1.
Nissan Murano
–
The Nissan Murano is a mid-size Crossover first sold by Nissan in May 2002 as a 2003 model. Nissan introduced the Murano as its first crossover SUV for the United States, initially designed at Nissan America in La Jolla, California, the first generation Murano was based on the Nissan FF-L platform first used by the third generation Altima. The single European version of the Murano began sales in 2004, Nissan premiered a convertible variant, the CrossCabriolet, at the 2010 Los Angeles International Auto Show, marketing the variant for model years 2011-2014. The Murano was Nissans only crossover SUV in the U. S. until September 2007 when the new 2008 Nissan Rogue went on sale. In Canada the X-Trail had been on sale as Nissans second car-based SUV since 2004 as a 2005 model, the Murano is sized between the Xterra and the Pathfinder, but is priced slightly higher than the Nissan Pathfinder. The Murano was nominated for the North American Truck of the Year award for 2003 and it was also named the best premium mid-size SUV by AutoPacific. The SUV is named after Murano, Italy, and for the sculptured glass manufactured there, the first generation Nissan Murano was unveiled in production form for the 2003 model year at the 2002 New York International Auto Show. It was powered by a 3.5 liter V6 producing 245 hp and 334 N·m, also used in several other Nissan models like the Altima, Maxima, and Nissan 350Z, but specifically tuned for use in the Murano. Available with standard front-wheel-drive and optional all-wheel-drive, the Nissan Murano is one of the largest vehicles utilising a continuously variable transmission, fuel economy was rated at 18 mpg in the city and 23 mpg on the highway. Production started in mid-May 2002 and the first vehicles shipped in early June for the US, an independent suspension on all wheels was used for class-leading ride and handling. VDC incorporates a form of traction control, the Murano received a crash test rating of 5-stars in all categories but vehicle rollover from the U. S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Japanese models were available with two choices, the 3. 5L V6 engine, or the 2. 5L QR four cylinder engine. Nissan skipped the 2008 model year with the introduction of the second generation Murano – as a 2009 model, the 2009 Murano made its public debut at the 2007 Los Angeles Auto Show in November and sales began in early January 2008. The exterior was designed to bear resemblance to the Nissan Rogue, while still maintaining distinctly Murano cues with an aggressive front fascia. The interior was redesigned, with the use of a more traditional instrument cluster. The second-generation Murano was initially offered in three levels, the base S, the mid-grade SL, and the top-level LE. The performance-oriented SE model was discontinued, the S and SL are offered with standard FWD, with optional iAWD available. The LE trim is iAWD only, the S and SL feature aluminum interior accents, while the LE sports wood-tone trim
Nissan Murano
–
Nissan Murano
Nissan Murano
–
First generation (Z50)
Nissan Murano
–
2005–2008 Nissan Murano (Z50) Ti (Australia)
Nissan Murano
–
Nissan Murano (Z51) Ti (Australia)
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
3.
Venetian Lagoon
–
The Venetian Lagoon is an enclosed bay of the Adriatic Sea, in northern Italy, in which the city of Venice is situated. Its name in the Italian and Venetian languages, Laguna Veneta—cognate of Latin lacus, lake—has provided the name for an enclosed, shallow embayment of salt water. The Venetian Lagoon stretches from the River Sile in the north to the Brenta in the south, with an area of around 550 square kilometres. It is around 8% land, including Venice itself and many smaller islands, about 11% is permanently covered by open water, or canal, as the network of dredged channels are called, while around 80% consists of mud flats, tidal shallows and salt marshes. The lagoon is the largest wetland in the Mediterranean Basin and it is connected to the Adriatic Sea by three inlets, Lido, Malamocco and Chioggia. The nearby Marano-Grado Lagoon, with an area of around 160 square kilometres, is the northernmost lagoon in the Adriatic Sea and is called sometimes the twin sister of the Venice lagoon. The Lagoon of Venice is the most important survivor of a system of estuarine lagoons that in Roman times extended from Ravenna north to Trieste, in the sixth century, the Lagoon gave security to Romanised people fleeing invaders. Later, it provided naturally protected conditions for the growth of the Venetian Republic and it still provides a base for a seaport, the Venetian Arsenal, and for fishing, as well as a limited amount of hunting and the newer industry of fish farming. The Lagoon was formed about six to seven years ago. Deposition of river sediments compensated for the coastal plain. The present aspect of the Lagoon is due to human intervention, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, Venetian hydraulic projects to prevent the lagoon from turning into a marsh reversed the natural evolution of the Lagoon. Pumping of aquifers since the century has increased subsidence. Originally many of the Lagoon’s islands were marshy, but a programme of drainage rendered them habitable. Many of the islands are entirely artificial, while some areas around the seaport of the Mestre are also reclaimed islands. The remaining islands are essentially dunes, including those of the coastal strip, today, the main cities inside the lagoon are Venice and Chioggia, Lido di Venezia and Pellestrina are inhabited as well, but they are part of Venice. At the northern end of the lagoon, there is the town of Jesolo, a sea resort. Occasionally, Bottlenose Dolphins enter the lagoon, possibly for feeding, the level of pollution in the lagoon has long been a concern. The large phytoplankton and macroalgae blooms of the late 1980s were particularly devastating, recently the lagoon has also been identified as being one of the primary areas where non-indigenous species are introduced into the Mediterranean Sea
Venetian Lagoon
–
Aerial view of the Venetian Lagoon, showing many of the islands including Venice itself, center rear, with the bridge to the mainland
Venetian Lagoon
–
The Venetian Lagoon
Venetian Lagoon
–
The island of
Torcello seen from the Lagoon at low tide
4.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
5.
Veneto
–
Veneto or Venetia is one of the twenty regions of Italy. Its population is five million, ranking fifth in Italy. The regions capital and largest city is Venice, Veneto was part of the Roman Empire until the 5th century AD. Later, after a period, it was part of the Republic of Venice until 1797. Venice ruled for centuries one of the largest and richest maritime republics. The Statute of Veneto describes Venetians as a people, besides Italian, most inhabitants also speak Venetian. The region is home to a notable nationalist movement, the regions largest party is the Venetist/Padanist Liga Veneta, a founding member of Lega Nord. The current President of Veneto is Luca Zaia, elected in 2010 with 60. 2% of the vote and the support of Lega Nord, The People of Freedom, Veneto is the 8th largest region in Italy, with a total area of 18,398.9 km2. At its northernmost corner it borders also on Austria, the north-south extension of Veneto is 210 km from the Austrian border to the mouth of the River Po. By area, 29% of its surface is mountainous, the highest massif in the Dolomites is the Marmolada-massif at 3,342 m. Other dolomitic peaks are the Tre Cime di Lavaredo and the Pale di San Martino, the Venetian Prealps are not as high and range between 700 m and 2,200 m. Fossil deposits are abundant there. The plain itself is subdivided into the plain and the lower plain. The lower plain is both a mainstay of production and the most populated part of the region. Several rivers flow through the region, the Po, Adige, Brenta, Bacchiglione, Livenza, Piave, the eastern shore of the largest lake in Italy, Lake Garda, belongs to Veneto. The coastline covers approximately 200 km, of which 100 km are beaches, the coasts of the Adriatic Sea are characterised by the Venetian Lagoon, a flat terrain with ponds, marshes and islands. The Po Delta to the south features sandbars and dunes along the coastline, the inland portion contains cultivable land recently reclaimed by a system of canals and dykes. Fish ponds have been created there as well, the delta and the lagoon are a stopping-point for migratory birds
Veneto
–
Venice, the primary tourist destination and the capital of Veneto
Veneto
–
Veneto
Veneto
–
Lake Alleghe near
Belluno
Veneto
–
Tre Cime di Lavaredo
6.
Provinces of Italy
–
In Italy, a province is an administrative division of intermediate level between a municipality and a region. There are currently 107 provinces in Italy, a further 4 such cities were added later. The reorganization of the Italian provinces became operative by January 2015, a province of the Italian Republic is composed of many municipalities. Usually several provinces together form a region, the region of Aosta Valley is the sole exception – it is not subdivided into provinces, the three main functions devolved to provinces are, local planning and zoning, provision of local police and fire services, transportation regulation. The number of provinces in Italy has been growing in recent years. Usually, the name is the same as that of its capital city. According to the 2014 reform, each province is headed by a President assisted by a body, the Provincial Council, and an executive body. President and members of Council are elected together by mayors and city councilors of each municipality of the province, the Executive is chaired by the President who appoint others members, called assessori. Since 2015 the President and others members of the Council will not receive a salary, in each province there is also a Prefect, a representative of the central government who heads an agency called prefettura-ufficio territoriale del governo. The Questor is the head of States Police in the province, there is also a provinces police force depending from local government, called provincial police. Sardinia - following the outcome of the referendums of 2012 it was decreed that such institutions should be reformed or abolished by March 2013. In January 2014 the Sardinian Regional Administrative Court declared unconstitutional the abolition of the Sardinian provinces, sicily - provinces were replaced by Free Communal Consortia in 2013. In 1861, at the birth of the Kingdom of Italy, however, at that time the national territory was smaller than the current one, regions of Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino Alto Adige and Lazio were not included in the kingdom. In 1866, following the Third Independence War, territories of Veneto, Friuli, there were therefore nine more provinces, Belluno, Mantua, Padua, Rovigo, Treviso, Venice, Verona, Vicenza and Udine, all previously part of the Austrian Empire. Eventually, in 1870, following the annexion of Rome and its province from the Papal States, after the First World War, new territories were annexed to Italy. The Province of Trento was created in 1920, Provinces of La Spezia, Trieste and Ionio in 1923. In 1924 the new provinces of Fiume, Pola, and Zara were created, in 1927, following a Royal charter, a general province rearrangement took place. 17 new provinces were created and the province of Caserta was suppressed, in the same year the institution of circondari, sub-provincial wards created before the unification, was abolished
Provinces of Italy
–
Italian Republic
7.
Province of Venice
–
The Province of Venice was a province in the Veneto region of northern Italy. Its capital is the city of Venice and it had an area of 2,467 km², and a total population of 846,962. The province became the Metropolitan City of Venice in 2015, the area was settled by 11th century BC. According to legend, Antenor fled from Troy, leading the people of Eneti from Paphlagonia to inhabit the shores of the Adriatic. The Romans defeated the Cimbri and the Germanic tribes in the area, at that time, the territory of the province was part of the Byzantine Empire, belonging to the Exarchate of Ravenna. Over the centuries, Venice became more independent and in 697 it had its first Doge, with the destruction of Eracliana in 805, the capital was moved to Rialto. In the Middle Ages, Venice became an important maritime republic, completely independent from Byzantium, in 1260, the Ezzelini family were defeated. Threatened by the expansionist ambitions of the Visconti of Milan, in 1365, in 1797, Napoleon invaded the Republic and, following the Treaty of Campo Formio, it was ceded to Austria. After the final defeat of Napoleon, the Austrian Empire founded a province of Venice on the Adriatic, the municipalities of Chioggia, Cavan and Cona constituted an exclave separated from the rest of the province, bordering the provinces of Padua and Rovigo. The Brenta and Livenza rivers flows through the former province, the Piave River flows into the Adriatic after passing the town of Eraclea. The 174 kilometres long Brenta runs from Trentino to the Adriatic Sea just south of the Venetian lagoon and it was first channeled in the 16th century when a long canal was built from the village of Stra to the Adriatic Sea, bypassing Venetian lagoon. A branch of the Brenta, named Naviglio Brenta, was left to connect directly Venice, the river runs through Stra, Fiesso dArtico, Dolo, Mira, Oriago and Malcontenta to Fusina in the north-east. In areas that bordered the Friuli Venezia Giulia Region, it is estimated that 29% of the population speaks fluent Friuli, the language is officially recognized and has been protected as a minority language since 2006. Statistics recorded since 1871 show that the population of the Province of Venice increased from some 341,000 inhabitants in 1871 to almost 847,000 in 2011. It rose steadily in each of the ten-year statistical periods until 1981 whereafter there were declines until 2001 when the population dipped to 809,586. Finally, there was an increase of 4. 6% in the period from 2001 to 2011 when the number of inhabitants reached 340,913. The average age per inhabitant was 44.8 years in 2011, in 2012, there were 72,284 foreigners residents in the province, mainly from Romania, Moldova and Albania, representing 8. 5% of the total population. In the academic year 2012 to 2013,23,677 students were enrolled at university of which 61. 8% were women and 38. 2% male, the most popular fields of study were economics, foreign languages, letters and philosophy, and architecture
Province of Venice
–
Venice
8.
Island
–
An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, skerries, an island in a river or a lake island may be called an eyot or ait, and a small island off the coast may be called a holm. A grouping of geographically or geologically related islands is called an archipelago, an island may be described as such, despite the presence of an artificial land bridge, examples are Singapore and its causeway, and the various Dutch delta islands, such as IJsselmonde. There are two types of islands in the sea, continental and oceanic. The word island derives from Middle English iland, from Old English igland, Old English ieg is actually a cognate of Swedish ö and German Aue, and related to Latin aqua. There is a difference between islands and continents in terms of geology, continents sit on continental lithosphere which is part of tectonic plates floating high on Earths mantle. Oceanic crust is also part of tectonic plates, but it is denser than continental lithosphere, Islands are either extensions of the oceanic crust or geologically they are part of some continent sitting on continental lithosphere. This holds true for Australia, which sits on its own continental lithosphere, continental islands are bodies of land that lie on the continental shelf of a continent. A special type of island is the microcontinental island, which is created when a continent is rifted. Examples are Madagascar and Socotra off Africa, the Kerguelen Islands, New Caledonia, New Zealand, another subtype is an island or bar formed by deposition of tiny rocks where water current loses some of its carrying capacity. While some are transitory and may disappear if the volume or speed of the current changes, others are stable, oceanic islands are islands that do not sit on continental shelves. The vast majority are volcanic in origin, such as Saint Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, the few oceanic islands that are not volcanic are tectonic in origin and arise where plate movements have lifted up the ocean floor above the surface. Examples are Saint Peter and Paul Rocks in the Atlantic Ocean, one type of volcanic oceanic island is found in a volcanic island arc. These islands arise from volcanoes where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring, examples are the Aleutian Islands, the Mariana Islands, and most of Tonga in the Pacific Ocean. The only examples in the Atlantic Ocean are some of the Lesser Antilles, another type of volcanic oceanic island occurs where an oceanic rift reaches the surface. There are two examples, Iceland, which is the second largest volcanic island, and Jan Mayen. A third type of oceanic island is formed over volcanic hotspots. A hotspot is more or less stationary relative to the tectonic plate above it
Island
–
Atafu atoll in Tokelau
Island
–
São Miguel Island, in
Azores archipelago, is also referred as "The Green Island".
Island
–
A small
Fijian island
Island
–
The
British Isles are a large group of islands. The main islands include
Great Britain and
Ireland.
9.
Venice
–
Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
Venice
–
A collage of Venice: at the top left is the
Piazza San Marco, followed by a view of the city, then the
Grand Canal, and (smaller) the interior of
La Fenice and, finally, the Island of San Giorgio Maggiore
Venice
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Venice
–
Photography of Venice at dusk
Venice
–
The Grand Canal seen from the bridge at
Ponte di Rialto
10.
Glass making
–
Glass production involves two main methods – the float glass process that produces sheet glass, and glassblowing that produces bottles and other containers. Broadly, modern glass container factories are three-part operations, the house, the hot end. The batch house simply houses the raw materials in large silos, some batch systems include material processing such as raw material screening/sieve, drying, or pre-heating. Whether automated or manual, the house measures, assembles, mixes, and delivers the glass raw material recipe via an array of chutes, conveyors. The batch enters the furnace at the dog house or batch charger, different glass types, colors, desired quality, raw material purity / availability, and furnace design will affect the batch recipe. The hot end of a glassworks is where the glass is formed into glass products, beginning when the batch is fed into the furnace at a slow. The furnaces are natural gas- or fuel oil-fired, and operate at temperatures up to 1,575 °C, the temperature is limited only by the quality of the furnace’s superstructure material and by the glass composition. Types of furnaces used in glass making include end-port, side-port. Typically, furnace size is classified by metric tons per day production capability, the gob is of predetermined weight just sufficient to make a bottle. Both processes start with the gob falling, by gravity, and guided, through troughs and chutes, into the blank moulds, compressed air is then blown again at the second stage to give final shape. Containers are made in two major stages, the first stage moulds all the details around the opening, but the body of the container is initially made much smaller than its final size. These partly manufactured containers are called parisons, and quite quickly, referring to the mechanism, the rings are sealed from below by a short plunger. After the settleblow finishes, the plunger retracts slightly, to allow the skin thats formed to soften, counterblow air then comes up through the plunger, to create the parison. The baffle rises and the blanks open, the parison is inverted in an arc to the mould side by the neckring arm, which holds the parison by the finish. As the neckring arm reaches the end of its arc, two halves close around the parison. The neckring arm opens slightly to release its grip on the finish, final blow, applied through the blowhead, blows the glass out, expanding into the mould, to make the final container shape. In the press and blow process, the parison is formed by a metal plunger which rises up and presses the glass out, in order to fill the ring. The process then continues as before, with the parison being transferred to the mould
Glass making
–
Glass bottles (for cucumber slices) on shipping pallets
Glass making
–
A Soviet mayonnaise jar
Glass making
–
A modern "French Kilner" jar
Glass making
–
IS machine during bottle production
11.
Church of Santa Maria e San Donato
–
The Church of Santa Maria e San Donato is a religious edifice located in Murano, northern Italy. The church is one of the oldest in the Venetian lagoon and it was originally built in the 7th century and is known to have been rebuilt in the 9th century and in 1040 AD, although it is possible that there have been more rebuildings in later times. The church and its tower are built of dark red-brown brick. The main entrance to the church faces west, but the most impressive facade is the colonnaded east side, which faces a canal. The colourful stone mosaic floor of the church, including the yoked cocks on the floor of San Donato, in Murano, who are carrying a fox dates from around 1140, the relics of San Donato are located in a marble sarcophagus. Behind the altar there are four rib bones, hanging from wires, the bones are more than 1 metre long. According to legend, these are bones of the dragon slain by St. Donatus in Greece and it is possible that these bones are from large extinct Pleistocene mammals. Visa pour Venise - Le bestiaire - James Morris
Church of Santa Maria e San Donato
–
Church of Santa Maria e San Donato.
12.
Altinum
–
Altinum is the name of an ancient coastal town of the Veneti 15 km SE of the modern Treviso, northern Italy, on the edge of the lagoons. Altino has today some 100 inhabitants and a historical museum and it increased in importance with the Romanization of the region and, to be specific, with the construction of the Via Annia, which passed through, linking Atria with Aquileia. At the end of the Republic, Altinum became a municipium, the place, thus, became of considerable strategic and commercial importance, and the comparatively mild climate led to the erection of villas that Martial compares with those of Baiae. Co-emperor Lucius Verus died there in 169 AD, Altinum became the seat of a bishopric by the 5th century, the first bishop being Heliodorus of Altino. No longer a residential diocese, it is listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see. Around 452, Attila the Hun captured the city and burned most of it, refugees settled on the islands of the lagoons, forming settlements that eventually became known as Venice. In 568 it was conquered by the Lombards, whose domination spurred further emigration towards the Venetian Lagoon, the Catholic diocese was moved to Torcello in 647. In the 10th-11th centuries, the area of Altinum was totally abandoned, a new settlement appeared in the 15th century, the current frazione of the latter was founded in the 19th century. However, the remains eventually sank into the mud of the marshy area. Historical and archaeological studies started to develop mainly after the draining of the swamp at the beginning of the 20th century, see the overlaid Altinum city map for Google Earth for better localization. Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites,1976, Altinum, Veneto, Italy Ancestor city of Venice unearthed
Altinum
–
Remains of the Roman
decumanus.
13.
Oderzo
–
Oderzo is a town and comune in the province of Treviso, Veneto, northern Italy. It lies in the heart of the Venetian plain, about 66 kilometres to the northeast of Venice, Oderzo is traversed by the Monticano River, a tributary of the Livenza. The centro storico, or town center, is rich with archeological ruins which give insight into Oderzos history as a crossroad in the Roman Empire. The six suburbs or frazioni which surround Oderzo almost in the form of a hexagon, starting from the north and then proceeding clockwise, they are, The earliest settlement of the area can be dated to the Iron Age, around the 10th century BC. From the mid-9th century BC the Veneti occupied site and gave it its name, etymologically, -terg- in Opitergium stems from a Venetic root word indicating a market. The location of Oderzo on the Venetian plain and between the Monticano and Navisego rivers made it ideal as a center for trade. The Veneti of Oderzo appear to have maintained relations with the Romans. The town was granted Latin rights in 182 BC, the Via Postumia, finished in 148 BC, passing through Oderzo, connected Genua to Aquileia, and thus, increased the importance of Oderzo. Citizens of Oderzo likely were involved in the Social War in 89 BC since acorn-like missiles with names in Venetic and Latin inscriptions have been found at Ascoli Piceno. During the Roman Civil War, Caius Volteius Capito, a born in Oderzo. For their loyalty, Caesar exempted Oderzo from conscription for 20 years, moreover, in 48 BC the city was elevated to the rank of Roman municipium and its citizens assigned to the Roman tribe Papiria by the Lex de Gallia Cisalpina. With the reforms of Augustus Oderzo was incorporated into Regio X of Italia, Venetia et Histria, the Roman era witnessed prodigious building projects including a forum, a basilica, temples and many private homes. Oderzo achieved its greatest splendor during the 1st and 2nd centuries AD and its population grew to about 50,000 inhabitants. It lent its name to the Venetian lagoon which was called laguna opitergina, an number of Roman authors mention the city, among whom are Claudius Ptolomeus, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, Lucan, Tacitus, Livy and Quintilian. Unfortunately, prosperity made Oderzo a target, during the Marcomannic Wars in 167 AD, Oderzo was sacked and destroyed by a force of Marcomanni and Quadi, who then went on to besiege Aquileia. By 554, the town was restored to the Empire by Justinians devastating Gothic War in Italy, under the Byzantine Empire, Oderzo became the a major center within the Exarchate of Ravenna with a dux as its chief official. It would be held by the Byzantines, even much of northern Italy was conquered by the Lombard in 568. The Lombard king, Rothari, subsequently led a war of vendetta and, having breached Oderzos defenses, however, the Lombards apparently withdrew, since in 667, Oderzo was again in the hands of the Byzantines
Oderzo
–
Piazza Grande (Main Square).
Oderzo
–
Remains of a Roman villa in the Roman Forum
14.
Fishing port
–
A port is a location on a coast or shore containing one or more harbors where ships can dock and transfer people or cargo to or from land. Port locations are selected to optimize access to land and navigable water, for commercial demand, Ports with deeper water are rarer, but can handle larger ships. Since ports throughout history handled every kind of traffic, support and storage facilities vary widely, may extend for miles, some ports have an important military role. One of the worlds oldest known artificial harbors is at Wadi al-Jarf on the Red Sea, along with the finding of harbor structures, ancient anchors have also been found. Guangzhou was an important port during the ancient times as far back as the Qin Dynasty, canopus was the principal port in Egypt for Greek trade before the foundation of Alexandria. Athens port of Piraeus was the base for the Athenian fleet, lothal is one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilisation, located in the Bhāl region of the modern state of Gujarāt and dating from 3700 BCE. Ostia Antica was the port of ancient Rome with Portus established by Claudius, Ports often have cargo-handling equipment, such as cranes and forklifts for use in loading ships, which may be provided by private interests or public bodies. Often, canneries or other processing facilities will be located nearby, some ports feature canals, which allow ships further movement inland. Access to intermodal transportation, such as railroads and highways, is critical to a port, so that passengers, Ports with international traffic have customs facilities. Harbor pilots and tugboats may maneuver large ships in tight quarters when near docks, the terms port and seaport are used for different types of port facilities that handle ocean-going vessels, and river port is used for river traffic, such as barges and other shallow-draft vessels. An inland port is a port on a lake, river, or canal with access to a sea or ocean. An example of this is the St. Lawrence Seaway which allows ships to travel from the Atlantic Ocean several thousand kilometers inland to Great Lakes ports like Duluth-Superior, a fishing port is a port or harbor for landing and distributing fish. It may be a facility, but it is usually commercial. A fishing port is the port that depends on an ocean product. In recent decades, regulations to save fishing stock may limit the use of a fishing port, a dry port is an inland intermodal terminal directly connected by road or rail to a seaport and operating as a centre for the transshipment of sea cargo to inland destinations. A warm-water port is one where the water does not freeze in wintertime, because they are available year-round, warm-water ports can be of great geopolitical or economic interest. A seaport is further categorized as a port or a cargo port. Additionally, cruise ports are known as a home port or a port of call
Fishing port
–
The
Port of New York and New Jersey grew from the original
harbor at the convergence of the
Hudson River and the
East River at the
Upper New York Bay.
Fishing port
–
Seaport, a 17th-century depiction by
Claude Lorrain, 1638
Fishing port
–
Shanghai Port is the
world's busiest container port
Fishing port
–
Port of Hamburg
15.
Salt
–
Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams of solids per litre, Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues, Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, the scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is processed from salt mines, or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and is used in industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp. Of the annual production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use, edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of diseases, such as hypertension, in children. Such health effects of salt have long been studied, accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt, or where they can trade for it. All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization, the word salary comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Even before this, what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, even the name Solnisata means salt works. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a spring in Lunca, Neamț County
Salt
–
Salt deposits beside the
Dead Sea
Salt
–
Red rock salt from the
Khewra Salt Mine in Pakistan
Salt
–
Salt production in
Halle, Saxony-Anhalt (1670)
Salt
–
Ponds near
Maras, Peru, fed from a mineral spring and used for salt production since the time of the
Incas.
16.
Dorsoduro
–
Dorsoduro is one of the six sestieri of Venice, in northern Italy. Dorsoduro includes the highest land areas of the city and also Giudecca island and its name derives from the Italian for hard ridge, due to its comparatively high, stable land. The original heart of the area was the Giudecca Canal, along which buildings were constructed from the sixth century. In the nineteenth century the Accademia was set up in Dorsoduro, the western quarter end and the Giudecca, became industrialised around this time. Le Zitelle Ospedale Giustinian Palazzo Ariani Palazzo Dario Palazzo Zenobio Punta della Dogana Dogana da Mar — art museum, Santa Maria della Salute San Pantalon San Trovaso Santa Maria del Carmelo San Sebastiano Scuola Grande dei Carmini Sestieri of Venice
Dorsoduro
–
Gondolier's workshop in Dorsoduro
Dorsoduro
–
Location of Dorsoduro within Venice
17.
Lagoon
–
A lagoon is a shallow body of water separated from a larger body of water by barrier islands or reefs. Lagoons are commonly divided into coastal lagoons and atoll lagoons and they have also been identified as occurring on mixed-sand and gravel coastlines. There is an overlap between bodies of water classified as coastal lagoons and bodies of water classified as estuaries, lagoons are common coastal features around many parts of the world. Lagoons can also be man-made and used for treatment, as is the case for e. g. aerated lagoons. Lagoons are shallow, often elongated bodies of water separated from a body of water by a shallow or exposed shoal, coral reef. Some authorities include fresh water bodies in the definition of lagoon, the distinction between lagoon and estuary also varies between authorities. Richard A. Davis Jr. restricts lagoon to bodies of water with little or no fresh water inflow, and little or no tidal flow, Davis does state that the terms lagoon and estuary are often loosely applied, even in scientific literature. Timothy M. Kusky characterizes lagoons as normally being elongated parallel to the coast, while estuaries are usually drowned river valleys, coastal lagoons are classified as inland bodies of water. Many lagoons do not include lagoon in their common names, in England, The Fleet at Chesil Beach has also been described as a lagoon. In Latin America, the term laguna in Spanish, which translates to. However, sometimes it is used to describe a full-sized lake, such as Laguna Catemaco in Mexico. The brackish water lagoon may be explicitly identified as a coastal lagoon. In Portuguese the same usage is found, lagoa may be a body of sea water. Lagoon is derived from the Italian laguna, which refers to the waters around Venice, Laguna is attested in English by at least 1612, and had been Anglicized to lagune by 1673. In 1697 William Dampier referred to a Lagune or Lake of Salt water on the coast of Mexico, captain James Cook described an island of Oval form with a Lagoon in the middle in 1769. Atoll lagoons form as coral reefs grow upwards while the islands that the reefs surround subside, unlike the lagoons that form shoreward of fringing reefs, atoll lagoons often contain some deep portions. Coastal lagoons form along gently sloping coasts where barrier islands or reefs can develop off-shore, coastal lagoons do not form along steep or rocky coasts, or if the range of tides is more than 4 metres. Due to the slope of the coast, coastal lagoons are shallow
Lagoon
–
Balos coastal lagoon of northwestern
Crete. The shallow lagoon is separated from the Mediterranean sea by narrow shoals connecting to a small, rocky mountain.
Lagoon
–
Garabogaz-Göl lagoon in
Turkmenistan
Lagoon
–
Coastal lagoon landscapes around the island of
Hiddensee near
Stralsund,
Germany. Many similar coastal lagoons can be found around the
Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park.
Lagoon
–
Aerial photograph of the Rakaia river-mouth and associated hapua
18.
Camaldolese Order
–
The Camaldolese monks and nuns are two different, but related, monastic communities who trace their lineage to the monastic movement begun by Saint Romuald. Their name is derived from the Holy Hermitage of Camaldoli, high in the mountains of central Italy, the Camaldolese were established through the efforts of the Italian monk Saint Romuald. His reform sought to renew and integrate the eremetical tradition of life with that of the cenobium. In his youth Romuald became acquainted with the three schools of western monastic tradition. The monastery where he entered the Order, Sant Apollinare in Classe was a traditional Benedictine community under the influence of the Cluniac reforms. Romuald chose to be under a master, Marinus, who followed a much harsher ascetic. Some years later, Marinus and Romuald settled near the Abbey of Sant Miguel de Cuxa, around 1012 Romuald founded the Sacred Hermitage of Camaldoli in the Tuscan hills. There monks lived in cells, but also observed the common life, worshiping daily in the church. Here the distinctive habit first appears, at Camaldoli are first found in combination the two cenobite and hermit branches that are afterwards so marked a feature of the order. The order was approved by Pope Alexander II, in 1072, there are Camaldolese hermitages and monasteries throughout Italy. There are two Camaldolese congregations, The Benedictine Camaldolese are headquartered at Camaldoli, known as the Holy Hermitage, the first community founded by the congregation was the Monastery of St. Mary of the Angels in Florence. By the 13th century, its scriptorium was known as a source of high quality parchments throughout Europe. It was in this monastery that the artist Lorenzo Monaco explored his vocation as a monk, the other congregation, known as the Camaldolese Hermits of Monte Corona, was established by the Renaissance reformer, Paolo Giustiniani. This group lives solely in hermitages, usually with a small number of monks comprising the community. There are three houses in Italy, two in Poland, and one each in Spain, the United States, and Colombia, unlike the other congregation, it is not a member of the larger Benedictine Confederation. Eremo Di San Girolamo, founded in 1521, does not have the separate, annunziata Di Monte Rua was founded in 1537. In the past, it was the center of various Coronese Hermitages in the Republic of Venice, sacro Eremo Tuscolano was founded in 1607 at Frascati in the Alban Hills. It is the residence of the father major and the novitiate house for Italy
Camaldolese Order
–
Camaldolese Priory of Bielany in
Kraków,
Poland
Camaldolese Order
–
St. Romuald
Camaldolese Order
–
Former Camaldolese hermitage in Wigry, Poland
19.
Italian language
–
By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
Italian language
–
Dante Alighieri (above) and
Petrarch (below) were influential in establishing their
Tuscan dialect as the most prominent literary language in all of
Italy in the
Late Middle Ages
Italian language
–
The geographic distribution of the Italian language in the world: large Italian-speaking communities are shown in green; light blue indicates areas where the Italian language was used officially during the Italian colonial period.
Italian language
Italian language
–
Pietro Bembo was an influential figure in the development of the Italian language from the Tuscan dialect, as a literary medium, codifying the language for standard modern usage
20.
Cartographer
–
Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively, the fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to, Set the maps agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing, traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries. Represent the terrain of the object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections, eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the maps purpose. This is the concern of generalization, reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization, orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design, modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems. The earliest known map is a matter of debate, both because the term map isnt well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE, the oldest surviving world maps are from 9th century BCE Babylonia. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu and several cities, all, in turn, another depicts Babylon as being north of the world center. The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps since Anaximander in the 6th century BCE, in the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia. This contained Ptolemys world map – the world known to Western society. As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic, in ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, in the book of the Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection. Early forms of cartography of India included depictions of the pole star and these charts may have been used for navigation. Mappa mundi are the Medieval European maps of the world, approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents, the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154
Cartographer
–
A medieval depiction of the
Ecumene (1482, Johannes Schnitzer, engraver), constructed after the coordinates in Ptolemy's
Geography and using his second map projection. The translation into Latin and dissemination of Geography in Europe, in the beginning of the 15th century, marked the rebirth of scientific cartography, after more than a millennium of stagnation.
Cartographer
–
Valcamonica rock art (I), Paspardo r. 29, topographic composition, 4th millennium BC
Cartographer
–
The
Bedolina Map and its tracing, 6th–4th century BC
Cartographer
–
Copy (1472) of
St. Isidore's TO map of the world.
21.
Fra Mauro
–
Cam. was an Italian cartographer who lived in the Republic of Venice. He created the most detailed and accurate map of the world up until that time, Mauro was a monk of the Camaldolese Monastery of St. Michael, located on the island of Murano in the Venetian Lagoon. It was there that he maintained a cartography workshop and he also was employed by some very powerful men like Prince Henry the Navigator. Fra Mauro was born before or around the year 1400, in his youth, Mauro had traveled extensively as a merchant and a soldier. He was familiar with the Middle East and he is recorded in the records of the Monastery of St. Michael from 1409. As a lay member of the monastery, Mauro was employed as mapmaker, in the records of the monastery his main job was recorded as collecting the monasterys rents, but from the 1450s he is also mentioned as the creator of a series of world maps. Although he was no longer free to travel, due to his religious status, by 1450 he composed a great mappa mundi - a world map - with surprising accuracy, including extensive written comments reflecting the geographic knowledge of his time. The map is today as the Fra Mauro map. The Fra Mauro world map, or mappa mundi, was a major work that compiled much of the geographical knowledge of the time. The map covers over five square meters, the map is extremely detailed and contains many thousands of texts and illustrations. The world map took several years to complete and was the most detailed, Fra Mauro created the map under a commission by King Afonso V of Portugal. Andrea Bianco, a sailor-cartographer, is recorded as having collaborated with Fra Mauro in creating the map, the map was completed on 24 April 1459, and sent to Portugal, but that copy didnt survive. Along with the map was a letter from the Doge of Venice and it was intended for Prince Henry the Navigator, Afonso Vs uncle. It encouraged the prince to continue funding exploratory journeys, Fra Mauro died the following year, while he was making a copy of the map for the Signoria of Venice. The copy was completed by Andrea Bianco, a commemorative medal of the period struck in honor of his cartographic work describes Fra Mauro as chosmographus incomparabilis. Two copies of maps by Fra Mauro are known to survive, one is a portolan chart in the Vatican Library, published by Roberto Almagià in 1944. The crater Fra Mauro and associated Fra Mauro formation of the Moon are named after him. The Apollo 13 lunar mission was intended to explore the Fra Mauro formation, the formation was instead explored by astronauts Alan Shepard and Edgar Mitchell of the Apollo 14 mission in February 1971
Fra Mauro
–
The 1450 ca.
Fra Mauro map (inverted, South is normally at the top). The map is a world map that depicts Asia, Africa and Europe.
Fra Mauro
–
A medal in honor of Fra Mauro, "an incomparable cosmographer", produced soon after his death, probably by the artist Giovanni Boldù
22.
Monk
–
A monk is a person who practices religious asceticism, living either alone or with any number of other monks. The concept is ancient and can be seen in many religions, in the Greek language the term can apply to women, but in modern English it is mainly in use for men. The word nun is typically used for female monastics, although the term monachos is of Christian origin, in the English language monk tends to be used loosely also for both male and female ascetics from other religious or philosophical backgrounds. However, being generic, it is not interchangeable terms that denote particular kinds of monk, such as cenobite, hermit, anchorite, hesychast. In Eastern Orthodoxy monasticism holds a special and important place. Orthodox monastics separate themselves from the world in order to pray unceasingly for the world and they do not, in general, have as their primary purpose the running of social services, but instead are concerned with attaining theosis, or union with God. However, care for the poor and needy has always been an obligation of monasticism, the level of contact though will vary from community to community. Hermits, on the hand, have little or no contact with the outside world. Orthodox monasticism does not have religious orders as are found in the West, basil the Great and the Philokalia, which was compiled by St. Nikodemos of the Holy Mountain and St. Makarios of Corinth. Hesychasm is of importance in the ascetical theology of the Orthodox Church. Meals are usually taken in common in a dining hall known as a trapeza. Food is usually simple and is eaten in silence while one of the brethren reads aloud from the writings of the Holy Fathers. The monastic lifestyle takes a deal of serious commitment. Within the cenobitic community, all monks conform to a way of living based on the traditions of that particular monastery. In struggling to attain this conformity, the comes to realize his own shortcomings and is guided by his spiritual father in how to deal honestly with them. For this same reason, bishops are almost always chosen from the ranks of monks, Eastern monasticism is found in three distinct forms, anchoritic, cenobitic, and the middle way between the two, known as the skete. One normally enters a community first, and only after testing and spiritual growth would one go on to the skete or, for the most advanced. However, one is not necessarily expected to join a skete or become a solitary, in general, Orthodox monastics have little or no contact with the outside world, including their own families
Monk
–
St. Anthony the Great of Egypt, considered the Father of
Christian Monasticism
Monk
–
Monastery of St. Dionysius on
Mount Athos.
Monk
–
General view of
Holy Trinity-Makaryev Monastery, on the
Volga River in
Nizhny Novgorod Oblast,
Russia.
Monk
–
Order of Saint Benedict
23.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
24.
Napoleon
–
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
Napoleon
–
The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries, by
Jacques-Louis David, 1812
Napoleon
–
Imperial coat of arms
Napoleon
–
Napoleon's father
Carlo Buonaparte was
Corsica 's representative to the court of
Louis XVI of France.
Napoleon
–
Napoleon Bonaparte, aged 23, Lieutenant-Colonel of a battalion of Corsican
Republican volunteers
25.
Italian peninsula
–
The Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula is the central and the smallest of the three large peninsulas of Southern Europe. It extends 1,000 km from the Po Valley in the north to the central Mediterranean Sea in the south, the peninsulas shape gives it the nickname lo Stivale. Three smaller peninsulas contribute to this shape, namely Calabria, Salento. Geographically, the Italian peninsula consists of the south of a line extending from the Magra to the Rubicon rivers. It excludes the Po Valley and the slopes of the Alps. All of the lies within the territory of the Italian Republic except for the microstates of San Marino. Additionally, Sicily, Elba and other islands, such as Palagruža, are usually considered as islands off the peninsula. The peninsula lies between the Tyrrhenian Sea on the west, the Ionian Sea on the south, and the Adriatic Sea on the east, the backbone of the Italian peninsula consists of the Apennine Mountains, from which it takes one of its names. Most of its coast is lined with cliffs, the Italian Peninsulas location between the centre of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea made it the target of many conquests. The peninsula has mainly a Mediterranean climate, though in the parts the climate is much cooler. Its natural vegetation includes macchia along the coasts and deciduous and mixed coniferous forests in the interior. Political divisions of the peninsula sorted by area, Apennine Mountains Roman Republic Roman Italy Insular Italy Media related to Italian Peninsula at Wikimedia Commons
Italian peninsula
–
Satellite view of the peninsula in March 2003.
26.
Glass
–
Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are silicate glasses based on the chemical compound silica, the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material. Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their use as window panes. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels and these qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures, because glass can be formed or moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels, bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also used for paperweights, marbles. Some objects historically were so commonly made of glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses and these sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica, metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses are a lighter alternative than traditional glass, silica is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2. It has excellent resistance to shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature and viscosity make it difficult to work with, normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate, which lowers the transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is undesirable, so lime, some magnesium oxide. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass, soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass. Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties, lead glass or flint glass is more brilliant because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index, iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths
Glass
–
The joining of two tubes made of
lead glass during
glass welding.
Glass
–
Moldavite, a natural glass formed by
meteorite impact, from
Besednice, Bohemia
Glass
–
Tube fulgurites
Glass
–
Quartz sand (silica) is the main raw material in commercial glass production
27.
Export
–
The payload originally consisted of two independent modules, EXPOSE and Sky Polarization Observatory. The EXPOSE experiment had 12 sample compartments, each held a sample carrier, EXPOSE was placed in 2008 on an external platform on the Columbus – External Payload Facility where it remained for 1.5 years. The second instrument, Sky Polarization Observatory, was an Italian astrophysical instrument to measure celestial polarisation range of 20–90 GHz, however, due to the projects reliance on the Space Shuttle, and the setback of the Columbia disaster, the observatory was canceled in 2005. Bion BIOPAN Biosatellite program O/OREOS Scientific research on the ISS SPOrt Homepage SPOrt page at the Italian National Institute for Astrophysics
Export
28.
Glass beadmaking
–
The technology for glass beadmaking is among the oldest human arts, dating back 3,000 years. Glass beads have been dated back to at least Roman times, perhaps the earliest glass-like beads were Egyptian faience beads, a form of clay bead with a self-forming vitreous coating. Glass beads are significant in archaeology because the presence of glass beads often indicate that there was trade, in addition, the composition of the glass beads could be analyzed and help archaeologists understand the sources of the beads. Glass beads are usually categorized by the used to manipulate the glass - wound beads, drawn beads. There are composites, such as beads, where cross-sections of a drawn glass cane are applied to a wound glass core. A very minor industry in blown glass beads also existed in 19th-century Venice and France, probably the earliest beads of true glass were made by the winding method. Glass at a high enough to make it workable, or ductile, is laid down or wound around a steel wire or mandrel coated in a clay slip called bead release. The wound bead, while hot, may be further shaped by manipulating with graphite, wood, stainless steel, brass, tungsten or marble tools. This process is called marvering, originating from the French word marbrer which translates to marble and it can also be pressed into a mold in its molten state. While still hot, or after re-heating, the surface of the bead may be decorated with fine rods of colored glass called stringers and these are a type of lampwork beads. The drawing of glass is very ancient. Evidence of large-scale drawn-glass beadmaking has been found by archeologists in India, in Arekamedu this was accomplished by inserting a hollow metal tube into the ball of hot glass and pulling the glass strand out around it, to form a continuous glass tube. The pulling was a process, and canes were reportedly drawn to lengths up to 200 feet long. The drawn tube was then chopped, producing individual drawn beads from its slices, the resulting beads were cooked or rolled in hot sand to round the edges without melting the holes closed, were sieved into sizes, and, usually, strung onto hanks for sale. The micro-bead or seed bead, are so called due to their tiny, modern seed beads are extruded by machine and some, such as Miyuki delicas, look like small tubes. Pressed or molded beads are associated with labour costs. These are made in the Czech republic, thick rods are heated to molten and fed into a complex apparatus that stamps the glass, including a needle that pierces a hole. The beads again are rolled in hot sand to remove flashing, by making canes striped or otherwise patterned, the resulting beads can be more elaborately colored than seed beads
Glass beadmaking
–
Lampwork glass
beads
Glass beadmaking
–
Pressed glass beads
Glass beadmaking
–
Lampworked
dichroic glass bead showing thin film application
Glass beadmaking
–
Furnace glass beads
29.
Mirror
–
This is different from other light-reflecting objects that do not preserve much of the original wave signal other than color and diffuse reflected light. The most familiar type of mirror is the mirror, which has a flat screen surface. Curved mirrors are used, to produce magnified or diminished images or focus light or simply distort the reflected image. Mirrors are commonly used for personal grooming or admiring oneself, decoration, Mirrors are also used in scientific apparatus such as telescopes and lasers, cameras, and industrial machinery. Most mirrors are designed for light, however, mirrors designed for other wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation are also used. The first mirrors used by people were most likely pools of dark, still water, the requirements for making a good mirror are a surface with a very high degree of flatness, and a surface roughness smaller than the wavelength of the light. The earliest manufactured mirrors were pieces of polished stone such as obsidian, examples of obsidian mirrors found in Anatolia have been dated to around 6000 BC. Mirrors of polished copper were crafted in Mesopotamia from 4000 BC, polished stone mirrors from Central and South America date from around 2000 BC onwards. In China, bronze mirrors were manufactured from around 2000 BC, some of the earliest bronze, Mirrors made of other metal mixtures such as copper and tin speculum metal may have also been produced in China and India. Mirrors of speculum metal or any precious metal were hard to produce and were owned by the wealthy. Stone mirrors often had poor reflectivity compared to metals, yet metals scratch or tarnish easily, depending upon the color, both often yielded reflections with poor color rendering. The poor image quality of ancient mirrors explains 1 Corinthians 13s reference to seeing as in a mirror, glass was a desirable material for mirrors. Because the surface of glass is smooth, it produces reflections with very little blur. In addition, glass is very hard and scratch resistant, however, glass by itself has little reflectivity, so people began coating it with metals to increase the reflectivity. According to Pliny, the people of Sidon developed a technique for creating crude mirrors by coating glass with molten lead. Glass mirrors backed with gold leaf are mentioned by Pliny in his Natural History and these circular mirrors were typically small, from only a fraction of an inch to as much as eight inches in diameter. These small mirrors produced distorted images, yet were prized objects of high value and these ancient glass mirrors were very thin, thus very fragile, because the glass needed to be extremely thin to prevent cracking when coated with a hot, molten metal. Due to the quality, high cost, and small size of these ancient glass mirrors
Mirror
–
A mirror, reflecting a
vase
Mirror
–
A
first surface mirror coated with aluminum and enhanced with
dielectric coatings. The angle of the incident light (represented by both the light in the mirror and the shadow behind it) exactly matches the angle of reflection (the reflected light shining on the table).
Mirror
–
Seated woman holding a mirror.
Ancient Greek Attic
red-figure lekythos, c. 470–460 BC,
National Archaeological Museum, Athens
Mirror
–
A sculpture of a lady looking into a mirror, India
30.
Aventurine glass
–
Goldstone is a type of glittering glass made in a low-oxygen reducing atmosphere. Another common name for the material is glass, based on the original Italian name avventurina. It is also sometimes called stellaria, sang-e setareh or sang-e khorshid for its starry internal reflections, the material is sometimes called sandstone when used in watch dials, despite its lack of resemblance to the porous, matte texture of the natural stone. Curiously, aventurine glass is one of the few synthetic simulants to provide the eponym for the natural stones. One original manufacturing process for goldstone was invented in seventeenth-century Venice by the Miotti family, urban legend says goldstone was an accidental discovery by unspecified Italian monks or the product of alchemy, but there is no pre-Miotti documentation to confirm this. A goldstone amulet from 12th-century Persia in the collection of the University of Pennsylvania shows that other, earlier artisans were able to create the material. The most common form of goldstone is reddish-brown, containing crystals of metallic copper that require special conditions to form properly. The initial batch is melted together from silica, copper oxide, after a suitable crystallization period, the entire batch is cooled to a single solid mass, which is then broken out of the vat for selection and shaping. The final appearance of each batch is highly variable and heterogenous, the best material is near the center or heart of the mass, ideally with large, bright metal crystals suspended in a semitransparent glass matrix. The outer layers of a batch tend to have duller colors. This can be caused by crystallization, which simultaneously decreases the size of reflective crystals. It can also be caused by oxidation of the copper, causing it to redissolve. Goldstone also exists in other variants based on other elements. Green goldstone, or chrome aventurine, forms its reflective particles from chromium oxides rather than the elemental metal, the non-copper goldstones are easier to work with when reheated, due to the less stringent reduction requirements and higher melting points of manganese and cobalt. Earliest documentation of goldstone cited as 1626
Aventurine glass
–
Goldstone
Aventurine glass
–
Blue goldstone
31.
Chandelier
–
A chandelier /ˌʃæn. dəlˈɪər/ is a decorative ceiling-mounted light fixture, a distinct type of pendant light. Chandeliers are often ornate, and normally use incandescent light bulbs, crystal chandeliers have more or less complex arrays of crystal prisms to illuminate a room with refracted light. Chandeliers are often located in hallways, living rooms, dining rooms, the word chandelier was first known in the English language in the 1736, borrowed from the Old French word chandelier, which comes from the Latin candelabrum. The earliest candle chandeliers were used by the wealthy in medieval times, from the 15th century, more complex forms of chandeliers, based on ring or crown designs, became popular decorative features in palaces and homes of nobility, clergy and merchants. Its high cost made the chandelier a symbol of luxury and status, by the early 18th century, ornate cast ormolu forms with long, curved arms and many candles were in the homes of many in the growing merchant class. Neoclassical motifs became a common element, mostly in cast metals. Chandeliers made in style also drew heavily on the aesthetic of ancient Greece and Rome, incorporating clean lines, classical proportions. During the 18th century glass chandeliers were produced by Bohemiens and Venetian glassmakers who were masters in the art of making chandeliers. Bohemian style was successful across Europe and its biggest draw was the chance to obtain spectacular light refraction due to facets. As a reaction to this new taste Italian glass factories in Murano created new kinds of light sources. Since Murano glass was not suitable for faceting, typical work realized at the time in countries where crystal was used. Typical features of a Murano chandelier are the intricate arabeques of leaves, flowers and fruits that would be enriched by coloured glass, made possible by the specific type of glass used in Murano. This glass they worked with was so unique, as it was glass and was a complete contrast to all different types of glass produced in the world at that time. An incredible amount of skill and time was required to precisely twist and this new type of chandelier was called ciocca literally bouquet of flowers, for the characteristic decorations of glazed polychrome flowers. One of the use of the huge Murano Chandeliers was the interior lighting of theatres. In the mid-19th century, as gas lighting caught on, branched ceiling fixtures called gasoliers were produced, by the 1890s, with the appearance of electric light, some chandeliers used both gas and electricity. As distribution of electricity widened, and supplies became dependable, electric-only chandeliers became standard, Another portmanteau word, electrolier, was formed for these, but nowadays they are most commonly called chandeliers. Some are fitted with bulbs shaped to imitate candle flames, for example those shown below in Epsom and Chatsworth, the worlds largest English Glass chandelier, is located in the Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul
Chandelier
–
Underside of a chandelier,
Valencia town hall
Chandelier
–
Early 19th-century French cut-glass and
ormolu chandelier in the
Green Room of the
White House
Chandelier
–
A chandelier in
Sayyidah Ruqayya Mosque, Damascus, Syria
Chandelier
–
A five-tier wedding cake chandelier with a crystal top
32.
Resort
–
A resort is a self-contained commercial establishment that endeavors to provide most of a vacationers wants, such as food, drink, lodging, sports, entertainment, and shopping, on the premises. The term resort may be used for a property that provides an array of amenities, typically including entertainment. A hotel is frequently a central feature of a resort, such as the Grand Hotel at Mackinac Island, some resorts are also timeshare or fractionally owned, or wholly owned condominium complexes. A resort is not always a commercial establishment operated by a single company, commonly these facilities are of higher quality than would be expected if one were to stay at a hotel or eat in a towns restaurants. Closely related to these resorts are convention and large meeting sites, generally these occur in cities where special meeting halls, together with ample accommodations as well as varied dining and entertainment, are provided. An all-inclusive resort charges a price that includes most or all items. At a minimum, most inclusive resorts include lodging, unlimited food, drink, sports activities, all-inclusive resorts are found in the Caribbean, particularly in Dominican Republic, Egypt, and elsewhere. Many also offer sports and other included in the price as well. They are often located in warmer regions, the all-inclusive model originated in the Club Med resorts, which were founded by the Belgian Gérard Blitz. Some all-inclusive resorts are designed for specific vacation interests, for example, certain resorts cater to adults, while even more specialized properties accept couples only. Other all-inclusive resorts are geared toward families, with facilities like craft centers, game rooms, all-inclusive resorts are also very popular locations for destination weddings. A spa resort is a short term residential/lodging facility with the purpose of providing individual services for spa-goers to develop healthy habits. Historically many such spas were developed at the location of natural hot springs or sources of mineral waters, golf resorts are resorts that cater specifically to the sport of golf, and include access to one or more golf course and or clubhouse. Golf resorts typically provide golf packages that provide visitors with all greens and cart fees, range balls, accommodations, in North America a ski resort is generally a destination resort in a ski area. Ski resort is less likely to refer to a town or village, a megaresort is a type of destination resort which is of an exceptionally large size, such as those along the Las Vegas Strip. In Singapore integrated resort is a euphemism for a destination resort. A holiday village is a type of self-contained resort in Europe, a holiday camp in the United Kingdom refers to a resort where the accommodation is in chalets. The term holiday park is used for a resort where the accommodation includes static caravans, there are 1500+ timeshare resorts in the U. S. that are operated by major hospitality, timeshare-specific, or independent companies
Resort
–
Resorts combine a hotel and a variety of recreations, such as
swimming pools, shown here in San Diego, California
Resort
–
Kayaking provided by a lakeside resort in
Jasper, Alberta
Resort
–
An
island resort in the
Maldives.
Resort
–
Miami Beach in Florida
33.
Palace
–
A palace is a grand residence, especially a royal residence, or the home of a head of state or some other high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. The word is derived from the Latin name Palātium, for Palatine Hill in Rome which housed the Imperial residences, in many parts of Europe, the term is also applied to ambitious private mansions of the aristocracy. Many historic palaces are now put to uses such as parliaments, museums, hotels. The word is sometimes used to describe a lavishly ornate building used for public entertainment or exhibitions. The word palace comes from Old French palais, from Latin Palātium, the original palaces on the Palatine Hill were the seat of the imperial power while the capitol on the Capitoline Hill was the religious nucleus of Rome. Long after the city grew to the seven hills the Palatine remained a residential area. Emperor Caesar Augustus lived there in a purposely modest house only set apart from his neighbours by the two trees planted to flank the front door as a sign of triumph granted by the Senate. His descendants, especially Nero, with his Golden House, enlarged the house, the word Palātium came to mean the residence of the emperor rather than the neighbourhood on top of the hill. Palace meaning government can be recognized in a remark of Paul the Deacon, AD790 and describing events of the 660s, When Grimuald set out for Beneventum, he entrusted his palace to Lupus. At the same time, Charlemagne was consciously reviving the Roman expression in his palace at Aachen, in the 9th century, the palace indicated the housing of the government too, and the constantly travelling Charlemagne built fourteen. In the Holy Roman Empire the powerful independent Electors came to be housed in palaces and this has been used as evidence that power was widely distributed in the Empire, as in more centralized monarchies, only the monarchs residence would be a palace. In modern times, the term has been applied by archaeologists and historians to large structures that housed combined ruler, court, in informal usage, a palace can be extended to a grand residence of any kind. The earliest known palaces were the residences of the Egyptian Pharaohs at Thebes, featuring an outer wall enclosing labyrinthine buildings. Other ancient palaces include the Assyrian palaces at Nimrud and Nineveh, the Minoan palace at Knossos, the Brazilian new capital, Brasília, hosts modern palaces, most designed by the citys architect Oscar Niemeyer. The Alvorada Palace is the residence of the Brazils president. The Planalto Palace is the official workplace, the Jaburu Palace is the official residence of Brazils vice-president. In Canada, Government House is a given to the official residences of the Canadian monarchy. The use of the term Government House is a custom from the British Empire
Palace
–
Schwerin Palace in
Germany, historical
ducal residence of
Mecklenburg since 1348.
Palace
–
Palace of Versailles, the center of
French absolutism from 1682 on.
Palace
–
Ambavilas Palace, famous as
Mysore Palace, the official residence of
Maharajas of Mysore since 1400.
Palace
–
The
Planalto Palace, in
Brasília,
Brazil
34.
Orchard
–
An orchard is an intentional planting of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production. Orchards comprise fruit- or nut-producing trees which are grown for commercial production. Orchards are also sometimes a feature of gardens, where they serve an aesthetic as well as a productive purpose. A fruit garden is generally synonymous with an orchard, although it is set on a smaller non-commercial scale, most temperate-zone orchards are laid out in a regular grid, with a grazed or mown grass or bare soil base that makes maintenance and fruit gathering easy. Orchards are sometimes concentrated near bodies of water, where climatic extremes are moderated, an orchards layout is the technique of planting the crops in a proper system. There are different methods of planting and thus different layouts, some of these layout types include, Square method Rectangular method Quincunx method Triangular method Hexagonal method Contour method For different varieties, these systems may vary to some extent. The most extensive orchards in the United States are apple and orange orchards, the most extensive apple orchard area is in eastern Washington state, with a lesser but significant apple orchard area in most of Upstate New York. Extensive orange orchards are found in Florida and southern California, where they are widely known as groves. In eastern North America, many orchards are along the shores of Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, in Canada, apple and other fruit orchards are widespread on the Niagara Peninsula, south of Lake Ontario. This region is known as Canada Fruitbelt and, in addition to large-scale commercial fruit marketing, murcia is a major orchard area in Europe, with citrus crops. New Zealand, China, Argentina and Chile also have extensive apple orchards, tenbury Wells in Worcestershire has been called The Town in the Orchard, since the 19th century, because it was surrounded by extensive orchards. Today, this heritage is celebrated through an annual Applefest, streuobstwiese is a German word that means a meadow with scattered fruit trees or fruit trees that are planted in a field. Streuobstwiese, or a meadow orchard, is a landscape in the temperate. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Streuobstwiesen were a kind of a community orchard that were intended for productive cultivation of stone fruit. In recent years, ecologists have successfully lobbied for state subsidies to valuable habitats, biodiversity and natural landscapes, both conventional and meadow orchards provide a suitable habitat for many animal species that live in a cultured landscape. Orchard House in Concord, Massachusetts was the residence of American celebrated writer Louisa May Alcott, fruita, Utah part of Capitol Reef National Park has Mormon pioneer orchards maintained by the United States National Park Service. The Orchard Link organisation provides advice on how to manage and restore the county of Devons orchards, an organisation called Orchards Live carries out similar work in North Devon. Peoples Trust for Endangered Species has mapped every traditional orchard within England, the UK Biodiversity Partnership lists traditional orchards and a priority UK Biodiversity Action Plan habitat
Orchard
–
A
lemon orchard in the
Upper Galilee in
Israel.
Orchard
–
A community
apple orchard originally planted for productive use during the 1920s, in
Westcliff on Sea (
Essex, England)
Orchard
–
Streuobstwiese, a rural community orchard, traditionally for productive use. Today endorsed for its quality of habitat and biodiversity
Orchard
–
Apple orchards in
Azwell, Washington surrounding a community of
pickers' cabins
35.
Vegetable
–
In everyday usage, a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a meal. The term vegetable is somewhat arbitrary, and largely defined through culinary and it normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits, nuts, and cereal grains, but includes seeds such as pulses. The original meaning of the vegetable, still used in biology, was to describe all types of plant, as in the terms vegetable kingdom. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries, the scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing. Vegetables can be either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates. Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, the word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes from Old French, and was applied to all plants. It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis growing, flourishing, a change from a Late Latin meaning to be enlivening, quickening. The meaning of vegetable as a plant grown for food was not established until the 18th century, in 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root. The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term veggie, the broadest definition is the words use adjectivally to mean matter of plant origin to distinguish it from animal, meaning matter of animal origin. More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as any plant, part of which is used for food, a secondary meaning then being the edible part of such a plant. A more precise definition is any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, falling outside these definitions are edible fungi and edible seaweed which, although not parts of plants, are often treated as vegetables. In everyday language, the fruit and vegetable are mutually exclusive. Fruit has a precise meaning, being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant. This is considerably different from the words culinary meaning, while peaches, plums, and oranges are fruit in both senses, many items commonly called vegetables, such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes, are botanically fruits. The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893
Vegetable
–
Vegetables in a
market in the
Philippines
Vegetable
–
Domestic vegetable garden in the United Kingdom
Vegetable
–
cabbage Brassica oleracea
Vegetable
–
turnip Brassica rapa
36.
Byzantine architecture
–
Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Later Roman or Eastern Roman Empire. Byzantine architecture was influenced by Roman and Greek architecture and later Sassanian. Early Byzantine architecture drew upon earlier elements of Roman architecture, stylistic drift, technological advancement, and political and territorial changes meant that a distinct style gradually resulted in the Greek cross plan in church architecture. Most of the structures are sacred in nature, with secular buildings mostly known only through contemporaneous descriptions. Prime examples of early Byzantine architecture date from Justinian Is reign and survive in Ravenna and Istanbul, secular structures include the ruins of the Great Palace of Constantinople, the innovative walls of Constantinople and Basilica Cistern. A frieze in the Ostrogothic palace in Ravenna depicts an early Byzantine palace, remarkable engineering feats include the 430 m long Sangarius Bridge and the pointed arch of Karamagara Bridge. The period of the Macedonian dynasty, traditionally considered the epitome of Byzantine art, has not left a legacy in architecture. The cross-in-square type also became predominant in the Slavic countries which were Christianized by Salonikas missionaries during the Macedonian period, only national forms of architecture can be found in abundance due to this. Those styles can be found in many Transcaucasian countries, such as Russia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Croatia and other Slavic lands, the Paleologan period is well represented in a dozen former churches in Istanbul, notably St Saviour at Chora and St Mary Pammakaristos. Unlike their Slavic counterparts, the Paleologan architects never accented the vertical thrust of structures, as a result, there is little grandeur in the late medieval architecture of Byzantium. Other churches from the years predating the fall of Constantinople survive on Mount Athos. Those of the type we must suppose were nearly always vaulted. The most famous church of this type was that of the Holy Apostles, vaults appear to have been early applied to the basilican type of plan, for instance, at Hagia Irene, Constantinople, the long body of the church is covered by two domes. At Saint Sergius, Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the central type, finally, at Hagia Sophia a combination was made which is perhaps the most remarkable piece of planning ever contrived. This unbroken area, about 260 ft long, the part of which is over 100 ft wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces. Above the conchs of the small apses rise the two great semi-domes which cover the hemicycles, and between these bursts out the vast dome over the central square. On the two sides, to the north and south of the dome, it is supported by vaulted aisles in two storeys which bring the form to a general square. At the Holy Apostles five domes were applied to a cruciform plan, after the 6th century there were no churches built which in any way competed in scale with these great works of Justinian, and the plans more or less tended to approximate to one type
Byzantine architecture
–
Hagia Sophia Church,
Sofia,
Bulgaria
Byzantine architecture
–
The
basilica of
Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in
Ravenna
Byzantine architecture
–
The 11th-century monastery of
Hosios Loukas in Greece is representative of the Byzantine art during the rule of the
Macedonian dynasty.
Byzantine architecture
–
Interior of the
Hagia Sophia under renovation, showing many features of the grandest Byzantine architecture.
37.
Mosaic
–
A mosaic is a piece of art or image made from the assemblage of small pieces of colored glass, stone, or other materials. It is often used in art or as interior decoration. Most mosaics are made of small, flat, roughly square, pieces of stone or glass of different colors, some, especially floor mosaics, are made of small rounded pieces of stone, and called pebble mosaics. Others are made of other materials, mosaics have a long history, starting in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC. Pebble mosaics were made in Tiryns in Mycenean Greece, mosaics with patterns and pictures became widespread in classical times, Early Christian basilicas from the 4th century onwards were decorated with wall and ceiling mosaics. Mosaic fell out of fashion in the Renaissance, though artists like Raphael continued to practise the old technique, Roman and Byzantine influence led Jews to decorate 5th and 6th century synagogues in the Middle East with floor mosaics. Mosaic was widely used on buildings and palaces in early Islamic art, including Islams first great religious building, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Mosaic went out of fashion in the Islamic world after the 8th century, modern mosaics are made by professional artists, street artists, and as a popular craft. Many materials other than stone and ceramic tesserae may be employed, including shells, glass. The earliest known examples of made of different materials were found at a temple building in Abra, Mesopotamia. They consist of pieces of colored stones, shells and ivory, excavations at Susa and Chogha Zanbil show evidence of the first glazed tiles, dating from around 1500 BC. However, mosaic patterns were not used until the times of Sassanid Empire, mythological subjects, or scenes of hunting or other pursuits of the wealthy, were popular as the centrepieces of a larger geometric design, with strongly emphasized borders. Pliny the Elder mentions the artist Sosus of Pergamon by name, describing his mosaics of the left on a floor after a feast. Both of these themes were widely copied, most recorded names of Roman mosaic workers are Greek, suggesting they dominated high quality work across the empire, no doubt most ordinary craftsmen were slaves. Splendid mosaic floors are found in Roman villas across North Africa, in such as Carthage. The tiny tesserae allowed very fine detail, and an approach to the illusionism of painting, often small panels called emblemata were inserted into walls or as the highlights of larger floor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal technique was opus tessellatum, using larger tesserae, which was laid on site, there was a distinct native Italian style using black on a white background, which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work. In Rome, Nero and his architects used mosaics to cover surfaces of walls and ceilings in the Domus Aurea, built 64 AD
Mosaic
–
Irano-Roman floor mosaic detail from the palace of
Shapur I at
Bishapur.
Mosaic
–
Cone mosaic courtyard from
Uruk in
Mesopotamia 3000 BC
Mosaic
–
Ancient Greek mosaic of a deer hunt, in the House of the Abduction of Helen at
Pella, late 4th century BC
Mosaic
–
Roman mosaic of
Ulysses, from Carthage. Now in the
Bardo Museum,
Tunisia
38.
Dragon
–
A dragon is a legendary creature, typically scaled or fire-spewing and with serpentine, reptilian or avian traits, that features in the myths of many cultures around world. The two most well-known cultural traditions of dragon are The European dragon, derived from European folk traditions and ultimately related to Balkans, most are depicted as reptilian creatures with animal-level intelligence, and are uniquely six-limbed. The Chinese dragon, with counterparts in Japan, Korea and other East Asian, most are depicted as serpentine creatures with above-average intelligence, and are quadrupeds. The two traditions may have evolved separately, but have influenced each other to a certain extent, the English word dragon and Latin word draco derives from Greek δράκων, dragon, serpent of huge size, water-snake. The Greek and Latin term referred to any great serpent, not necessarily mythological, a dragon is a mythological representation of a reptile. In antiquity, dragons were mostly envisaged as serpents, but since the Middle Ages, it has become common to them with legs. Dragons are usually shown in modern times with a body like a huge lizard, the European dragon has bat-like wings growing from its back. A dragon-like creature with wings but only a pair of legs is known as a wyvern. The association of the serpent with a monstrous opponent overcome by a deity has its roots in the mythology of the Ancient Near East, including Canaanite, Hittite. Humbaba, the fire-breathing dragon-fanged beast first described in the Epic of Gilgamesh, is described as a dragon with Gilgamesh playing the part of dragon-slayer. The folk-lore motif of the dragon guarding gold may have come from earlier Bronze Age customs of introducing serpents to village granaries to deter rats or mice. Although dragons occur in many legends around the world, different cultures have varying stories about monsters that have been grouped together under the dragon label, some dragons are said to breathe fire or to be poisonous, such as in the Old English poem Beowulf. They are commonly portrayed as serpentine or reptilian, hatching from eggs and they are sometimes portrayed as hoarding treasure. Some myths portray them with a row of dorsal spines, European dragons are more often winged, while Chinese dragons resemble large snakes. Dragons can have a number of legs, none, two, four, or more when it comes to early European literature. Dragons are often held to have spiritual significance in various religions. In many Asian cultures, dragons were, and in some still are, revered as representative of the primal forces of nature, religion. They are associated with wisdom—often said to be wiser than humans—and longevity and they are commonly said to possess some form of magic or other supernatural power, and are often associated with wells, rain, and rivers
Dragon
–
Sculpture of Mario the Magnificent, the dragon mascot of
Drexel University, by
Eric Berg
Dragon
–
Carved imperial Chinese dragons at
Nine-Dragon Wall,
Beihai Park,
Beijing
Dragon
–
Dragon
Dragon
–
Saint George Killing the Dragon, 1434/35, by
Martorell
39.
Donatus of Arezzo
–
Saint Donatus of Arezzo is the patron saint of Arezzo, and considered a bishop of the city. A Passio of Donatus life was written by a bishop of Arezzo, Severinus and he calls Donatus a martyr, though Donatus is described as a bishop and confessor of the faith in ancient sources rather than as a martyr. An early hagiography of Donatus was already known to Gregory the Great, according to tradition, Donatus was martyred on August 7,362 during the reign of Julian the Apostate and was a native of Nicomedia. According to Severinus’ account, as a child Donatus came to Rome with his family from Nicomedia, Julian rose to the position of subdeacon, Donatus became a lector. On 4 February 362, Julian promulgated an edict to guarantee freedom of religion, Christian chroniclers considered that it had as its purpose the restoration of paganism at the expense of Christianity. Catholic tradition states that Julian also persecuted individual Christians, and that Donatus’ parents, as well as his teacher Pymenius, Donatus escaped to Arezzo and would work with a monk named Hilarian to preach the Christian faith, as well as perform penances and miracles. Donatus was ordained a deacon and priest by Saint Satyrus of Arezzo, bishop of that city, at the death of Satyrus, Donatus was appointed a bishop by Pope Julius I. A man named Anthimus was Donatus deacon, during a celebration of Mass, at the moment of the giving of Communion, in which a glass chalice was being administered, some pagans entered the church and shattered the chalice in question. Donatus, after intense prayer, collected all of the fragments, there was a piece missing from the bottom of the cup, miraculously, however, nothing spilled from the cup. Astounded, seventy-nine pagans converted to Christianity, a similar legend is told of Saint Nonnosus, but the object is a shattered glass lamp. A month after this episode, the prefect of Arezzo, Quadratian, arrested Hilarian the Monk, Hilarian was martyred on July 16,362 and Donatus was beheaded on August 7 at Arezzo. In 1125, some of Donatus relics were brought to the Church of Santa Maria e San Donato on the island of Murano, a large silver reliquary bust of Donatus from the 13th century is now found in the National Museum at Naples. The patron saints of Guardiagrele are Donatus of Arezzo and Saint Emidius, annually between the 6th and 8 August there is a festival celebrating these saints in which the effigy of Donatus is paraded around the streets of Guardiagrele. It is traditional to eat porchetta at this time, San Donato di Arezzo San Donato San Donato Patrono della città di Arezzo Donatus von Arezzo
Donatus of Arezzo
–
The Miracle of Saint Donatus by
Jusepe de Ribera,
Musée de Picardie.
Donatus of Arezzo
–
The
Tarlati polyptych by
Pietro Lorenzetti, at the Church of Santa maria della Pieve in Arezzo, 1320, includes St. Donatus, far left.
Donatus of Arezzo
–
Church of Santa Maria e San Donato
40.
Church of San Pietro Martire (Murano)
–
San Pietro Martire is a Roman catholic parish church in Murano, near Venice, northern Italy. The church was edificated in 1348 along with a Dominican convent, in 1474 a fire razed it to the ground and in 1511 it was rebuilt to the current appearance. It was closed on 1806, a few years after the fall of the Republic of Venice and it is currently one of the two main parish churches in the island of Murano. The façade is in naked brickwork, divided in three sections and with a 16th-century portal, which is surmounted by a rose window. On the left façade is a portico with Renaissance arcades and columns, on the same side is the bell tower, dating to 1498-1502. The interior is on the plan, with three naves divided by two series of large columns, and a wooden ceiling. The presbytery is quite large, with vaults and two small side chapels. Aside from the altar, there other minor altars, three for each nave. In the right wing is the Ballarin Chapel, built in 1506 after the death of the eponymous glassmaker from Murano. Other paintings include a St. Jerome in the Desert by Paolo Veronese, the Barcaioli Altarpiece by Giovanni Agostino da Lodi, a Deposition from the Cross by Giuseppe Porta, la chiesa di San Pietro Martire. San Pietro Martire - Murano -1511
Church of San Pietro Martire (Murano)
–
Façade of San Pietro Martire.
41.
Giovanni Bellini
–
Giovanni Bellini was an Italian Renaissance painter, probably the best known of the Bellini family of Venetian painters. His father was Jacopo Bellini, his brother was Gentile Bellini and he is considered to have revolutionized Venetian painting, moving it towards a more sensuous and colouristic style. Through the use of clear, slow-drying oil paints, Giovanni created deep, rich tints and his sumptuous coloring and fluent, atmospheric landscapes had a great effect on the Venetian painting school, especially on his pupils Giorgione and Titian. Giovanni Bellini was born in Venice and he was brought up in his fathers house, and always lived and worked in the closest fraternal relation with his brother Gentile. Up until the age of nearly thirty we find in his work a depth of religious feeling and his paintings from the early period are all executed in the old tempera method, the scene is softened by a new and beautiful effect of romantic sunrise color. Giovannis early works have often been linked both compositionally and stylistically to those of his brother-in-law, Andrea Mantegna, none of the masters works of this kind, whether painted for the various schools or confraternities or for the ducal palace, have survived. As is the case with a number of his brother, Gentiles public works of the period, the still more famous altar-piece painted in tempera for a chapel in the church of S. Giovanni e Paolo, where it perished along with Titians Peter Martyr, after 1479–1480 much of Giovannis time and energy must also have been taken up by his duties as conservator of the paintings in the great hall of the Doges Palace. Of the other, the class of his work, including both altar-pieces with many figures and simple Madonnas, a considerable number have fortunately been preserved. The old intensity of pathetic and devout feeling gradually fades away and gives place to a noble, if more worldly, serenity, the full splendour of Venetian color invests alike the figures, their architectural framework, the landscape and the sky. An interval of years, no doubt chiefly occupied with work in the Hall of the Great Council, seems to separate the San Giobbe Altarpiece. Formally, the works are similar, so a comparison between serves to illustrate the shift in Bellinis work over the last decade of the 15th century. Both pictures are of the Holy Conversation type, both show the Madonna seated on a throne, between classicizing columns. Both place the holy figures beneath a golden mosaicked half dome that recalls the Byzantine architecture in the basilica of St. Mark. Stylistically, the lighting in the San Zaccaria piece has become so soft, Giovannis use of the oil medium had matured, and the holy figures seem to be swathed in a still, rarefied air. The San Zaccaria is considered perhaps the most beautiful and imposing of all Giovannis altarpieces, and is dated 1505, the last ten or twelve years of the masters life saw him besieged with more commissions than he could well complete. In 1505 she endeavoured through Cardinal Bembo to obtain from him another picture, what the subject of this piece was, or whether it was actually delivered, we do not know. In 1513 Giovannis position as master in charge of the paintings in the Hall of the Great Council was threatened by one of his former pupils
Giovanni Bellini
–
Self-portrait
Giovanni Bellini
–
St. Jerome in the Desert, c. 1455; Tempera on panel;
Barber Institute, Birmingham
Giovanni Bellini
–
Christ Blessing, 1500; Tempera, oil, and gold on panel;
Kimbell Art Museum, Texas.
Giovanni Bellini
–
Madonna and Child, c. 1480; oil;
Indianapolis Museum of Art
42.
Mediaeval
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Mediaeval
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Mediaeval
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Mediaeval
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Mediaeval
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
43.
Murano Glass Museum
–
The Murano Glass Museum is a museum on the history of glass, including local Murano glass, located on the island of Murano, just north of Venice, Italy. The museum is located in the Palazzo Giustinian, the palace was the residence of the bishops of Torcello. It was originally built in the Gothic style as a patricians palace, the building became the residence of Bishop Marco Giustinian in 1659. He later bought it and donated it to the Torcello diocese, the Glass Museum was founded in 1861. It is located close to the Museo vaporetto water bus stop, the museum is run by the Fondazione Musei Civici di Venezia. History of glass Murano glass MUVE Glass Museum - official website
Murano Glass Museum
–
View inside the Glass Museum building.
Murano Glass Museum
–
Roman glass exhibit at the Glass Museum.
44.
Palazzo Giustinian
–
The Palazzo Giustinian is a palace in Venice, northern Italy, situated in the Dorsoduro district and overlooking the Grand Canal next to Ca Foscari. It is among the best examples of the late Venetian Gothic and was the residence of Princess Louise Marie Thérèse of France. The edifice was built in the late 15th century, perhaps with the participation of Bartolomeo Bon, behind the façade, they are separated by an alley which, through a sottoportego, or portico-tunnel, connects to the central portal. The two sub-palaces share numerous features with the annexed Ca Foscari. They have an L-shaped plan with four floors, the ones having mullioned windows. At the piano nobile they form an arcade with an interwoven motif of multi-lobes circles. The single windows are ogival, or decorated with a three-lobe motif, Ca Giustinian dei Vescovi has in the rear a court with a Gothic staircase, while Ca Giustinian delle Zogie has a large garden. The family sold the palazzo in the 19th century, since then, personalities such as painter Natale Schiavoni, German composer Richard Wagner, the last Duchess of Parma, Louise dArtois, and Hungarian violinist Franz von Vecsey have lived here. As previously noted, Ca Giustinian dei Vescovi now houses part of the Ca Foscari University, la grande guida dei monumenti di Venezia
Palazzo Giustinian
–
Palazzo Giustinian and Cà Foscari.
45.
Venetian Republic
–
It was based in the lagoon communities of the historically prosperous city of Venice. It was a leading European economic and trading power during the Middle Ages, the Venetian city state was founded as a safe haven for people escaping persecution in mainland Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. In its early years, it prospered on the salt trade, in subsequent centuries, the city state established a thalassocracy. It dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea, including commerce between Asia, Europe and North Africa, the Venetian navy was used in the Crusades. Venice achieved territorial conquests along the Adriatic Sea, the city became home to an extremely wealthy merchant class, who patronized renowned art and architecture along the citys lagoons. Venetian merchants were influential financiers in Europe, the city was also the birthplace of great European explorers, including Marco Polo, as well as the classical music composer Vivaldi. The republic was ruled by the Doge, who was elected by members of the Great Council of Venice, the ruling class was an oligarchy of merchants and aristocrats. Venice and other Italian maritime republics played a key role in fostering capitalism, Venetian citizens generally supported the system of governance. The city-state enforced strict laws and employed ruthless tactics in its prisons, the opening of new trade routes to the Americas and the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean marked the beginning of Venices decline as a maritime republic. The city state suffered defeats from the navy of the Ottoman Empire, in 1797, the country was colonized by Austria and France, following an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. Venice became a part of a unified Italy in the 19th century and it was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the Most Serene Republics. He was the first historical Doge of Venice, whichever the case, the first doges had their power base in Heraclea. Ursuss successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to Malamocco in the 740s and he was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history. They desired to remain well-connected to the Empire, another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish, supported mostly by clergy, they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers, the successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the Pax Nicephori, the two emperors had recognised that Venice belonged to the Byzantine sphere of influence, many centuries later, the Venetians claimed that the treaty had recognised Venetian de facto independence, but the truth of this claim is doubted by modern scholars
Venetian Republic
–
Sack of Constantinople
Venetian Republic
–
Flag
Venetian Republic
–
Voyage of
Marco Polo into the Far East during the
Pax Mongolica
Venetian Republic
–
The
Piraeus Lion in
Venice - a spoil from Constantinople
46.
Venetian glass
–
Venetian glass is a type of glass object made in Venice, Italy, primarily on the island of Murano. It is world-renowned for being colorful, elaborate, and skillfully made, many of the important characteristics of these objects had been developed by the thirteenth century. Toward the end of century, the centre of the Venetian glass industry moved to Murano. Byzantine craftsmen played an important role in the development of Venetian glass, when Constantinople was sacked by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, some fleeing artisans came to Venice. This happened again when the Ottomans took Constantinople in 1453, supplying Venice with still more glassworkers, by the sixteenth century, Venetian artisans had gained even greater control over the colour and transparency of their glass, and had mastered a variety of decorative techniques. Despite efforts to keep Venetian glassmaking techniques within Venice, they became known elsewhere, some of the most important brands of glass in the world today, including Venini, Barovier & Toso, Pauly and Seguso, are still produced in the historical glass factories on Murano. Barovier & Toso is considered to be one of the 100 oldest companies in operation in the world. Though the Republic ordered the destruction of the foundries, it authorised and encouraged construction outside the city, and by the late 13th century, Murano glass is still interwoven with Venetian glass. Muranos glassmakers were soon the island’s most prominent citizens, by the 14th century, glassmakers were allowed to wear swords, enjoyed immunity from prosecution by the Venetian state and found their daughters married into Venice’s most affluent families. Of course there was a catch, Glassmakers were not allowed to leave the Republic, many craftsmen took this risk, however, and set up glass furnaces in surrounding cities and as far afield as England and the Netherlands. Today, the artisans of Murano are still employing these centuries-old techniques, crafting everything from contemporary art glass and glass jewelry to Murano glass chandeliers, the process of making Murano glass is rather complex. The glass is made from silica, which becomes liquid at high temperatures, as the glass passes from a liquid to a solid state, there is an interval when the glass is soft before it hardens completely. This is when the glass-master can shape the material, the other raw materials, called ceramic fluxes or melting agents, allow the glass to soften at lower temperatures. The more sodium oxide present in the glass, the slower it solidifies and this is important for hand-working because it allows the glassmaker more time to shape the material. The various raw materials an artisan might add to a mixture are sodium, nitrate and arsenic. Colours, techniques and materials vary depending upon the look a glassmaker is trying to achieve, aquamarine is created through the use of copper and cobalt compounds, whereas ruby red uses a gold solution as a colouring agent. Murrine technique begins with the layering of coloured glass, which is then stretched into long rods called canes. When cold, these canes are then sliced in cross-section, which has the layered pattern, the better-known term millefiori is a style of murrine that is defined by each layer of molten colour being shaped by a mold into a star, then cooled and layered again
Venetian glass
–
Glassmaker in Murano.
Venetian glass
–
Aldrevandini beaker, a venitian glass with enamel decoration
derived from Islamic technique and style. Circa 1330.
Venetian glass
–
Goblet, 1675-1725, Venice V&A Museum no. 108-1853
Venetian glass
–
Venetian glass in the shop window.
47.
Millefiori
–
Millefiori is a glasswork technique which produces distinctive decorative patterns on glassware. The term millefiori is a combination of the Italian words mille, apsley Pellatt in his book Curiosities of Glass Making was the first to use the term millefiori, which appeared in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1849. The beads were then called mosaic beads. While the use of this technique long precedes the term millefiori, more recently, the millefiori technique has been applied to polymer clay and other materials. As the polymer clay is quite pliable and does not need to be heated and reheated to fuse it, it is a much easier medium in which to produce millefiori patterns than glass, the manufacture of mosaic beads can be traced to Ancient Roman, Phoenician and Alexandrian times. The technical knowledge for creating millefiori was lost by the century. Within several years of the rediscovery, factories in Italy, France. They were often incorporated into fine glass art paperweights, until the 15th century, Murano glass makers were only producing drawn Rosetta beads made from molded Rosetta canes. It is then cut into segments for further processing. The millefiori technique involves the production of glass canes or rods, known as murrine, a murrine rod is heated in a furnace and pulled until thin while still maintaining the cross sections design. It is then cut into beads or discs when cooled, mille-fleur, a French term used to refer to a background composed of small flowers Glass museums and galleries Venetian beads
Millefiori
–
Vase, 1872 V&A Museum no. 1188-1873
Millefiori
–
Millefiori beads, 1920s
Millefiori
–
Roman era millefiori style cup from
Emona (present
Ljubljana) grave.
Millefiori
–
Roman millefiori bead
48.
Murano glass
–
Murano glass is glass made on the Venetian island of Murano, which has specialized in fancy glasswares for centuries. Today, Murano is home to a vast number of factories, the Museo del Vetro in the Palazzo Giustinian houses displays on the history of glassmaking as well as glass samples ranging from Egyptian times through the present day. Located 1.5 km from the main city Venice, Italy and it is believed that glassmaking in Murano originated in 8th-century Rome, with significant Asian and Muslim influences, as Venice was a major trading port. Murano glass is similar to the 1st-century BC Greek glasses found in the shipwreck of Antikythera, Murano glass is the largest proportion of Venetian glass. Muranos glassmakers were soon the island’s most prominent citizens, by the 14th century, glassmakers were allowed to wear swords, enjoyed immunity from prosecution by the Venetian state, and their daughters permitted to marry into Venice’s most affluent families. Marriage between glass master and the daughter of the nobleman wasnt regarded as misalliance, however, glassmakers were not allowed to leave the Republic. Exportation of professional secret was punished by death, many craftsmen took this risk and set up glass furnaces in surrounding cities and as far afield as England and the Netherlands. By the end of the 16th century, three thousand of Murano islands seven thousand inhabitants were involved in some way in the glassmaking industry, french revolutionary armies occupied Murano in 1797. Murano glass was produced in quantities in the 1950s and 1960s for export. In the 18th century Murano glassmakers started to introduce new products such as mirrors and chandeliers to their production. In history these glass chandeliers became popular after the iron, wood and brass era of chandeliers, the first Murano glass chandeliers to be produced by Venetian glassmakers date back around the year 1700. This new type of chandelier was called ciocca, literally bouquet of flowers, one of the common use of the huge Murano Chandeliers was the interior lighting of theatres and rooms in important palaces. Giuseppe Briati was the most famous producer of these chandeliers and he focused his work on the creation of what are now recognised as the typical Murano chandeliers with multiple arms decorated with garlands, flowers and leaves, called ciocche. Briati contributed significantly to improve the fortunes of the Venetian glass and his furnace became famous for the production of Bohemian inspired glass with a twist of eccentricity, that through colors and decorations gave them the look of triumph of polychrome flowers. Giuseppe Briati created what its now called Rezzonico Chandelier, whose name derive from the first chandelier of its kind and it was designed by Briati for the noble venetian family Rezzonico and hung in their palace along the Grand Canal, now famed venetian museum under the name Ca Rezzonico. This kind of chandelier, completely realized by hand, required a working by the glassmakers due to the arms being formed by many small pieces of glass. Every shape of glass had to be executed because any outsize piece wouldnt fit to be mounted between the others. Rezzonico chandelier is an example of the ability of the Italian craftmanship to adapt to changes and to offer new and innovative solutions to the mutation of architectural needs
Murano glass
–
Murano glass paper weights
Murano glass
–
A Murano glassworker adds color to his creation
Murano glass
–
Making the glass malleable
Murano glass
–
Making a Glass Horse
49.
Seguso
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The Seguso family has been dedicated to the art of Murano glass in Venice since May 3,1397. Seguso is one of the most esteemed, historical and respected glass manufacturers on the island, and among the largest glass furnaces in Murano, which has a few, homonymous furnaces. Glass made by the Seguso furnace can be found in over 75 museums worldwide, such as MOMA in New York, today, Seguso is known for its high end Venetian glass objects, lighting, accessories and custom installations. Seguso glass has been made for the Pope, Royalty and numerous luxury interiors throughout the world, the Seguso family today is able to trace its uninterrupted lineage of glassmakers back over six centuries to 1397, based on documents in the archives of Venice. In 1605, the family was added to the Libro d’Oro of Murano, or Golden Book of Murano, during this successful period the Seguso family crest was imprinted on the osella coin of Venice by the Doge in 1792. However, it was not until the 19th century that produced their best work and became one of the leading glassmakers on the island of Murano. His son, Giovanni was an eccentric and equally talented glassmaker, Venini often used to tell visitors, “Nane Patare taught me everything about glass. The brand, trademark, designs and archives of Seguso Vetri d’Arte are today in the hands of the family, today Seguso still manufacturers and sells the iconical and timeless designs of Seguso Vetri d’Arte, under its historical name. Seguso Interiors is a collection of lighting, furniture. The division is dedicated to the decoration and lighting of interiors projects, architects and Interior Designers find in Seguso Interiors a reality in which each project is conceived as a tailored suit. Its unique furniture design is the result of a patent received by Seguso Creative Director, Seguso Viro is known for its line of contemporary glassware. Started in 1993 with the idea of Giampaolo Seguso for putting the individual at the center, today, glass from the Seguso Viro collections,101 Limited and Collezioni, is sold by Seguso. In 2012 Seguso became one of the first furnaces to open their doors to visitors through a program called the Seguso Experience. The Seguso Experience has consistently rated as one of the top things to do on the island of Murano
Seguso
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Seguso
Seguso
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Seguso's headquarters and glass furnace in Murano Venice, Italy
Seguso
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A silver "Osella" coin featuring the coat of arms of the Seguso Family, Murano 1792.
Seguso
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The coat of arms of the Seguso family, painted on the ceiling of the
Murano Glass Museum.
