certain honours and privileges which were never enjoyed by any Mughal empress before or afterwards and she was the only Mughal empress to have coinage struck in her name. She was often present when the Emperor held court, and even held court independently when the Emperor was unwell and she was given charge of his imperial seal, implying that her perusal and consent were necessary before any document or order received legal validity. The Emperor sought her views on most matters before issuing orders, however, Mumtaz Mahal took no interest at all in affairs of state, and her husband, who loved her to distraction, is not known to have consulted her on any important matter. Nur Jehan is therefore unique in the annals of the Mughal Empire for the influence she wielded. Both of Nur Jahans parents were descendants of illustrious families – Ghias Beg from Muhammad Sharif, for unknown reasons, Ghias Begs family had suffered a reversal in fortunes in 1577 and soon found circumstances in their homeland intolerable. Hoping to improve his family’s fortunes, Ghias Beg chose to relocate to India where the Emperor Akbars court was said to be at the centre of the trade industry. Half way along their route the family was attacked by robbers who took them the remaining meager possessions they had. Left with only two mules, Ghias Beg, his pregnant wife, and their three children were forced to take turns riding on the backs of the animals for the remainder of their journey, when the family arrived in Kandahar, Asmat Begum gave birth to their second daughter. The family was so impoverished they feared they would be unable to care of the newborn baby. Fortunately, the family was taken in by a led by the merchant noble Malik Masud. Believing that the child had signaled a change in the family’s fate and her father was appointed diwan for the province of Kabul. Due to his skills at conducting business he quickly rose through the ranks of the high administrative officials
19.
Jahangir
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Mirza Nur-ud-din Beig Mohammad Khan Salim, known by his imperial name Jahangir, was the fourth Mughal Emperor who ruled from 1605 until his death in 1627. Much romance has gathered around his name, and the tale of his relationship with the Mughal courtesan, Anarkali, has been widely adapted into the literature, art. Jahangir was the eldest surviving son of Mughal Emperor Akbar, impatient for power, he revolted in 1599 while Akbar was engaged in the Deccan. These women wielded considerable influence over Akbar and favoured Jahangir as his successor, the first year of Jahangirs reign saw a rebellion organised by his eldest son Khusrau. The rebellion was put down, Khusrau was brought before his father in chains. After subduing and executing nearly 2000 members of the rebellion, Jahangir blinded his renegade son, Jahangir built on his fathers foundations of excellent administration and his reign was characterised by political stability, a strong economy and impressive cultural achievements. The imperial frontiers continued to move forward—in Bengal, Mewar, Ahmadnagar, Later during his rule, Jahangir was battling his rebellious son Khurram in Hindustan. The rebellion of Khurram absorbed Jahangirs attention, so in the spring of 1623 he negotiated an end to the conflict. Much of India was politically pacified, Jahangirs dealings with the Hindu rulers of Rajputana were particularly successful, the Hindu rulers all accepted Mughal supremacy and in return were given high ranks in the Mughal aristocracy. Jahangir was fascinated with art, science and architecture, from a young age he showed a leaning towards painting and had an atelier of his own. His interest in portraiture led to development in this artform. The art of Mughal painting reached great heights under Jahangirs reign and his interest in painting also served his scientific interests in nature. Jahangir maintained an aviary and a large zoo, kept a record of every specimen. Jahangir patronised the European and Persian arts and he promoted Persian culture throughout his empire. This was especially so during the period when he came under the influence of his Persian Empress, Nur Jahan and her relatives, amongst the most highly regarded Mughal architecture dating from Jahangirs reign is the famous Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir. The worlds first seamless celestial globe was built by Mughal scientists under the patronage of Jahangir, Jahangir, like his father, was a proper Sunni Muslim with tolerance, he allowed, for example, the continuation of his fathers tradition of public debate between different religions. The Jesuits were allowed to dispute publicly with Muslim ulema and to preach the Gospel, Jahangir specifically warned his nobles that they should not force Islam on anyone. Jizya was not imposed by Jahangir, edward Terry, an English chaplain in India at the time, saw a ruler under which all Religions are tolerated and their Priests in good esteem
20.
Engagement
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An engagement, betrothal, or fiancer is a promise to wed, and also the period of time between a marriage proposal and a marriage. During this period, a couple is said to be betrothed, intended, affianced, engaged to be married, future brides and grooms may be called the betrothed, a wife-to-be or husband-to-be, fiancée or fiancé, respectively. The duration of the courtship varies vastly, and is dependent on cultural norms or upon the agreement of the parties involved. Long engagements were once common in formal arranged marriages, and it was not uncommon for parents betrothing children to arrange marriages many years before the couple were old enough. Erusin changes the couples interpersonal status, while nissuin brings about the consequences of the change of status. This was later adopted in Ancient Greece as the gamos and engeysis rituals, Betrothal is a formal state of engagement to be married. Since the Middle Ages the two ceremonies have taken place as a ceremony performed in public. The betrothal is now part of the Jewish wedding ceremony. As mentioned above, betrothal in Judaism is separate from engagement, breaking a betrothal requires a formal divorce, for adults, it may be anywhere from several hours to a period of several years. A year and a day are common in neo-pagan groups today, in the case of child marriage, betrothal might last from infancy until the age of marriage. The responsibilities and privileges of betrothal vary, in most cultures, the betrothed couple is expected to spend much time together, learning about each other. In some historical cultures, the betrothal was essentially a trial marriage, almost all cultures are loosening restrictions against physical contact between partners, even in cultures that normally had strong prohibitions against it. The betrothal period was considered to be a preparatory time, in which the groom built a house. A betrothal is considered to be a semi-binding contract, in some common law countries, including England and Wales and many US states, it was once possible for the spurned partner to sue the other for breach of promise or heart-balm. The Rite of Betrothal in the Anglican Communion is found within The Book of Common Prayer, the Anglican Communion, as well as the Methodist Church and Presbyterian Church, has questions & responses for family members in its Rite of Betrothal. In the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Rite of Betrothal is traditionally performed in the narthex of the church, the priest blesses the couple and gives them lit candles to hold. Then, after a litany, and a prayer at which everyone bows, he places the ring on the ring finger of the grooms right hand. The rings are exchanged three times, either by the priest or by the best man, after which the priest says a final prayer
21.
Heir apparent
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An heir apparent or heiress apparent is a person who is first in line of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting by the birth of another person. An heir presumptive, by contrast, is someone who is first in line to inherit a title, today these terms most commonly describe heirs to hereditary titles, particularly monarchies. They are also used metaphorically to indicate an anointed successor to any position of power, in France the title was le Dauphin. See crown prince for more examples and this article primarily describes the term heir apparent in a hereditary system regulated by laws of primogeniture—as opposed to cases where a monarch has a say in naming the heir. An heir presumptive, by contrast, can always be bumped down in the succession by the birth of more closely related in a legal sense to the current title-holder. The clearest example occurs in the case of a title-holder with no children, if at any time he or she were to produce children, they rank ahead of whatever more distant relative had been heir presumptive. Many legal systems assume childbirth is always possible regardless of age or health, in such circumstances a person may be, in a practical sense, the heir apparent but still, legally speaking, heir presumptive. Adelaide was 44 at the time, so pregnancy was even if unlikely. Daughters may inherit titles that descend according to male-preference primogeniture, thus, normally, even an only daughter will not be heir apparent, since at any time a brother might be born who, though younger, would assume that position. Hence, she is an heir presumptive, for example, Queen Elizabeth II was heir presumptive during the reign of her father, King George VI, because at any stage up to his death, George could have fathered a legitimate son. In a system of absolute primogeniture that disregards gender, female heirs apparent occur, several European monarchies that have adopted such systems in the last few decades furnish practical examples. Princess Ingrid Alexandra of Norway is heir apparent to her father, Victoria was not heir apparent from birth, but gained the status in 1980 following a change in the Swedish Act of Succession. Her younger brother Carl Philip was thus heir apparent for a few months, then, as the representative of her fathers line she would assume a place ahead of any more distant relatives. Such a situation has not to date occurred with the English or British throne, several times an heir apparent has died, however, there have been several female heirs apparent to British peerages. In one special case, however, England and Scotland had an heir apparent. William, by contrast, was to reign for life only, thus, although after Marys death William continued to reign, he had no power to beget direct heirs, and Anne became the heir apparent for the remainder of Williams reign. She eventually succeeded him as Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland, the position of an heir apparent is normally unshakable, it can be assumed they will inherit. Sometimes, however, extraordinary events—such as the death or the deposition of the parent—intervene
22.
Mughal emperors
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The Mughal emperors were a branch of the Timurid dynasty. From the early 16th century to the early 18th they built and ruled the Mughal Empire on the Indian subcontinent, mainly corresponding to the countries of Bangladesh, India. Their power rapidly dwindled during the 18th century and the last of the emperors was deposed in 1857, with the establishment of the British Raj. The dynasty was of Asian Turco-Mongol origin from a now part of modern-day Uzbekistan. Timur is generally known in the West as Tamerlane the Great and its population at the time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million, over a territory of more than 3.2 million square kilometres. Ousted from his domains in Central Asia by Uzbek Khan. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing West Asian cultural influence in the Mughal court, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayun’s triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions, and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari river. He created a new class of nobility loyal to him from the aristocracy of Indias social groups, implemented a modern government. At the same time Akbar intensified trade with European trading companies and he left his successors an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge. Akbars son, Jahangir, ruled the empire at its peak, but he was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques. During the reign of Jahangirs son, Shah Jahan, the culture, the maintenance of the court, at this time, began to cost more than the revenue. Shah Jahans eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh, became regent in 1658, however, a younger son, Aurangzeb, allied with the Islamic orthodoxy against his brother, who championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim religion and culture, and ascended to the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed, although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and had him imprisoned. During Aurangzebs reign, the empire gained political strength once more, Aurangzeb expanded the empire to include almost the whole of South Asia, but at his death in 1707, many parts of the empire were in open revolt. Aurangzebs son, Shah Alam, repealed the religious policies of his father, however, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds
23.
Deccan Plateau
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The Deccan Plateau is a large plateau in southern India. It rises to 100 metres in the north, and to more than 1 kilometre in the south and it extends over eight Indian states and encompasses a wide range of habitats, covering most of central and southern India. It is separated from the Gangetic plain to the north by the Satpura and Vindhya Ranges, the name Deccan is an anglicised form of the Prakrit word dakkhin, itself derived from the Sanskrit word dákṣiṇa, as the Deccan Plateau is located in southern part of Indian subcontinent. The Deccan region has historically lacked an enduring geo-political centre, and has been defined in various ways, geographers have attempted to define it using indices such as rainfall, vegetation, soil type or physical features. When considering physical features, it is taken to be the bounded by the Narmada River, the Eastern Ghats. The 16th century historian Firishta defined Deccan as the inhabited by the native speakers of Kannada, Marathi. Richard M. Eaton also settled on this linguistic definition, the Western Ghats mountain range is very tall and blocks the moisture from the southwest monsoon from reaching the Deccan Plateau, so the region receives very little rainfall. The eastern Deccan Plateau is at an elevation spanning the southeastern coast of India. Its forests are relatively dry but serve to retain the rain to form streams that feed into rivers that flow into basins. Most Deccan plateau rivers flow south, most of the central plateau is drained by the Tungabhadra River, Krishna River and its tributaries, including the Bhima River, which also run east. The climate of the region varies from semi-arid in the north to tropical in most of the region with distinct wet, rain falls during the monsoon season from about June to October. March to June can be dry and hot, with temperatures regularly exceeding 40 °C. The name derives from the Sanskrit daksina, the plateau is bounded on the east and west by the Ghats, while its northern extremity is the Vindhya Range. The Deccans average elevation is about 2,000 feet, sloping generally eastward, its rivers, the Godavari, Krishna. The plateaus climate is drier than that on the coasts and is arid in places, having once constituted a segment of the ancient continent of Gondwanaland, this land is the oldest and most stable in India. The average height of the Western Ghats, which run along the Arabian Sea, anaimudi Peak in Kerala, with a height of 2,695 m above sea level, is the highest peak of peninsular India. In the Nilgiris lie Ootacamund, the hill station of southern India. The western coastal plain is uneven and swift rivers flow through it that forms beautiful lagoons and backwaters, the east coast is wide with deltas formed by the rivers Godavari, Mahanadi and Kaveri
24.
Madhya Pradesh
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Madhya Pradesh is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal and the largest city is Indore, nicknamed the heart of India due to its geographical location in India, Madhya Pradesh is the second-largest state in the country by area. With over 75 million inhabitants, it is the fifth-largest state in India by population and it borders the states of Uttar Pradesh to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the southeast, Maharashtra to the south, Gujarat to the west, and Rajasthan to the northwest. Its total area is 308,252 km², subsequently, the region was ruled by the major dynasties of India. By the early 18th century, the region was divided into small kingdoms which were captured by the British and incorporated into Central Provinces and Berar. This state was the largest in India by area until 2000, in recent years, the states GDP growth has been above the national average. Rich in mineral resources, MP has the largest reserves of diamond, more than 30% of its area is under forest cover. Its tourism industry has seen growth, with the state topping the National Tourism Awards in 2010–11. Isolated remains of Homo erectus found in Hathnora in the Narmada Valley indicate that Madhya Pradesh might have been inhabited in the Middle Pleistocene era, painted pottery dated to the later mesolithic period has been found in the Bhimbetka rock shelters. Chalcolithic sites belonging to Kayatha culture and Malwa culture have been discovered in the part of the state. The city of Ujjain arose as a centre in the region. It served as the capital of the Avanti kingdom, other kingdoms mentioned in ancient epics — Malava, Karusha, Dasarna and Nishada — have also been identified with parts of Madhya Pradesh. Chandragupta Maurya united northern India around 320 BCE, establishing the Mauryan Empire, ashoka the greatest of Mauryan rulers brought the region under firmer control. After the decline of the Maurya empire, the region was contested among the Sakas, the Kushanas, the Satavahanas, Heliodorus, the Greek Ambassador to the court of the Shunga king Bhagabhadra erected the Heliodorus pillar near Vidisha. Ujjain emerged as the predominant commercial centre of western India from the first century BCE, the Satavahana dynasty of the northern Deccan and the Saka dynasty of the Western Satraps fought for the control of Madhya Pradesh during the 1st to 3rd centuries CE. The Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni inflicted a defeat upon the Saka rulers and conquered parts of Malwa. Subsequently, the region came under the control of the Gupta empire in the 4th and 5th centuries, and their southern neighbours, the attacks of the Hephthalites or White Huns brought about the collapse of the Gupta empire, which broke up into smaller states. The king Yasodharman of Malwa defeated the Huns in 528, ending their expansion, later, Harsha ruled the northern parts of the state
25.
Qazvin
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Qazvin is the largest city and capital of the Province of Qazvin in Iran. Qazvin was an ancient capital in the Persian Empire and nowadays is known as the capital of Iran. It is famous for its Baghlava, carpet patterns, poets, political newspaper, at the 2011 census, its population was 381,598. Located in 150 km northwest of Tehran, in the Qazvin Province, the climate is cold but dry, due to its position south of the rugged Alborz range called KTS Atabakiya. The city was a capital of the Persian Empire under Safavids in 1548-1598 and it is a provincial capital today that has been an important cultural center throughout history. Archeological findings in the Qazvin plain reveal urban agricultural settlements for at least nine millennia, Qazvin geographically connects Tehran, Isfahan, and the Persian Gulf to the Caspian seacoast and Asia Minor, hence its strategic location throughout the ages. The city today known as Qazvin is thought to have founded by Shapur II, King of Persia in 250 CE, under the name Shad Shahpur. Qazvin has sometimes been of importance at major moments of Iranian history. It was captured by invading Arabs and destroyed by Hulagu Khan, after the Ottoman capture of Tabriz, Shah Tahmasp made Qazvin the capital of the Safavid empire, a status that Qazvin retained for half a century until Shah Abbas I moved the capital to Isfahan. In the middle of the century the Babi movement had one of its centers here, in the second half of the 19th century Qazvin was one of the centers of Russian presence in northern Iran. A detachment of the Persian Cossack Brigade under Russian officers was stationed here, from 1893 this was the headquarters of the Russian Company for Road construction in Persia which connected Qazvin by roads to Tehran and Hamadan. The company built a hospital and the St. Nicolas Church, in 1920 Qazvin was used as a base for the British Norperforce. The 1921 Persian coup détat that led to the rise of the Pahlavi dynasty was launched from Qazvin and it became a state in 1996. In Autumn 2015 portions of Qazvin were struck by a meteorite, the majority of the people of the city of Qazvin are Persians. The majority language is Persian with a Qazvini accent, azerbaijanis and Tats are the other largest ethnic groups of the city of Qazvin. In the middle of the city lie the ruins of Meimoon Ghaleh, Qazvin contains several buildings from the Safavid era, dating to the period in which it was capital of Persia. Perhaps the most famous of the edifices is the Chehel sotoun, Qazvin. After Islam, the popularity of mystics, as well as the prominence of tradition, religious jurisprudence, and philosophy in Qazvin, led to the emergence of many mosques and religious schools
26.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
27.
Mirza Ghiyas Beg
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Mirza Ghiyas Beg was an important Persian official in the Mughal empire, whose children served as wives, mothers, and generals of the Mughal emperors. After the death of his Ghiyas father, his familys fell into disgrace, hoping to improve his family’s fortunes, Ghiyas Beg chose to relocate to India where the Emperor Akbars court was said to be at the centre of the growing trade industry and cultural scene. Half way along their route the family was attacked by robbers who took them the remaining meager possessions they had. Left with only two mules, Ghiyas Beg, his pregnant wife, and their three children were forced to take turns riding on the backs of the animals for the remained of their journey, when the family arrived in Kandahar, Asmat Begum gave birth to their second daughter. The family was so impoverished they feared they would be unable to care of the newborn baby. Fortunately, the family was taken in by a led by the merchant noble Malik Masud. Believing that the child had signaled a change in the family’s fate, Ghiyas was later appointed diwan for the province of Kabul. Due to his skills at conducting business he quickly rose through the ranks of the high administrative officials. For his excellent work he was awarded the title of ‘‘Itimad-ud-Daula‘‘ by the emperor, as a result of his work and promotions, Ghiyas Beg was able to ensure that Mehirunnisa would have the best possible education. She became well versed in Arabic and Persian and she also became well versed in art, literature, music and dance. Ghiyas daughter, Mehrunissa married Akbars son Jahangir in 1611, Ghiyas was also the grandfather of Mumtaz Mahal, the wife of the emperor Shah Jahan, responsible for the building of the Taj Mahal. Jahangir was succeeded by his son Shah Jahan, and Abdul Hasan served as one of Shah Jahans closest advisors, Shah Jahan married Abdul Hasans daughter Arjumand Banu Begum, Mumtāz Mahal, who was the mother of his four sons, including his successor Aurangzeb. Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal to serve as Mumtaz Mahals tomb, Ghiyas Beg died in January 1622. Nur Jahan commissioned the construction of Itimād-ud-Daulahs Tomb in Agra, which is as a predecessor of the Taj Mahal. Notable Mughal and Hindu women in the 16th and 17th centuries A. D, queen, Empress, Concubine, Fifty Women Rulers from Cleopatra to Catherine the Great
28.
Akbar
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Abul-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad, popularly known as Akbar I and later Akbar the Great, was a Mughal Emperor from 1556 until his death. He was the ruler of the Mughal Dynasty in India. Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun, under a regent, Bairam Khan, a strong personality and a successful general, Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include nearly all of the Indian Subcontinent north of the Godavari river. His power and influence, however, extended over the country because of Mughal military, political, cultural. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a system of administration throughout his empire and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage. To preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture, holy men of many faiths, poets, architects and artisans adorned his court from all over the world for study and discussion. Akbars courts at Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri became centres of the arts, letters, perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements, and a distinct Indo-Persian culture emerged characterised by Mughal style arts, painting, and architecture. A simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant in outlook, it centred on Akbar as a prophet, for which he drew the ire of the ulema, many of his courtiers followed Din-i-Ilahi as their religion as well, as many believed that Akbar was a prophet. One famous courtier who followed this religion was Birbal. Akbars reign significantly influenced the course of Indian history, during his rule, the Mughal empire tripled in size and wealth. He created a military system and instituted effective political and social reforms. By abolishing the tax on non-Muslims and appointing them to high civil and military posts, he was the first Mughal ruler to win the trust. He had Sanskrit literature translated, participated in festivals, realising that a stable empire depended on the co-operation. Thus, the foundations for an empire under Mughal rule was laid during his reign. Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Jahangir, defeated in battles at Chausa and Kannauj in 1539–40 by the forces of Sher Shah Suri Mughal emperor Humayun fled westward to Sindh. There he met and married the then 14-year-old Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a teacher of Humauyuns younger brother Hindal Mirza. Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar was born the year on 15 October 1542 at the Rajput Fortress of Umerkot in Sindh
29.
Shaista Khan
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Mirza Abu Talib شاه خان, better known as Shaista Khan was a subahdar and a general in the Mughal army. A maternal uncle to Emperor Aurangzeb, he served as the Mughal governor of Bengal from 1664 to 1688, under Shaista Khans authority, the city of Dhaka and Mughal power in the province attained its greatest heights. One of this notable achievements was the Mughal conquest of Chittagong, in the year 1660, he was sent to participate in the struggle against the Maratha king Shivaji. However, he was defeated in an attack and lost one of his sons. He then left Pune and shifted his camp to Aurangabad, Shaista Khan was of Persian origin. His grandfather Mirza Ghias Beg Itimaduddaula and father Asaf Khan were the wazirs of the Mughal Emperors Jahangir and Shahjahan, Shaista Khan trained and served with the Mughal army and court, winning multiple promotions and being appointed governor of various provinces. He also developed a reputation as a military commander and grew close to the prince Aurangzeb when the duo fought against the kingdom of Golconda. After his accession to the throne and the death of Afzal Khan. In January 1660 Shaista Khan arrived at Aurangabad and quickly advanced, seizing Pune and he also captured the fort of Chakan and Kalyan and north Konkan after heavy fighting with the Maratha. The Maratha were banned from entering the city of Pune and Mughal distance from the locals turned out to be an error, on the evening of 5 April 1663, a wedding party had obtained special permission for holding a procession. Shivaji and many of his nearly 400 men disguised as the bridegrooms procession members entered Pune, others entered in small parties dressed as labourers and soldiers of Maratha generals serving under Shaista Khan. After midnight, they raided the Nawabs compound and then entered the palace in an attempt to assassinate Shaista Khan, Shaista Khan was clearly unaware and unprepared. The Marathas broke into the courtyard of the palace and slaughtered the palace guards, Shaista Khan lost three fingers in a skirmish with Shivaji, while his son was killed in an encounter with the Marathas in the palace courtyard. Taking advantage of the confusion and darkness, the Marathas escaped the palace and Pune, shocked by the sudden and bold attack in Pune, Aurangzeb angrily transferred Shaista Khan to Bengal, even refusing to give him an interview at the time of transfer as was the custom. Shaista Khan was appointed the Subahdar of Bengal upon the death of Mir Jumla II in 1663, as governor, he encouraged trade with Europe, Southeast Asia and other parts of India. He consolidated his power by signing agreements with European powers. Despite his powerful position he remained loyal to Aurangzeb, often mediating trade disputes and rivalries and he banned the British East India Company from Bengal, sparking Childs War in 1686. Shaista Khan encouraged the construction of modern townships and public works in Dhaka, leading to a massive urban, Khan greatly expanded Lalbagh Fort, Chowk Bazaar Mosque, Saat Masjid and Choto Katra
30.
Arabic
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Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
31.
Persian language
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Persian, also known by its endonym Farsi, is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan and it is mostly written in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script. Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages, Persian gets its name from its origin at the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persis, hence the name Persian. A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone, there are approximately 110 million Persian speakers worldwide, with the language holding official status in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. For centuries, Persian has also been a cultural language in other regions of Western Asia, Central Asia. It also exerted influence on Arabic, particularly Bahrani Arabic. Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family, other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, in Persian, the language is known by several names, Western Persian, Parsi or Farsi has been the name used by all native speakers until the 20th century. Since the latter decades of the 20th century, for reasons, in English. Tajiki is the variety of Persian spoken in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan by the Tajiks, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term Persian as a language name is first attested in English in the mid-16th century. Native Iranian Persian speakers call it Fārsi, Farsi is the Arabicized form of Pārsi, subsequent to Muslim conquest of Persia, due to a lack of the phoneme /p/ in Standard Arabic. The origin of the name Farsi and the place of origin of the language which is Fars Province is the Arabicized form of Pārs, in English, this language has historically been known as Persian, though Farsi has also gained some currency. Farsi is encountered in some literature as a name for the language. In modern English the word Farsi refers to the language while Parsi describes Zoroastrians, some Persian language scholars such as Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, and University of Arizona professor Kamran Talattof, have also rejected the usage of Farsi in their articles. The international language-encoding standard ISO 639-1 uses the code fa, as its system is mostly based on the local names. The more detailed standard ISO 639-3 uses the name Persian for the dialect continuum spoken across Iran and Afghanistan and this consists of the individual languages Dari and Iranian Persian. Currently, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty also includes a Tajik service and an Afghan service. This is also the case for the American Association of Teachers of Persian, The Centre for Promotion of Persian Language and Literature, Persian is an Iranian language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
32.
Polygamy
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Polygamy involves marriage with more than one spouse. When a man is married to more than one wife at a time, when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry. If a marriage includes multiple husbands and wives, it can be called a group marriage, in contrast, monogamy is marriage consisting of only two parties. Like monogamy, the term polygamy is often used in a de facto sense, in sociobiology and zoology, researchers use polygamy in a broad sense to mean any form of multiple mating. Polygamy is widely accepted among different societies worldwide, according to the Ethnographic Atlas, of 1,231 societies noted,588 had frequent polygyny,453 had occasional polygyny,186 were monogamous and 4 had polyandry. Polygamy is also common among animals, such as the common fruit-fly. Polygyny is the practice wherein a man has more than one wife at the same time, the vast majority of polygamous marriages are polygynous. Polygyny is legally accepted in many Muslim majority countries and some countries with a sizeable Muslim minority, in some of the sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place in Africa, women do much of the work. This favours polygamous marriages in which men sought to monopolize the production of women who are valued both as workers and as child bearers, goody however, observes that the correlation is imperfect and varied. Senior wives can benefit as well when their work load is lightened by the addition of junior wives to the family. Wives, especially wives, status in the community can be increased by the addition of other wives. For such reasons, senior wives sometimes work hard or contribute from their own resources to enable their husbands to accumulate the bride price for a second wife, Polygyny may also result from the practice of levirate marriage. In such cases, the deceased mans heir may inherit his assets and wife, or, more usually and this provides support for the widow and her children and maintains the tie between the husband and wives kin groups. The sororate is like the levirate, in that a widower must marry the sister of his dead wife, the wifes family, in other words, must provide a replacement for her thus maintaining the ties between them. Both levirate and sororate may result in a man having multiple wives and this is a form of de facto polygyny that is referred to as concubinage. In many polygynous marriages the husbands wives may live in separate households often at a great distance and they can thus be described as a series of linked nuclear families with a father in common. Polyandry is the practice wherein a woman has more than one husband at the same time, polyandry is much less popular than polygyny and is illegal in virtually every state in the world. It occurs only in remote communities, polyandry is believed to be more likely in societies with scarce environmental resources, as it is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child survival
33.
Agra Fort
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Agra Fort is a historical fort in the city of Agra in India. It was the residence of the emperors of the Mughal Dynasty till 1638. It is also a UNESCO World Heritage site and is about 2.5 km northwest of its famous sister monument. The fort can be accurately described as a walled city. After the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, the victorious Babur stayed in the fort and he later built a baoli in it. The emperor Humayun was crowned in the fort in 1530, Humayun was defeated at Bilgram in 1540 by Sher Shah. The fort remained with the Suris till 1555, when Humayun recaptured it, adil Shah Suris general, Hemu, recaptured Agra in 1556 and pursued its fleeing governor to Delhi where he met the Mughals in the Battle of Tughlaqabad. Realising the importance of its situation, Akbar made it his capital. His historian, Abul-Fazl, recorded that this was a fort known as Badalgarh. It was in a condition and Akbar had it rebuilt with red sandstone from Barauliu area in Rajasthan. Architects laid the foundation and it was built with bricks in the core with sandstone on external surfaces. Some 4,000 builders worked on it daily for eight years and it was only during the reign of Akbars grandson, Shah Jahan, that the site took on its current state. Legend has it that Shah Jahan built the beautiful Taj Mahal in the memory of his wife, unlike his grandfather, Shah Jahan tended to have buildings made from white marble. He destroyed some of the buildings inside the fort to make his own. At the end of his life, Shah Jahan was deposed and restrained by his son, Aurangzeb and it is rumoured that Shah Jahan died in Muasamman Burj, a tower with a marble balcony with a view of the Taj Mahal. The fort was invaded and captured by the Maratha Empire in the early 18th century, thereafter, it changed hands between the Marathas and their foes many times. After their catastrophic defeat at Third Battle of Panipat by Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761, finally Mahadji Shinde took the fort in 1785. It was lost by the Marathas to the British during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, in 1803
34.
Rupees
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In the Maldives, the unit of currency is known as the rufiyah, which is a cognate of the Sanskrit rupya. The Indian rupees and Pakistani rupees are subdivided into one hundred paise or pice, the Mauritian and Sri Lankan rupees subdivide into 100 cents. The Nepalese rupee subdivides into one hundred paisas or four sukas or two mohors and it is derived from the noun rūpa shape, likeness, image. The word rūpa is further identified as having sprung from the Dravidian root uruppu, rūpiya was first named to a silver coin weighing 178 grains minted in northern India by Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule between 1540 and 1545. Suri also introduced copper coins called dam and gold coins called mohur that weighed 169 grains, the Indian rupee was first introduced, issued and termed as rupiya, the silver coin, by Sher Shah Suri, continued by the Mughal rulers. The history of the rupee traces back to Ancient India circa 3rd century BC, Ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Lydian staters, several other Middle Eastern coinages and the Chinese wen. The term is from rūpya, a Sanskrit term for silver coin, from Sanskrit rūpá, both the Kabuli rupee and the Kandahari rupee were used as currency in Afghanistan prior to 1891, when they were standardized as the Afghan rupee. The Afghan rupee, which was subdivided into 60 paisas, was replaced by the Afghan afghani in 1925, until the middle of the 20th century, Tibets official currency was also known as the Tibetan rupee. The Indian rupee was the currency of Dubai and Qatar until 1959. The Gulf rupee was legal tender until 1966, when India significantly devalued the Indian rupee, in East Africa, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, the rupee and its subsidiary coinage was current at various times. The usage of the rupee in East Africa extended from Somalia in the north, in Mozambique, the British India rupees were overstamped, and in Kenya, the British East Africa Company minted the rupee and its fractions, as well as pice. The rise in the price of silver immediately after the first world war caused the rupee to rise in value to two shillings sterling. In 1920 in British East Africa, the opportunity was taken to introduce a new florin coin. Shortly after that, the florin was split into two East African shillings and this assimilation to sterling did not, however, happen in British India itself. In Somalia, the Italian colonial authority minted rupia to exactly the same standard, the Straits Settlements were originally an outlier of the British East India Company. The Spanish dollar had already taken hold in the Straits Settlements by the time the British arrived in the 19th century, the East India Company tried to introduce the rupee in its place. Formerly, the rupee was divided into 16 annas,64 paise, each circulating coin of British India, until the rupee was decimalised, had a different name in practice. A paisa was equal to two dhelas, three pies and six damaris, other coins for two paisas, two annas, four annas, eight annas were widely in use until decimalization in 1961
35.
Sanskrit
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Sanskrit is the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, a philosophical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and a literary language and lingua franca of ancient and medieval South Asia. As a result of transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia and parts of Central Asia, as one of the oldest Indo-European languages for which substantial written documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in Indo-European studies. The body of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well as scientific, technical, philosophical, the compositions of Sanskrit were orally transmitted for much of its early history by methods of memorization of exceptional complexity, rigor, and fidelity. Thereafter, variants and derivatives of the Brahmi script came to be used, Sanskrit is today one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which mandates the Indian government to develop the language. It continues to be used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns. The Sanskrit verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- may be translated as refined, elaborated, as a term for refined or elaborated speech, the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the Manusmṛti and the Mahabharata. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the oldest and most archaic stage preserved, Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE. Sanskrit, as defined by Pāṇini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form, the present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be traced back to as early as the second millennium BCE. Scholars often distinguish Vedic Sanskrit and Classical or Pāṇinian Sanskrit as separate dialects, although they are quite similar, they differ in a number of essential points of phonology, vocabulary, grammar and syntax. Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, a collection of hymns, incantations and theological and religio-philosophical discussions in the Brahmanas. Modern linguists consider the metrical hymns of the Rigveda Samhita to be the earliest, for nearly 2000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia. A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana, the deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian. Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa, meaning of the ṛṣis, in some contexts, there are also more prakritisms than in Classical Sanskrit proper. There were four principal dialects of classical Sanskrit, paścimottarī, madhyadeśī, pūrvi, the predecessors of the first three dialects are attested in Vedic Brāhmaṇas, of which the first one was regarded as the purest. In the 2001 Census of India,14,035 Indians reported Sanskrit to be their first language, in India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant Goswami filed a petition in the Punjab. More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since Indias independence in 1947, much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages
36.
Daniyal Mirza
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Daniyal Mirza was an Imperial Prince of the Mughal Empire who served as the Viceroy of Deccan. He was the son of Emperor Akbar the Great and the brother of the Emperor Jahangir. His two sons were executed by Shah Jahan on 23 Jan 1658, according to the Jahangirnama, Daniyal was the son of a royal serving-girl just like his older half-brother, Sultan Murad Mirza. He was made the Subahdar of the Deccan from 21 April 1601 to April 1604 and he was appointed to an Imperial mansab of 7,000 soldiers. After Daniyal died she returned to Marwar, shahryars forces were defeated by those loyal to his half-brother, Prince Khurram. His son, Prince Hoshang, was married to Hoshmand Banu Begum, Prince Daniyals mother was a royal concubine of Akbar. Prince Daniyal pictured with a bow and arrow at National Gallery of Canada, Prince Daniyal Accompanies the Young Hindu Girl to the Funeral Pyre at Walters Art Museum ^ Mughal Empire
37.
Tapti River
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The Tapi River flows in central India from east to west, between the Godavari and Narmada rivers. It flows through Surat, and is crossed by the Magdalla ONGC Bridge, the Tapi River basin encompasses an area of 65,145 km², which is nearly two percent of the total area of India. The basin lies in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, list of rivers of India Largest Dam Is Hatnur Near Savda
38.
Edwin Arnold
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Sir Edwin Arnold KCIE CSI was an English poet and journalist, who is most known for his work The Light of Asia. Arnold was born at Gravesend, Kent, the son of a Sussex magistrate. One of his six children was the novelist Edwin Lester Arnold and he was educated at Kings School, Rochester, Kings College London, and University College, Oxford, where he won the Newdigate prize for poetry in 1852. Here he received the bias towards, and gathered material for and it was, however, as a poet that he was best known to his contemporaries. The literary task which he set before him was the interpretation in English verse of the life and philosophy of the East. His chief work with this object is The Light of Asia, or The Great Renunciation and it appeared in 1879 and was an immediate success, going through numerous editions in England and America, though its permanent place in literature is quite uncertain. It is an Indian epic, dealing with the life and teaching of the Buddha. Arnolds other principal volumes of poetry were Indian Song of Songs, Pearls of the Faith, The Song Celestial, With Sadi in the Garden, Potiphars Wife, Adzuma, or The Japanese Wife, and Indian Poetry. In The Song Celestial Sir Edwin produced a poetic rendering of the sacred Hindu scripture Bhagavad Gita. Sir Edwin was married three times and his first wife was Katherine Elizabeth Biddulph, of London, who died in 1864. Next he married Jennie Channing of Boston who died in 1889, in his later years Arnold resided for some time in Japan and his third wife, Tama Kurokawa, was Japanese. In Seas and Lands and Japonica he gives an interesting study of Japanese life and he was appointed CSI on the occasion of the proclamation of Queen Victoria as Empress of India in 1877 and was knighted in 1888. He was also honoured with decorations by the rulers of Japan, Persia, Turkey and he was a founder member, together with Anagarika Dharmapala, of the Mahabodhi Society of India and was a close associate of Weligama Sri Sumangala. A blue plaque unveiled in 1931 commemorates Arnold at 31 Bolton Gardens in South Kensington, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Arnold, Sir Edwin. A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, London, J. M. Dent & Sons. Wikisource Brooks Wright, Interpreter of Buddhism to the West, Sir Edwin Arnold, text of The Light of Asia International Vegetarian Union, Edwin Arnold
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