1.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
2.
Foucault pendulum
–
The Foucault pendulum, or Foucaults pendulum, named after the French physicist Léon Foucault, is a simple device conceived as an experiment to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth. While it had long known that the Earth rotates, the introduction of the Foucault pendulum in 1851 was the first simple proof of the rotation in an easy-to-see experiment. Today, Foucault pendulums are popular displays in museums and universities. The first public exhibition of a Foucault pendulum took place in February 1851 in the Meridian of the Paris Observatory. A few weeks later, Foucault made his most famous pendulum when he suspended a 28-kg brass-coated lead bob with a 67-m-long wire from the dome of the Panthéon, Paris. The plane of the pendulums swing rotated clockwise approximately 11. 3° per hour, the original bob used in 1851 at the Panthéon was moved in 1855 to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris. A second temporary installation was made for the 50th anniversary in 1902, during museum reconstruction in the 1990s, the original pendulum was temporarily displayed at the Panthéon, but was later returned to the Musée des Arts et Métiers before it reopened in 2000. On April 6,2010, the cable suspending the bob in the Musée des Arts et Métiers snapped, causing damage to the pendulum. An exact copy of the pendulum had been swinging permanently since 1995 under the dome of the Panthéon. The pendulum has since been reinstalled, so, relative to Earth, the plane of oscillation of a pendulum at the North Pole undergoes a full clockwise rotation during one day, a pendulum at the South Pole rotates counterclockwise. When a Foucault pendulum is suspended at the equator, the plane of oscillation remains fixed relative to Earth, for example, a Foucault pendulum at 30° south latitude, viewed from above by an earthbound observer, rotates counterclockwise 360° in two days. To demonstrate rotation directly rather than indirectly via the swinging pendulum, the instrument could be observed either with a microscope viewing a tenth of a degree scale or by a long pointer. At least three copies of a Foucault gyro were made in convenient travelling and demonstration boxes and copies survive in the UK, France. A Foucault pendulum requires care to set up because imprecise construction can cause additional veering which masks the terrestrial effect, a pendulum day is the time needed for the plane of a freely suspended Foucault pendulum to complete an apparent rotation about the local vertical. This is one day divided by the sine of the latitude. From the perspective of a frame moving in tandem with Earth, but not sharing its rotation. If the plane of swing was north-south at the outset, it is east-west one sidereal day later and this implies that there has been exchange of momentum, the Earth and the pendulum bob have exchanged momentum. The Earth is so much more massive than the pendulum bob that the Earths change of momentum is unnoticeable, nonetheless, since the pendulum bobs plane of swing has shifted, the conservation laws imply that an exchange must have occurred
3.
Ader Avion III
–
The Avion III was a primitive steam-powered aircraft built by Clément Ader between 1892 and 1897, financed by the French War Office. Retaining the same basic configuration of the Éole, the Avion III was equipped with two engines driving two propellers. While the earlier aircraft had no means of control at all. Trials of the aircraft began at the Satory army base near Versailles on 12 October 1897, the first flight was attempted on 14 October and most sources agree ended almost immediately in a crash without ever leaving the ground. Later in his life, Ader claimed that there had been a flight of 100 m on this day, whatever actually happened, the French military was unimpressed with the demonstration and cancelled any further funding. The machine is preserved at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris and it underwent extensive restoration in the 1980s.08 kW/kg
4.
Camera obscura
–
The surroundings of the projected image have to be relatively dark for the image to be clear, so many historical camera obscura experiments were performed in dark rooms. The term camera obscura also refers to constructions or devices that use of the principle within a box. Camerae obscurae with a lens in the opening have been used since the second half of the 16th century, before the term camera obscura was first used in 1604, many other expressions were used including cubiculum obscurum, cubiculum tenebricosum, conclave obscurum and locus obscurus. Rays of light travel in straight lines and change when they are reflected and partly absorbed by an object, retaining information about the color, lit objects reflect rays of light in all directions. The human eye itself works much like a camera obscura with an opening, a biconvex lens, a camera obscura device consists of a box, tent or room with a small hole in one side. Light from a scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside, where the scene is reproduced, inverted and reversed. The image can be projected onto paper, and can then be traced to produce an accurate representation. In order to produce a reasonably clear projected image, the aperture has to be about 1/100th the distance to the screen, many camerae obscurae use a lens rather than a pinhole because it allows a larger aperture, giving a usable brightness while maintaining focus. As the pinhole is made smaller, the image gets sharper, with too small a pinhole, however, the sharpness worsens, due to diffraction. Using mirrors, as in an 18th-century overhead version, it is possible to project a right-side-up image, another more portable type is a box with an angled mirror projecting onto tracing paper placed on the glass top, the image being upright as viewed from the back. There are theories that occurrences of camera obscura effects inspired paleolithic cave paintings and it is also suggested that camera obscura projections could have played a role in Neolithic structures. Perforated gnomons projecting an image of the sun were described in the Chinese Zhoubi Suanjing writings. The location of the circle can be measured to tell the time of day. In Arab and European cultures its invention was later attributed to Egyptian astronomer. Some ancient sightings of gods and spirits, especially in worship, are thought to possibly have been conjured up by means of camera obscura projections. In these writings it is explained how the image in a collecting-point or treasure house is inverted by an intersecting point that collected the light. Light coming from the foot of a person would partly be hidden below. Rays from the head would partly be hidden above and partly form the part of the image
5.
Daguerreotype
–
Daguerreotype process, or daguerreotypy, was the first publicly available photographic process, and for nearly twenty years it was the one most commonly used. During the past few decades, there has been a revival of daguerreotypy among photographers interested in making artistic use of early photographic processes. The darkest areas of the image are simply bare silver, lighter areas have a microscopically fine light-scattering texture, the surface is very delicate, and even the lightest wiping can permanently scuff it. Some tarnish around the edges is normal, the name daguerreotype correctly refers only to one very specific image type and medium, the product of a process that was in wide use only from the early 1840s to the late 1850s. Since the Renaissance era, artists and inventors had searched for a method of capturing visual scenes. Later, with the advent of Modernism, the absence of perspective in art from China, Japan. To copy these images was the first object of Mr. Daguerre met with Niépce, Niépce had invented an early internal combustion engine together with his brother Claude and made improvements to the velocipede, as well as experimenting with lithography and related processes. Their correspondence reveals that Niépce was at first reluctant to any details of his work with photographic images. To guard against letting any secrets out before the invention had been improved,15, for example, signified the tanning action of the sun on human skin,34 - a camera obscura,74 - sulphuric acid. Niépce undertook to release details of the process he had invented - the asphalt process or heliography, Daguerre was sworn to secrecy under penalty of damages, and undertook to design a camera and improve the process. The improved process was named the physautotype. Niépces early experiments had derived from his interest in lithography, the asphalt process, or heliography required exposures that were so long that Arago said it was not fit for use. Nevertheless, without Niépces experiments, it is unlikely that Daguerre would have been able to build on them to adapt, after Niépces death in 1833, his son, Isidore, inherited rights in the contract and a new version was drawn up between Daguerre and Isidore. It would bear Daguerres name alone and this was the daguerreotype process that used iodized silvered plates and was developed with mercury fumes. To exploit the invention four hundred shares would be on offer for a thousand francs each, or, the rights of the process could be bought for twenty thousand francs. Everyone says it is superb, but it will cost us the thousand francs before we learn it and be able to judge if it could remain secret. M. de Mandelot himself knows several persons who could subscribe but will not do so because they think it would be revealed by itself, and now I have proof that many think in this way. I entirely agree with the idea of M. Arago, that is get the government to purchase this discovery, nevertheless, he benefited from the state pension awarded to him together with Daguerre
6.
Binoculars
–
Binoculars or field glasses are two telescopes mounted side-by-side and aligned to point in the same direction, allowing the viewer to use both eyes when viewing distant objects. Most are sized to be held using both hands, although sizes vary widely from opera glasses to large pedestal mounted military models. Almost from the invention of the telescope in the 17th century the advantages of mounting two of them side by side for binocular vision seems to have been explored, most early binoculars used Galilean optics, that is, they used a convex objective and a concave eyepiece lens. The Galilean design has the advantage of presenting an image but has a narrow field of view and is not capable of very high magnification. This type of construction is used in very cheap models. They also have large exit pupils making centering less critical and the field of view works well in those applications. These are typically mounted on a frame or custom-fit onto eyeglasses. An improved image and higher magnification is achieved in binoculars employing Keplerian optics, since the Keplerian configuration produces an inverted image, different methods were used to turn the image right way up. In aprismatic binoculars with Keplerian optics each tube has one or two additional lenses between the objective and the ocular and these lenses are used to erect the image. The binoculars with erecting lenses have a disadvantage, their length is too long. Such binoculars were popular in the 1800s, but became obsolete shortly after the Karl Zeiss company introduced improved prism binoculars in the 1890s, Optical prisms added to the design are another way to turn the image right way up, usually in a Porro prism or roof-prisms design. Porro prism binoculars are named after Italian optician Ignazio Porro who patented this image erecting system in 1854, Binoculars of this type use a Porro prism in a double prism Z-shaped configuration to erect the image. This feature results in binoculars that are wide, with lenses that are well separated. Thus, the size of binoculars is reduced, Binoculars using roof prisms may have appeared as early as the 1870s in a design by Achille Victor Emile Daubresse. Most roof prism binoculars use either the Abbe-Koenig prism or the Schmidt-Pechan prism designs to erect the image and they have objective lenses that are approximately in line with the eyepieces. Roof-prisms designs create an instrument that is narrower and more compact than Porro prisms, there is also a difference in image brightness. Roof-prisms designs also require tighter tolerances for alignment of their optical elements and this adds to their expense since the design requires them to use fixed elements that need to be set at a high degree of collimation at the factory. Porro prisms binoculars occasionally need their prism sets to be re-aligned to bring them into collimation, the fixed alignment in roof-prism designs means the binoculars normally will not need re-collimation
7.
Antoine Lavoisier
–
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier was a French nobleman and chemist central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and had a large influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology. He is widely considered in popular literature as the father of modern chemistry and it is generally accepted that Lavoisiers great accomplishments in chemistry largely stem from his changing the science from a qualitative to a quantitative one. Lavoisier is most noted for his discovery of the role oxygen plays in combustion and he recognized and named oxygen and hydrogen and opposed the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier helped construct the system, wrote the first extensive list of elements. He predicted the existence of silicon and was also the first to establish that sulfur was an element rather than a compound and he discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same. Lavoisier was a member of a number of aristocratic councils. All of these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research, at the height of the French Revolution, he was accused by Jean-Paul Marat of selling adulterated tobaccoand of other crimes, and was eventually guillotined a year after Marats death. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier was born to a family of the nobility in Paris on 26 August 1743. The son of an attorney at the Parliament of Paris, he inherited a fortune at the age of five with the passing of his mother. Lavoisier began his schooling at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris in Paris in 1754 at the age of 11, in his last two years at the school, his scientific interests were aroused, and he studied chemistry, botany, astronomy, and mathematics. Lavoisier entered the school of law, where he received a degree in 1763. Lavoisier received a law degree and was admitted to the bar, however, he continued his scientific education in his spare time. Lavoisiers education was filled with the ideals of the French Enlightenment of the time and he attended lectures in the natural sciences. Lavoisiers devotion and passion for chemistry were largely influenced by Étienne Condillac and his first chemical publication appeared in 1764. From 1763 to 1767, he studied geology under Jean-Étienne Guettard, in collaboration with Guettard, Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767. In 1768 Lavoisier received an appointment to the Academy of Sciences. In 1769, he worked on the first geological map of France, on behalf of the Ferme générale Lavoisier commissioned the building of a wall around Paris so that customs duties could be collected from those transporting goods into and out of the city. Lavoisier attempted to introduce reforms in the French monetary and taxation system to help the peasants, Lavoisier consolidated his social and economic position when, in 1771 at age 28, he married Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the 13-year-old daughter of a senior member of the Ferme générale
8.
Laboratory
–
A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the requirements of specialists in the various fields of science. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, a chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologists laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as commonly used by computer scientists. Scientists in other fields will use other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices, scientific laboratories can be found as research and learning spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. Early instances of laboratories recorded in English involved alchemy and the preparation of medicines, larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument. Both laboratory equipment and scientific instruments are increasingly being designed and shared using open hardware principles, open source labs use open source scientific hardware. The title of laboratory is used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. In many labs, though, hazards are present, in laboratories where dangerous conditions might exist, safety precautions are important. Rules exist to minimize the risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab user from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency. This standard is referred to as the Laboratory Standard. Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a Chemical Hygiene Plan which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, the CHP must be reviewed annually. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a Chemical Hygiene Officer to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is used to provide an objective outside view which provides a fresh look at areas. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance, training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries, efforts are made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging. The dictionary definition of laboratory at Wiktionary Media related to Laboratory at Wikimedia Commons Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories
