1.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Norwegian language
–
Norwegian is a North Germanic language spoken mainly in Norway, where it is the official language. Along with Swedish and Danish, Norwegian forms a continuum of more or less mutually intelligible local and regional variants. These Scandinavian languages, together with Faroese and Icelandic as well as extinct languages. Faroese and Icelandic are hardly mutually intelligible with Norwegian in their spoken form because continental Scandinavian has diverged from them, as established by law and governmental policy, the two official forms of written Norwegian are Bokmål and Nynorsk. The official Norwegian Language Council is responsible for regulating the two forms, and recommends the terms Norwegian Bokmål and Norwegian Nynorsk in English. Two other written forms without official status also exist, one and it is regulated by the unofficial Norwegian Academy, which translates the name as Standard Norwegian. Nynorsk and Bokmål provide standards for how to write Norwegian, no standard of spoken Norwegian is officially sanctioned, and most Norwegians speak their own dialects in all circumstances. Thus, unlike in other countries, the use of any Norwegian dialect. Outside Eastern Norway, this variation is not used. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Danish was the written language of Norway. As a result, the development of modern written Norwegian has been subject to strong controversy related to nationalism, rural versus urban discourse, historically, Bokmål is a Norwegianised variety of Danish, while Nynorsk is a language form based on Norwegian dialects and puristic opposition to Danish. The unofficial form known as Riksmål is considered more conservative than Bokmål, Norwegians are educated in both Bokmål and Nynorsk. A2005 poll indicates that 86. 3% use primarily Bokmål as their written language,5. 5% use both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and 7. 5% use primarily Nynorsk. Thus, 13% are frequently writing Nynorsk, though the majority speak dialects that resemble Nynorsk more closely than Bokmål. Broadly speaking, Nynorsk writing is widespread in western Norway, though not in major urban areas, examples are Setesdal, the western part of Telemark county and several municipalities in Hallingdal, Valdres, and Gudbrandsdalen. It is little used elsewhere, but 30–40 years ago, it also had strongholds in rural parts of Trøndelag. Today, not only is Nynorsk the official language of four of the 19 Norwegian counties, NRK, the Norwegian broadcasting corporation, broadcasts in both Bokmål and Nynorsk, and all governmental agencies are required to support both written languages. Bokmål is used in 92% of all publications, and Nynorsk in 8%
3.
Art museum
–
An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the exhibition of art, usually visual art. Museums can be public or private, but what distinguishes a museum is the ownership of a collection, the term is used for both public galleries, which are non-profit or publicly owned museums that display selected collections of art. On the other hand, private galleries refers to the commercial enterprises for the sale of art, however, both types of gallery may host traveling exhibits or temporary exhibitions including art borrowed from elsewhere. In broad terms, in North American usage, the word gallery alone often implies a private gallery, the term contemporary art gallery refers usually to a privately owned for-profit commercial gallery. These galleries are found clustered together in large urban centers. Smaller cities are home to at least one gallery, but they may also be found in towns or villages. Contemporary art galleries are open to the general public without charge, however. They usually profit by taking a portion of art sales, from 25% to 50% is typical, there are also many non-profit or collective galleries. Some galleries in cities like Tokyo charge the artists a flat rate per day, curators often create group shows that say something about a certain theme, trend in art, or group of associated artists. Galleries sometimes choose to represent artists exclusively, giving them the opportunity to show regularly, a gallerys definition can also include the artist cooperative or artist-run space, which often operates as a space with a more democratic mission and selection process. A vanity gallery is an art gallery that charges fees from artists in order to show their work, the shows are not legitimately curated and will frequently or usually include as many artists as possible. Most art professionals are able to identify them on an artists resume, University art museums and galleries constitute collections of art that are developed, owned, and maintained by all kinds of schools, community colleges, colleges, and universities. This phenomenon exists in both the West and East, making it a global practice, although largely overlooked, there are over 700 university art museums in America alone. This number, in comparison to other kinds of art museums, throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions and monarchs and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were private, they were made available for viewing for a portion of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as a form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects often donated their collections to temples and it is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to wearing the proper apparel – the appropriate accessories could be hired from shops outside
4.
Oslo
–
Oslo is the capital and the most populous city in Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality, founded in the year 1040, and established as a kaupstad or trading place in 1048 by Harald Hardrada, the city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V of Norway around 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814, after being destroyed by a fire in 1624, the city was moved closer to Akershus Fortress during the reign of Christian IV of Denmark and renamed Christiania in his honour. It was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838, following a spelling reform, it was known as Kristiania from 1877 to 1925, at which time its original Norwegian name was restored. Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway, the city is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to companies within the maritime sector, some of which are among the worlds largest shipping companies, shipbrokers. Oslo is a city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme. Oslo is considered a city and ranked Beta World City in studies carried out by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group. It was ranked one in terms of quality of life among European large cities in the European Cities of the Future 2012 report by fDi magazine. A survey conducted by ECA International in 2011 placed Oslo as the second most expensive city in the world for living expenses after Tokyo. In 2013 Oslo tied with the Australian city of Melbourne as the fourth most expensive city in the world, as of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, while the population of the citys urban area was 942,084. The metropolitan area had an population of 1.71 million. The population was during the early 2000 increasing at record rates and this growth stems for the most part from international immigration and related high birth rates, but also from intra-national migration. The immigrant population in the city is growing faster than the Norwegian population. As of January 1,2016, the municipality of Oslo has a population of 658,390, the urban area extends beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus, the total population of this agglomeration is 942,084. To the north and east, wide forested hills rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre. The urban municipality of Oslo and county of Oslo are two parts of the entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated
5.
Norway
–
The Antarctic Peter I Island and the sub-Antarctic Bouvet Island are dependent territories and thus not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, until 1814, the kingdom included the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Iceland. It also included Isle of Man until 1266, Shetland and Orkney until 1468, Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres and a population of 5,258,317. The country shares a long border with Sweden. Norway is bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east, Norway has an extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea. King Harald V of the Dano-German House of Glücksburg is the current King of Norway, erna Solberg became Prime Minister in 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. A constitutional monarchy, Norway divides state power between the Parliament, the Cabinet and the Supreme Court, as determined by the 1814 Constitution, the kingdom is established as a merger of several petty kingdoms. By the traditional count from the year 872, the kingdom has existed continuously for 1,144 years, Norway has both administrative and political subdivisions on two levels, counties and municipalities. The Sámi people have an amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Sámi Parliament. Norway maintains close ties with the European Union and the United States, the country maintains a combination of market economy and a Nordic welfare model with universal health care and a comprehensive social security system. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the countrys gross domestic product. On a per-capita basis, Norway is the worlds largest producer of oil, the country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world on the World Bank and IMF lists. On the CIAs GDP per capita list which includes territories and some regions, from 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2017, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. It also has the highest inequality-adjusted ranking, Norway ranks first on the World Happiness Report, the OECD Better Life Index, the Index of Public Integrity and the Democracy Index. Norway has two names, Noreg in Nynorsk and Norge in Bokmål. The name Norway comes from the Old English word Norðrveg mentioned in 880, meaning way or way leading to the north. In contrasting with suðrvegar southern way for Germany, and austrvegr eastern way for the Baltic, the Anglo-Saxon of Britain also referred to the kingdom of Norway in 880 as Norðmanna land. This was the area of Harald Fairhair, the first king of Norway, and because of him
6.
Edvard Munch
–
One of his best known works is The Scream of 1893. Edvard Munch was born in a farmhouse in the village of Ådalsbruk in Løten, United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, to Laura Catherine Bjølstad and Christian Munch, Christian was a doctor and medical officer who married Laura, a woman half his age, in 1861. Edvard had a sister, Johanne Sophie, and three younger siblings, Peter Andreas, Laura Catherine, and Inger Marie. Both Sophie and Edvard appear to have inherited their artistic talent from their mother, Edvard Munch was related to painter Jacob Munch and historian Peter Andreas Munch. The family moved to Christiania in 1864 when Christian Munch was appointed medical officer at Akershus Fortress, Edvards mother died of tuberculosis in 1868, as did Munchs favorite sister Johanne Sophie in 1877. After their mothers death, the Munch siblings were raised by their father, often ill for much of the winters and kept out of school, Edvard would draw to keep himself occupied. He was tutored by his mates and his aunt. Christian Munch also instructed his son in history and literature, and entertained the children with vivid ghost-stories, as Edvard remembered it, Christians positive behavior toward his children was overshadowed by his morbid pietism. Munch wrote, My father was temperamentally nervous and obsessively religious—to the point of psychoneurosis, from him I inherited the seeds of madness. The angels of fear, sorrow, and death stood by my side since the day I was born, Christian reprimanded his children by telling them that their mother was looking down from heaven and grieving over their misbehavior. The oppressive religious milieu, plus Edvards poor health and the vivid ghost stories, helped inspire his macabre visions and nightmares, one of Munchs younger sisters, Laura, was diagnosed with mental illness at an early age. Of the five siblings, only Andreas married, but he died a few months after the wedding, Munch would later write, I inherited two of mankinds most frightful enemies—the heritage of consumption and insanity. Christian Munchs military pay was low, and his attempts to develop a private side practice failed, keeping his family in genteel. They moved frequently from one flat to another. Munchs early drawings and watercolors depicted these interiors, and the objects, such as medicine bottles and drawing implements. By his teens, art dominated Munchs interests, at thirteen, Munch had his first exposure to other artists at the newly formed Art Association, where he admired the work of the Norwegian landscape school. He returned to copy the paintings, and soon he began to paint in oils, in 1879, Munch enrolled in a technical college to study engineering, where he excelled in physics, chemistry and math. He learned scaled and perspective drawing, but frequent illnesses interrupted his studies, the following year, much to his fathers disappointment, Munch left the college determined to become a painter
7.
Gamle Oslo
–
Gamle Oslo is a district of the city of Oslo, Norway. The district has several landmarks and large parks, including the Edvard Munch Museum, the Botanical Gardens, during the time that present Oslo was named Christiania, this area was called Oslo. H. P. Lovecraft alludes to the fact in his story The Call of Cthulhu, johansens address, I discovered, lay in the Old Town of King Harald Hardrada, which kept alive the name of Oslo during all the centuries that the greater city masqueraded as Christiana. In the municipal election of 2007 all district councils became elective, labour became the largest party with 5 representatives, the Socialist Left have 3, the Conservatives, Liberals and the Red Electoral Alliance 2 each, and the Progress party 1. Places formerly known for squatting, includes Brakkebygrenda
8.
Einar Myklebust
–
Einar Frithjof Myklebust, is a Norwegian architect and professor at NTH (now. Einar Myklebust worked between 1953–1964 together with the architect Gunnar Fougner and he was professor from 1964–1970 in Byggekunst IV, architecture department, Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim. From 1970 he worked for the newly founded architectural firm Arkiplan in Trondheim, after a few years, he moved to Stavanger, where he has his own practice. Myklebust made his debut as an artist in 1995, as an artist, he is self-taught. Since his debut, he has exhibited both at home and abroad. He now paints full-time from his apartment in Stavanger,1995, Jærmuseet, first building of the new museum building. He has also designed a number of schools
9.
Gunnar Fougner
–
Gunnar Fougner was a Norwegian architect. Gunnar Fougner was born in Lillehammer, Norway and he attended the Norwegian Institute of Technology in Trondheim where he graduated in 1934. Fougner began his first job as an assistant architect working for Ove Bang 1935-1938 and he was an active resistance fighter during the Nazi occupation of Norway. Fougner left Norway in July 1940 to join a Norwegian group of special troops, among other activities, he assisted in the transport of resistance fighters between Norway and Shetland. During the liberation of Norway, he was in a group under Major Leiv Kreyberg who led the liberation of Allies POWs in North Norway, after World War II, he entered private practice in Lillehammer. He would later enter into partnership with Einar Myklebust, during the period 1955-1966, they won a number of major competitions. They completed the design of both the Munch Museum in Oslo, ) and the Institute of Odontology in Bergen
10.
Olsen Gang
–
The Olsen Gang is a fictional Danish criminal gang in the eponymous comedy film series. The gangs leader is the genius and habitual offender Egon Olsen and his accomplices are Benny. The gang members are harmless, extremely rarely target ordinary citizens, a Norwegian version of the film series was also made, in most cases based directly on the scripts for the Danish films. Later, starting in 1981, Sweden also produced their own version, most of the films start with Egon coming out of jail and being enthusiastically welcomed by Benny and Kjeld. Plans are often two-step plans, where the first heist will get the equipment for the real, bennys main function in the heists, besides get-away-driver, is often as keeper of The Thing, a metal bottle opener used for manipulating most any machinery. Egon often serves time with lawyers or executives who provide him with the information he needs, Egon is also a brilliant safecracker, operating manually, specializing in the fictive Franz Jäger brand. Egons plans often bring the gang into perilously close contact with white-collar criminals from the Danish business elite. For example, in one episode some well-connected people try to make out of the so-called butter mountain. Egon Olsen learns about this from a lawyer who is serving time. But as always, Egon – after having succeeded with a genius plan – loses because he underestimates the power, for several movies the role of antagonist was filled by CEO Hallandsen of Hallandsen Inc. Egon is usually arrested in the end, for reasons, scapegoat, bad luck, some completely irrelevant crime. A recurring part of the films is making fun of danish authorities, superintendent Jensen to his younger colleague, inspector Holm, The only thing the police can do when the real big criminals come by is offer them protection. Jensen incredously uses the recurring exclamation Bagmændene. to reference the in-joke of powerful players moving outside of the law, in the early episodes, profanity and soft-erotica were more freely used than in later ones, where said content was somewhat watered down to suit younger viewers. Later movies focused on the interplay between Jensen and Holm and Egon and Kjeld, with a frequent outburst of anger from either Olsen or superintendent Jensen. Especially Olsens long list of slurs are famous, like social democrats, sop. scumbag. to name a few. The films differ a bit each other, but they follow a generally similar formula to the Danish films. The original, Danish films were popular in the former GDR, the film series also has another character, Dynamite Harry, as the little brother of Benny Frandsen, which is also featured on the Norwegian rendition of the episodes – is the demolition expert. Harry made an appearance in six Norwegian films, played by Harald Heide-Steen Jr and he also appeared in two early Danish Olsen Gang films, then played by Preben Kaas
11.
The Scream
–
The Scream is the popular name given to each of four versions of a composition, created as both paintings and pastels, by Norwegian Expressionist artist Edvard Munch between 1893 and 1910. The German title Munch gave these works is Der Schrei der Natur, the works show a figure with an agonized expression against a landscape with a tumultuous orange sky. Arthur Lubow has described The Scream as an icon of modern art, Edvard Munch created the four versions in various media. The National Gallery in Oslo, Norway, holds one of two painted versions, the Munch Museum holds the other painted version and a pastel version from 1893. These three versions have not traveled for years, the fourth version was sold for $119,922,600 at Sothebys Impressionist and Modern Art auction on 2 May 2012 to financier Leon Black, the fourth highest nominal price paid for a painting at auction. The painting was on display in the Museum of Modern Art in New York from October 2012 to April 2013, also in 1895, Munch created a lithograph stone of the image. Of the lithograph prints produced by Munch, several examples survive, only approximately four dozen prints were made before the original stone was resurfaced by the printer in Munchs absence. The Scream has been the target of several high-profile art thefts, in 1994, the version in the National Gallery was stolen. It was recovered months later. In 2004, both The Scream and Madonna were stolen from the Munch Museum, and were recovered two years later. The original German title given by Munch to his work was Der Schrei der Natur, the Norwegian word skrik usually is translated as scream, but is cognate with the English shriek. Occasionally, the painting also has been called The Cry and he later described his inspiration for the image, One evening I was walking along a path, the city was on one side and the fjord below. I stopped and looked out over the sun was setting. I sensed a scream passing through nature, it seemed to me that I heard the scream, I painted this picture, painted the clouds as actual blood. This explanation has been disputed by scholars, who note that Munch was a painter and was not primarily interested in literal renderings of what he had seen. Alternatively, it has suggested that the proximity of both a slaughterhouse and a lunatic asylum to the site depicted in the painting may have offered some inspiration. The scene was identified as being the view from a road overlooking Oslo, at the time of painting the work, Munchs manic depressive sister Laura Catherine was a patient at the asylum at the foot of Ekeberg. In 2004, an Italian anthropologist speculated that Munch might have seen a mummy in Florences Museum of Natural History, nonetheless, later studies have confirmed Rosenblums suggestion, disproving the Italian theory, for Munch had not been to Florence until after painting The Scream
12.
Madonna (Munch painting)
–
Madonna is the usual title given to a composition by the Norwegian expressionist painter Edvard Munch. Munch painted several versions of the composition, showing a bare-breasted half-length female figure and he also produced versions in print form. The version owned by the Munch Museum of Oslo was stolen in 2004, two other versions are owned by the National Gallery of Norway and the Kunsthalle Hamburg. Another one is owned by businessman Nelson Blitz, and one was bought in 1999 by Steven A. Cohen, the lithographic print of the composition is distinguished by a decorative border depicting wriggling sperm, with a fetus-like figure in its bottom left corner. The 1893 version of the painting had a frame with similar decoration, the print also exists in a number of different versions. Although it is an unusual representation, this painting might be of the Virgin Mary. Whether the painting is intended as a representation of Mary is disputed. Munch used more than one title, including both Loving Woman and Madonna, Munch is not famous for religious artwork and was not known as a Christian. Werner Hofmann suggests that the painting is a strange devotional picture glorifying decadent love, the cult of the strong woman who reduces man to subjection gives the figure of woman monumental proportions, but it also makes a demon of her. The usual golden halo of Mary has been replaced with a red halo symbolizing the love, the viewers viewpoint is that of the man who is making love with her. Even in this pose, she embodies some of the key elements of canonical representations of the Virgin, she has a quietness. These elements suggest aspects of conventional representations of the Annunciation, robert Melville states that the image portrays ecstasy and pain in the act of love. Feminist critic Carol Duncan is inclined to interpret the figure as a femme fatale, according to Peter Day, it is a potentially vampiric figure. Day identifies a dichotomy between the image of a monstrous mother and of female subjectivity and self-sufficiency. The painting in Munch Museum Oslo was investigated by British and Norwegian scientists and they were able to identify the following pigments, chrome yellow, Prussian blue, yellow ochre, charcoal black, artificial ultramarine and vermilion. On March 29,1990 a version of Madonna and three other artworks were stolen from the Gallery Kunsthuset AS in Oslo, on June 22,1990 the police located three of the artworks in a private home in Drammen, Norway. The fourth had been located the day in a private home in nearby Sande. During the court trials, Ole Christian Bach was suspected of having organized both the theft and the handling, in September 1992, Bach was sentenced to prison for seven months for handling stolen goods
13.
Firearm
–
A firearm is a portable gun - a barreled weapon that launches one or more projectiles, often driven by the action of an explosive force. The first primitive firearms originated in 13th-century China when the fire lance was combined with projectiles. The technology gradually spread through the rest of East Asia, South Asia, older firearms typically used black powder as a propellant, but modern firearms use smokeless powder or other propellants. Most modern firearms have rifled barrels to impart spin to the projectile for improved flight stability, modern firearms can be described by their caliber or in the case of shotguns their gauge, by the type of action employed together with the usual means of deportment. The word firearms usually is used in a sense restricted to small arms, shooters aim firearms at their targets with hand-eye co-ordination, using either iron sights or optical sights. The accurate range of pistols generally does not exceed 100 yards, while most rifles are accurate to 550 yards using iron sights, some purpose-built sniper rifles are accurate to ranges of more than 2,200 yards. The smallest of all firearms is the handgun, there are three common types of handguns, single-shot pistols, revolvers, and semi-automatic pistols. Revolvers have a number of firing chambers or charge holes in a revolving cylinder, semi-automatic pistols have a single fixed firing chamber machined into the rear of the barrel, and a magazine so they can be used to fire more than one round. Each press of the fires a cartridge, using the energy of the cartridge to activate the mechanism so that the next cartridge may be fired immediately. This is opposed to double-action revolvers which accomplish the end using a mechanical action linked to the trigger pull. Prior to the 19th century, virtually all handguns were single-shot muzzleloaders, with the invention of the revolver in 1818, handguns capable of holding multiple rounds became popular. Certain designs of auto-loading pistol appeared beginning in the 1870s and had largely supplanted revolvers in military applications by the end of World War I. By the end of the 20th century, most handguns carried regularly by military, police and civilians were semi-automatic, both designs are common among civilian gun owners, depending on the owners intention. A long gun is any firearm that is larger than a handgun and is designed to be held. Early long arms, from the Renaissance up to the century, were generally smoothbore firearms that fired one or more ball shot. Most modern long guns are either rifles or shotguns, both are the successors of the musket, diverging from their parent weapon in distinct ways. A rifle is so named for the spiral fluting machined into the surface of its barrel. Shotguns are predominantly smoothbore firearms designed to fire a number of shot, shotguns are also capable of firing single slugs, or specialty rounds such as bean bags, tear gas or breaching rounds
14.
Robbery
–
Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take anything of value by force, threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. At common law, robbery is defined as taking the property of another, with the intent to deprive the person of that property. Precise definitions of the offence may vary between jurisdictions, under English law, most forms of theft are triable either way, whereas robbery is triable only on indictment. The word rob came via French from Late Latin words of Germanic origin, among the types of robbery are armed robbery involving use of a weapon and aggravated robbery involving use of a deadly weapon or something that appears to be a deadly weapon. Highway robbery or mugging takes place outside or in a place such as a sidewalk, street. Carjacking is the act of stealing a car from a victim by force, extortion is the threat to do something illegal, or the offer to not do something illegal, in the event that goods are not given, primarily using words instead of actions. Criminal slang for robbery includes blagging or stick-up, and steaming, in Canada, the Criminal Code makes robbery an indictable offence, subject to a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. If the accused uses a restricted or prohibited firearm to commit robbery, there is a minimum sentence of five years for the first offence. Robbery is an offence in the Republic of Ireland. Robbery is an offence in England and Wales. Aggravated theft Robbery is the offence of aggravated theft. Aggravated robbery There are no offences of aggravated robbery and this requires evidence to show a theft as set out in section 1 of the Theft Act 1968. In R v Robinson the defendant threatened the victim with a knife in order to recover money which he was actually owed and his conviction for robbery was quashed on the basis that Robinson had an honest, although unreasonable, belief in his legal right to the money. See also R v Skivington 1 QB166,2 WLR655,131 JP265,111 SJ72,1 All ER483,51 Cr App R167, CA. It was argued that the theft should be regarded as complete by this time, and R v Gomez, should apply, the threat or use of force must take place immediately before or at the time of the theft. Force used after the theft is complete will not turn the theft into a robbery, the words or immediately after that appeared in section 23 of the Larceny Act 1916 were deliberately omitted from section 8. The book Archbold said that the facts in R v Harman and it was held in R v Dawson and James that force is an ordinary English word and its meaning should be left to the jury. This approach was confirmed in R v Clouden and Corcoran v Anderton, stealing may involve a young child who is not aware that taking other persons property is not in order
15.
Audi A6
–
The Audi A6 is an executive car made by the German automaker Audi AG, now in its fourth generation. As the successor to the Audi 100, the A6 is manufactured in Neckarsulm, Germany – and is available in sedan and wagon configurations, the latter marketed by Audi as the Avant. Audis internal numbering treats the A6 as a continuation of the Audi 100 lineage, with the initial A6 designated as a member of the C4-series, followed by the C5, C6, and the C7. The related Audi A7 is essentially a version of the C7-series A6. All generations of the A6 have offered either front-wheel drive or Torsen-based four-wheel drive – marketed by Audi as their quattro system, second- and third- generation A6 models have shared their platform with the companys Allroad models. Audis executive car was named the Audi 100, and was released in three successive generations. In 1994, the latest generation of the Audi 100 received a facelift and was renamed as the Audi A6, the exterior was changed only slightly from the C4 Audi 100 – new front and rear lights, new radiator grille, similarly with chassis and engine and transmission choices. The United Kingdom was the first market to receive the A6, as stock of RHD Audi 100s had run out before expected, and before the rest of mainland Europe. The new engines for the A6 were 1. 8-litre 20v inline four-cylinder,2. 6-Litre 12V V6 and 2. 8-litre 30v V6 petrol engines, with the 2. 3-litre inline five engine being dropped on most markets. For the diesel engines, an inline four 1.9 Turbocharged Direct Injection, until 1997, the A6 came with several different engines, two of them turbodiesel, and most of them available with Audis Torsen-based quattro permanent four-wheel drive system. The A6 was available with saloon and Avant bodies, as this was the first S6 model from Audi, it is commonly referred to as the Ur-S6, derived from the German augmentive, Ursprünglich. It was available as both a saloon/sedan, and an Avant to European and United States customers, but only as a saloon in Canada, Asia and Australia. This powerful engine gave the S6 good performance with a top speed of 235 kilometres per hour, the vehicle was available with a standard six-speed manual transmission, and Audis dynamic Torsen T-1 quattro permanent four-wheel drive system. Unlike the five-cylinder turbocharged version, the V8-powered S6 was supplied with an automatic transmission as standard. A six-speed manual gearbox was available as an option. As a swan song to the C4 platform, a more powerful. The S6 PLUS, developed by Audis wholly owned high performance subsidiary, a total of 952 cars were produced–855 Avant, and 97 saloons. It was powered by another version of the 32-valve 4. 2-litre V8 engine, Audis performance division reworked key parts of the internal combustion engine, increasing the motive power to 240 kilowatts
16.
Station wagon
–
The body style transforms a standard three-box design into a two-box design — to include an A, B, and C-pillar, as well as a D-pillar. Station wagons can flexibly reconfigure their interior volume via fold-down rear seats to prioritize passenger or cargo volume. Can be loaded through a tailgate, when a model range includes multiple body styles, such as sedan, hatchback and station wagon, the models typically share their platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. In 1969, Popular Mechanics said, Station wagon-style, follows that of the production sedan of which it is the counterpart. Most are on the wheelbase, offer the same transmission and engine options. Station wagons have evolved from their use as specialized vehicles to carry people and luggage to and from a train station. Station wagon and wagon are the names in American, Canadian, New Zealand, Australian and African English, while estate car. Both names harken to the role as a shuttle, with storage space for baggage. Having shared antecedents with the British shooting-brake, station wagons have been marketed as breaks, early U. S. models often had exposed wooden bodies and were therefore called woodies. Manufacturers may designate station wagons across various model lines with a proprietary nameplate. Examples include Estate, Avant, Touring, Tourer and Cross-Tourer, SW for Station Wagon or Sports Wagon, Estate, MCV, Tourer, Kombi or Variant and Sports Tourer, SW - Sportswagon or Caravan. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically share a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers and cargo — and a rear door for cargo access. Further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C-pillars, station wagons feature a D-pillar, cargo Volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume — with windows aside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons may have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks may only have one or two. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons have also enjoyed numerous tailgate configurations. Hatchbacks may be called Liftbacks when the area is very sloped. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2005–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon and three and five-door hatchback models. The first station wagons were a product of the age of train travel and they were originally called depot hacks because they worked around train depots as hacks
17.
Police
–
A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang terms are numerous, many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymology. One of the oldest, cop, has largely lost its slang connotations and this is derived from πόλις, city. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by prefects for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period, in Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. The concept of the system spread to other cultures such as Korea. In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police, in Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, in the Roman empire, the army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to some extra security. Magistrates such as fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy-duty anti-riot force, in medieval Spain, Santa Hermandades, or holy brotherhoods, peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a fixture of Spain
18.
Oslo Opera House
–
The Oslo Opera House is the home of The Norwegian National Opera and Ballet, and the national opera theatre in Norway. The building is situated in the Bjørvika neighborhood of central Oslo and it is operated by Statsbygg, the government agency which manages property for the Norwegian government. The structure contains 1,100 rooms in a area of 38,500 m2. The main auditorium seats 1,364 and two performance spaces can seat 200 and 400. The main stage is 16 m wide and 40 m deep, the angled exterior surfaces of the building are covered with marble from Carrara, Italy and white granite and make it appear to rise from the water. It is the largest cultural building constructed in Norway since Nidarosdomen was completed circa 1300, in 1999, after a long national debate, the Norwegian legislature decided to construct a new opera house in the city. A design competition was held and, of the 350 entries received, construction started in 2003 and was completed in 2007, ahead of schedule and 300 million NOK under its budget of 4.4 billion NOK. The gala opening on 12 April 2008 was attended by His Majesty King Harald, Queen Margrethe II of Denmark and President Tarja Halonen of Finland, during the first year of operation,1.3 million people passed through the buildings doors. The Opera House won the award at the World Architecture Festival in Barcelona in October 2008. The roof of the angles to ground level, creating a large plaza that invites pedestrians to walk up. The lobby is surrounded by 15 m tall windows with minimal framing, the roof is supported by thin angled columns also designed not to interfere with views. Interior surfaces are covered in oak to bring warmth to spaces in contrast to the coolness of the white exterior, the main auditorium is a horseshoe shape and illuminated by an oval chandelier containing 5,800 handmade crystals. Seats include monitors for the electronic system, allowing audiences to follow opera libretti in Norwegian. Several art projects were commissioned for the interior and exterior of the Opera House, the most notable is She Lies, a sculpture constructed of stainless steel and glass panels by Monica Bonvicini. It is permanently installed on a platform in the fjord adjacent to Opera House and floats on the water moving in response to tides. The work was unveiled by Her Majesty Queen Sonja on 11 May 2010, a perforated wall panel which covers roof supports in the lobby was designed by Olafur Eliasson. It features hexagonal opening and is illuminated from below and behind to create the illusion of melting ice, the main stage curtain is the work of Pae White who designed it to look like crumpled aluminum foil. White scanned a crumpled piece of foil into a computer which translated the information to a loom that wove the curtain from wool, cotton, the curtain was manufactured by the German-based theatrical equipment company Gerriets GmbH
19.
National Gallery (Norway)
–
The National Gallery is a gallery in Oslo, Norway. Since 2003 it is administratively a part of the National Museum of Art, Architecture, in 2016 admission cost 100 Norwegian kroner. It was established in 1842 following a decision from 1836. Originally located in the Royal Palace, Oslo, it got its own building in 1882, designed by Heinrich Ernst. Former names of the museum include Den norske stats sentralmuseum for billedkunst, directors include Jens Thiis, Sigurd Willoch, Knut Berg, Tone Skedsmo and Anniken Thue. That the gallery had erroneously been labeled as technically unfit for paintings was reported in 2013, had never concluded about the fitness level, and Norways parliament had been misinformed about conclusions that in reality did not exist. ) In 2016 the price for admission doubled overnight, there are also 19th and 20th Century International paintings by Armand Guillaumin, Carl Sohn, Auguste Renoir, Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne, and Pablo Picasso. There are also Norwegian paintings by Adolph Tidemand, Hans Gude, Harriet Backer, and Lars Jorde
20.
Wayback Machine
–
The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
21.
Anxiety (painting)
–
Anxiety is an oil-on-canvas painting created by the expressionist artist Edvard Munch in 1894. Its currently housed in Munch Museum in Oslo, Norway, many art critics feel that Anxiety is closely related to Munch’s more famous piece, The Scream. The faces show despair and the dark colors show a depressed state, many critics also believe it’s meant to show heartbreak and sorrow, which are common emotions all people feel
22.
Christmas in the Brothel
–
Christmas in the Brothel is an oil-on-canvas painting by Norwegian painter Edvard Munch. The Expressionist painting was completed in 1903–04 and is housed at the Munch Museum in Oslo, the painting was done at a difficult time for Munch, a commission for a portrait in Hamburg had come to naught because of disagreements. As a result, Munch suffered anxieties, which he attempted to manage with alcohol, ironic, sentimentally unholy, the painting is interpreted as a commentary on both Lindes upper-class household and Munchs own pietistic home background. Like other paintings of the period, it shows Munchs association with Fauvism, prostitution was a favored topic of Munchs, and one particular room in a German brothel would later inspire an entire series of paintings, The Green Room
23.
Jealousy (painting)
–
Jealousy is a painting by Norwegian artist Edvard Munch. Munch returned to this throughout his whole life - he completed no less than 11 painted versions of Jealousy. The first painting was executed in 1895, and the last was made during the 1930s, Munch also created four lithograph versions and one drypoint of Jealousy. The painting was made during European period and is based on expressionism style, the 1895 oil on canvas painting, perhaps the most famous version, is now housed at Rasmus Meyer Collection, Bergen and it measures 67 by 100 centimeters. In addition, eight painted versions are possessed by the Munch Museum in Oslo, another version, executed between 1898 and 1900, is called Jealousy in the Bath and was sold at Sothebys in 1982, but the current location remains unknown
24.
The Kiss (Munch painting)
–
The Kiss is an oil painting on canvas completed by the Norwegian symbolist artist Edvard Munch in 1897. Exhibited as early as 1903, this work is held at the Munch Museum in Oslo, the Kiss is an oil painting on canvas, measuring 81 by 99 centimetres. It depicts a couple surrounded by darkness, with only a sliver of daylight showing through a window which is covered by a curtain. They hold an embrace as they merge into one, their faces a single. Art critic Roberta Smith notes that Munch favored long, somewhat slurpy brush strokes that were more stained than painted, the painting is similar to, though simpler than, another work with the same theme Munch produced in the same period. The Norwegian symbolist artist Edvard Munch had to cope with disease, mental illness, during his lifetime he experienced disappointment in love and feeble health, causing him fits of melancholia, Munch also became an alcoholic. This influenced his production and the emotional states of his paintings. Though shocking, his paintings are characterized by an honesty and integrity that makes them thrilling. Munch experimented with the motif of a couple kissing, both in painting and woodcuts, as early as 1888–89, in the numerous realizations of this motif there is a contrast between the world inside and outside of the room in which the couple is situated. The outside world appears vibrant and lively, whereas the interior of the room is timeless, in this motif, the couples abstract form, in which the faces of the two appear to be merged as one, indicates their sense of belongingness and togetherness. Later versions of the not only merged their faces. The motif was part of a series Munch called the Frieze of Life, the cycle depicts stages of a relationship between men and women and is part of what Munch called the battle between men and women that is called love. It includes portrayals of attraction, courtship, realization, and disappointment, according to the Museum of Modern Art, the dark ambiance of The Kiss is representative of Munchs ambivalence regarding romance. In the 1897 painting, art historian Reinhold Heller finds it impossible to separate the two figures, particularly where their faces meet and become one. The author Stanisław Przybyszewski was critical of the faces, finding them look like a gigantic ear. Deaf in the ecstasy of the blood, the writer August Strindberg gave a similar opinion, writing that the couple becomes a fusion of two beings, of which the smaller, in the form of a carp, seems ready to devour the larger. Owing to the similarity of the room in The Kiss to Munchs own, as represented in Night in Saint-Cloud, the Kiss was exhibited in 1903 at Munchs show Loves Awakening, paired with a copy of his Madonna. The painting is now part of the collection of the Munch Museum in Oslo, Norway, the museum is dedicated to Munch and his works
25.
Melancholy (Edvard Munch)
–
Melancholy is a painting by the Norwegian artist, Edvard Munch. Munch painted multiple variant versions of the expressionist work in oil on canvas during the period 1891–93, the painting depicts a man with his head resting in his hand in a pensive mood at the edge of a shoreline. The inspiration for the painting was a romantic affair that Munchs friend. In Munchs painting the figure of the man is at the right. Critics suggest that there are also erotic allusions, perhaps in the presence of the moon reflected on the water, the landscape represents Asgardstrands beach where Munch spent his summers from 1889. Melancholy was exhibited in 1891 at the Autumn Exhibition in Oslo, the artist and journalist Christian Krohg credited it as the first Symbolist painting by a Norwegian artist. Munch painted more than one version of the composition in 1891, a version completed in 1892–93 is in the National Gallery, Oslo
26.
Puberty (Munch painting)
–
Puberty is a painting created by Edvard Munch. Munch is an artist native to Norway and is known for his role in expressionistic art. Puberty has also been done as a lithograph and an etching by Munch, in the late 1880s and into the mid-1890s, Munch, in his mid-twenties, had begun to create his series of Puberty pieces. At this time Munch had already established himself as a notable artist in Berlin, during this period of his life Munch often found residence in Berlin, where his newfound fame and circle of friends were. His new group of friends are attributed for helping push Munch further into his sexually depressed state of mind, munchs painting Puberty, depicts a young naked girl sitting on the edge of a bed. She holds her hands in front of her body, one lies between her knees, while the other rests on her right thigh and she stares straight ahead with eyes wide open. Her mouth is closed and her long hair hangs down over the shoulders, the light enters from the left, and behind her a dark, ominous shadow is visible. The motif is often regarded as a symbol of anxiety and fear, a young girls awakening sexuality, the painting is a duplicate of one that had been earlier destroyed in a fire. Which reiterates the confusion of the idea in which Munch was inspired to create Puberty. Munch himself feared sex due to the loss of his virginity to his cousins wife, Puberty was a spark towards the progress of his personal emotional journey in how he portrayed his feelings in his artwork. 171 Shelley Wood Cordulack, Edvard Munch Edvard Munch and the physiology of symbolism, ISBN 0-8386-3891-0, ISBN 978-0-8386-3891-0 Eggum, A. & Munch, E. Edvard Munch, paintings, sketches, and studies. ISBN 0-517-55617-0 Edvard Munch at Munch Museum Puberty at Humanitiesweb Edvard Much, Puberty at wikipaintings. org Edvard Munch as a painter at Munch Museum Quotes from Edvard Munch
27.
The Sick Child
–
The Sick Child is the title given to six paintings and a number of lithographs, drypoints and etchings completed by the Norwegian artist Edvard Munch, between 1885 and 1926. All record a moment before the death of his older sister Johanne Sophie from tuberculosis at 14. Munch returned to this deeply traumatic event again and again in his art, over six completed oil paintings and many studies in various media, over a period of more than 40 years. In the works, Sophie is typically shown on her deathbed accompanied by a dark-haired, grieving woman assumed to be her aunt Karen, the studies often show her in a cropped head shot. In all the painted versions Sophie is sitting in a chair, obviously suffering from pain, propped by a white pillow. Throughout his career, Munch often returned to and created several variants of his paintings and he became obsessive with the image, and during the decades that followed he created numerous versions in a variety of formats. The six painted works were executed over a period of more than 40 years, the series has been described as a vivid study of the ravages of a degenerative disease. All of the paintings and many of the works are considered significant to Munchs oeuvre. An 1896 lithograph in black, yellow and red was sold in 2001 at Sothebys for $250,000, each painting shows Sophie in profile, lying in her deathbed, and obviously having difficulty breathing, a symptom of advanced, severe tuberculosis. She is propped from her waist up by a thick white pillow which partially hides a large circular mirror hung on the wall behind her. She is covered by a heavy dark blanket and she has red hair and is shown as frail and with a sickly pallor and vacant stare. She looks towards a dark and portentous full-length curtain to her left, a dark-haired and older woman in a black dress sits by the childs bedside, holding her hand. The bond between the two is established through the joining of their hands, which are positioned at the center of each work. In probability the woman is Sophies aunt Karen, the womans head is bowed in anguish to the extent that she seems unable to look directly at Sophie. Because of this, her face is obscured and the viewer can see the top of her head. A bottle is placed on a table or locker to the left. A glass can be seen to the right on a vaguely described table, the paintings vary in their colourisation. White especially figures in the first in the series, a representation of oblivion, later, green and yellow figure as expressive representations of sickness, while in most works the reds represent the most dramatic and physical feature of late stage tuberculosis, coughing up blood
28.
Edvard Munch (film)
–
Edvard Munch is a 1974 biographical film about the Norwegian Expressionist painter Edvard Munch, written and directed by Peter Watkins. The film was screened at the 1976 Cannes Film Festival, some of the dialogue was improvised by the cast, especially in the interview segments. To convey the hostile response Munchs work often received during his lifetime, after its initial broadcast, the film was briefly an international success but was not widely available for many years afterward. After NRK relinquished rights to the film in 2002, it gained an international release. Ingmar Bergman called the film a work of genius, notes on Edvard Munch on Peter Watkins website Edvard Munch at the Internet Movie Database Edvard Munch at AllMovie Stanford Museum document on screening of film
