1.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
2.
Foucault pendulum
–
The Foucault pendulum, or Foucaults pendulum, named after the French physicist Léon Foucault, is a simple device conceived as an experiment to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth. While it had long known that the Earth rotates, the introduction of the Foucault pendulum in 1851 was the first simple proof of the rotation in an easy-to-see experiment. Today, Foucault pendulums are popular displays in museums and universities. The first public exhibition of a Foucault pendulum took place in February 1851 in the Meridian of the Paris Observatory. A few weeks later, Foucault made his most famous pendulum when he suspended a 28-kg brass-coated lead bob with a 67-m-long wire from the dome of the Panthéon, Paris. The plane of the pendulums swing rotated clockwise approximately 11. 3° per hour, the original bob used in 1851 at the Panthéon was moved in 1855 to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris. A second temporary installation was made for the 50th anniversary in 1902, during museum reconstruction in the 1990s, the original pendulum was temporarily displayed at the Panthéon, but was later returned to the Musée des Arts et Métiers before it reopened in 2000. On April 6,2010, the cable suspending the bob in the Musée des Arts et Métiers snapped, causing damage to the pendulum. An exact copy of the pendulum had been swinging permanently since 1995 under the dome of the Panthéon. The pendulum has since been reinstalled, so, relative to Earth, the plane of oscillation of a pendulum at the North Pole undergoes a full clockwise rotation during one day, a pendulum at the South Pole rotates counterclockwise. When a Foucault pendulum is suspended at the equator, the plane of oscillation remains fixed relative to Earth, for example, a Foucault pendulum at 30° south latitude, viewed from above by an earthbound observer, rotates counterclockwise 360° in two days. To demonstrate rotation directly rather than indirectly via the swinging pendulum, the instrument could be observed either with a microscope viewing a tenth of a degree scale or by a long pointer. At least three copies of a Foucault gyro were made in convenient travelling and demonstration boxes and copies survive in the UK, France. A Foucault pendulum requires care to set up because imprecise construction can cause additional veering which masks the terrestrial effect, a pendulum day is the time needed for the plane of a freely suspended Foucault pendulum to complete an apparent rotation about the local vertical. This is one day divided by the sine of the latitude. From the perspective of a frame moving in tandem with Earth, but not sharing its rotation. If the plane of swing was north-south at the outset, it is east-west one sidereal day later and this implies that there has been exchange of momentum, the Earth and the pendulum bob have exchanged momentum. The Earth is so much more massive than the pendulum bob that the Earths change of momentum is unnoticeable, nonetheless, since the pendulum bobs plane of swing has shifted, the conservation laws imply that an exchange must have occurred
Foucault pendulum
–
Foucault's Pendulum in the
Panthéon, Paris
Foucault pendulum
–
An excerpt from the illustrated supplement of the magazine "Le Petit Parisien" dated November 2, 1902, on the fiftieth anniversary of the experiment of Leon Foucault demonstrating the rotation of the earth.
Foucault pendulum
–
Foucault's Pendulum at the
Ranchi Science Centre.
Foucault pendulum
–
A Foucault pendulum installed at the
California Academy of Sciences. The Earth's rotation causes the trajectory of the pendulum to change over time, knocking down pins at different positions as time elapses and the Earth rotates
3.
Avion III
–
The Avion III was a primitive steam-powered aircraft built by Clément Ader between 1892 and 1897, financed by the French War Office. Retaining the same basic configuration of the Éole, the Avion III was equipped with two engines driving two propellers. While the earlier aircraft had no means of control at all. Trials of the aircraft began at the Satory army base near Versailles on 12 October 1897, the first flight was attempted on 14 October and most sources agree ended almost immediately in a crash without ever leaving the ground. Later in his life, Ader claimed that there had been a flight of 100 m on this day, whatever actually happened, the French military was unimpressed with the demonstration and cancelled any further funding. The machine is preserved at the Musée des Arts et Métiers in Paris and it underwent extensive restoration in the 1980s.08 kW/kg
Avion III
–
Avion III
Avion III
–
Steam engine of Eole III (seen from the front).
Musée des Arts et Métiers.
Avion III
–
Avion III at
Musée des Arts et Métiers.
Avion III
–
Steam engine of Eole III (seen from the back), with pressure valve. Musée des Arts et Métiers.
4.
Camera obscura
–
The surroundings of the projected image have to be relatively dark for the image to be clear, so many historical camera obscura experiments were performed in dark rooms. The term camera obscura also refers to constructions or devices that use of the principle within a box. Camerae obscurae with a lens in the opening have been used since the second half of the 16th century, before the term camera obscura was first used in 1604, many other expressions were used including cubiculum obscurum, cubiculum tenebricosum, conclave obscurum and locus obscurus. Rays of light travel in straight lines and change when they are reflected and partly absorbed by an object, retaining information about the color, lit objects reflect rays of light in all directions. The human eye itself works much like a camera obscura with an opening, a biconvex lens, a camera obscura device consists of a box, tent or room with a small hole in one side. Light from a scene passes through the hole and strikes a surface inside, where the scene is reproduced, inverted and reversed. The image can be projected onto paper, and can then be traced to produce an accurate representation. In order to produce a reasonably clear projected image, the aperture has to be about 1/100th the distance to the screen, many camerae obscurae use a lens rather than a pinhole because it allows a larger aperture, giving a usable brightness while maintaining focus. As the pinhole is made smaller, the image gets sharper, with too small a pinhole, however, the sharpness worsens, due to diffraction. Using mirrors, as in an 18th-century overhead version, it is possible to project a right-side-up image, another more portable type is a box with an angled mirror projecting onto tracing paper placed on the glass top, the image being upright as viewed from the back. There are theories that occurrences of camera obscura effects inspired paleolithic cave paintings and it is also suggested that camera obscura projections could have played a role in Neolithic structures. Perforated gnomons projecting an image of the sun were described in the Chinese Zhoubi Suanjing writings. The location of the circle can be measured to tell the time of day. In Arab and European cultures its invention was later attributed to Egyptian astronomer. Some ancient sightings of gods and spirits, especially in worship, are thought to possibly have been conjured up by means of camera obscura projections. In these writings it is explained how the image in a collecting-point or treasure house is inverted by an intersecting point that collected the light. Light coming from the foot of a person would partly be hidden below. Rays from the head would partly be hidden above and partly form the part of the image
Camera obscura
–
A drawing of a camera obscura
Camera obscura
–
Camerae obscurae for
Daguerreotype called "Grand Photographe" produced by Charles Chevalier (
Musée des Arts et Métiers)
Camera obscura
–
An image of the New Royal Palace at
Prague Castle projected onto an attic wall by a hole in the tile roofing
Camera obscura
–
Camera obscura in
Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers
5.
Daguerreotype
–
Daguerreotype process, or daguerreotypy, was the first publicly available photographic process, and for nearly twenty years it was the one most commonly used. During the past few decades, there has been a revival of daguerreotypy among photographers interested in making artistic use of early photographic processes. The darkest areas of the image are simply bare silver, lighter areas have a microscopically fine light-scattering texture, the surface is very delicate, and even the lightest wiping can permanently scuff it. Some tarnish around the edges is normal, the name daguerreotype correctly refers only to one very specific image type and medium, the product of a process that was in wide use only from the early 1840s to the late 1850s. Since the Renaissance era, artists and inventors had searched for a method of capturing visual scenes. Later, with the advent of Modernism, the absence of perspective in art from China, Japan. To copy these images was the first object of Mr. Daguerre met with Niépce, Niépce had invented an early internal combustion engine together with his brother Claude and made improvements to the velocipede, as well as experimenting with lithography and related processes. Their correspondence reveals that Niépce was at first reluctant to any details of his work with photographic images. To guard against letting any secrets out before the invention had been improved,15, for example, signified the tanning action of the sun on human skin,34 - a camera obscura,74 - sulphuric acid. Niépce undertook to release details of the process he had invented - the asphalt process or heliography, Daguerre was sworn to secrecy under penalty of damages, and undertook to design a camera and improve the process. The improved process was named the physautotype. Niépces early experiments had derived from his interest in lithography, the asphalt process, or heliography required exposures that were so long that Arago said it was not fit for use. Nevertheless, without Niépces experiments, it is unlikely that Daguerre would have been able to build on them to adapt, after Niépces death in 1833, his son, Isidore, inherited rights in the contract and a new version was drawn up between Daguerre and Isidore. It would bear Daguerres name alone and this was the daguerreotype process that used iodized silvered plates and was developed with mercury fumes. To exploit the invention four hundred shares would be on offer for a thousand francs each, or, the rights of the process could be bought for twenty thousand francs. Everyone says it is superb, but it will cost us the thousand francs before we learn it and be able to judge if it could remain secret. M. de Mandelot himself knows several persons who could subscribe but will not do so because they think it would be revealed by itself, and now I have proof that many think in this way. I entirely agree with the idea of M. Arago, that is get the government to purchase this discovery, nevertheless, he benefited from the state pension awarded to him together with Daguerre
Daguerreotype
–
Daguerreotype of
Louis Daguerre in 1844 by Jean-Baptiste Sabatier-Blot
Daguerreotype
–
1840–1841
Camerae obscurae and plates for Daguerreotype called "Grand Photographe" produced by Charles Chevalier (
Musée des Arts et Métiers)
Daguerreotype
–
Still life with plaster casts, made by Daguerre in 1837, the earliest reliably dated daguerreotype
Daguerreotype
6.
Binoculars
–
Binoculars or field glasses are two telescopes mounted side-by-side and aligned to point in the same direction, allowing the viewer to use both eyes when viewing distant objects. Most are sized to be held using both hands, although sizes vary widely from opera glasses to large pedestal mounted military models. Almost from the invention of the telescope in the 17th century the advantages of mounting two of them side by side for binocular vision seems to have been explored, most early binoculars used Galilean optics, that is, they used a convex objective and a concave eyepiece lens. The Galilean design has the advantage of presenting an image but has a narrow field of view and is not capable of very high magnification. This type of construction is used in very cheap models. They also have large exit pupils making centering less critical and the field of view works well in those applications. These are typically mounted on a frame or custom-fit onto eyeglasses. An improved image and higher magnification is achieved in binoculars employing Keplerian optics, since the Keplerian configuration produces an inverted image, different methods were used to turn the image right way up. In aprismatic binoculars with Keplerian optics each tube has one or two additional lenses between the objective and the ocular and these lenses are used to erect the image. The binoculars with erecting lenses have a disadvantage, their length is too long. Such binoculars were popular in the 1800s, but became obsolete shortly after the Karl Zeiss company introduced improved prism binoculars in the 1890s, Optical prisms added to the design are another way to turn the image right way up, usually in a Porro prism or roof-prisms design. Porro prism binoculars are named after Italian optician Ignazio Porro who patented this image erecting system in 1854, Binoculars of this type use a Porro prism in a double prism Z-shaped configuration to erect the image. This feature results in binoculars that are wide, with lenses that are well separated. Thus, the size of binoculars is reduced, Binoculars using roof prisms may have appeared as early as the 1870s in a design by Achille Victor Emile Daubresse. Most roof prism binoculars use either the Abbe-Koenig prism or the Schmidt-Pechan prism designs to erect the image and they have objective lenses that are approximately in line with the eyepieces. Roof-prisms designs create an instrument that is narrower and more compact than Porro prisms, there is also a difference in image brightness. Roof-prisms designs also require tighter tolerances for alignment of their optical elements and this adds to their expense since the design requires them to use fixed elements that need to be set at a high degree of collimation at the factory. Porro prisms binoculars occasionally need their prism sets to be re-aligned to bring them into collimation, the fixed alignment in roof-prism designs means the binoculars normally will not need re-collimation
Binoculars
–
Binoculars, by Father Chérubin d'Orléans, 1681,
Musée des Arts et Métiers
Binoculars
–
A typical
Porro prism binoculars design
Binoculars
–
Galilean binoculars
Binoculars
–
Porro prism binoculars
7.
Lavoisier
–
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier was a French nobleman and chemist central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and had a large influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology. He is widely considered in popular literature as the father of modern chemistry and it is generally accepted that Lavoisiers great accomplishments in chemistry largely stem from his changing the science from a qualitative to a quantitative one. Lavoisier is most noted for his discovery of the role oxygen plays in combustion and he recognized and named oxygen and hydrogen and opposed the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier helped construct the system, wrote the first extensive list of elements. He predicted the existence of silicon and was also the first to establish that sulfur was an element rather than a compound and he discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same. Lavoisier was a member of a number of aristocratic councils. All of these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research, at the height of the French Revolution, he was accused by Jean-Paul Marat of selling adulterated tobaccoand of other crimes, and was eventually guillotined a year after Marats death. Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier was born to a family of the nobility in Paris on 26 August 1743. The son of an attorney at the Parliament of Paris, he inherited a fortune at the age of five with the passing of his mother. Lavoisier began his schooling at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris in Paris in 1754 at the age of 11, in his last two years at the school, his scientific interests were aroused, and he studied chemistry, botany, astronomy, and mathematics. Lavoisier entered the school of law, where he received a degree in 1763. Lavoisier received a law degree and was admitted to the bar, however, he continued his scientific education in his spare time. Lavoisiers education was filled with the ideals of the French Enlightenment of the time and he attended lectures in the natural sciences. Lavoisiers devotion and passion for chemistry were largely influenced by Étienne Condillac and his first chemical publication appeared in 1764. From 1763 to 1767, he studied geology under Jean-Étienne Guettard, in collaboration with Guettard, Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767. In 1768 Lavoisier received an appointment to the Academy of Sciences. In 1769, he worked on the first geological map of France, on behalf of the Ferme générale Lavoisier commissioned the building of a wall around Paris so that customs duties could be collected from those transporting goods into and out of the city. Lavoisier attempted to introduce reforms in the French monetary and taxation system to help the peasants, Lavoisier consolidated his social and economic position when, in 1771 at age 28, he married Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the 13-year-old daughter of a senior member of the Ferme générale
Lavoisier
–
Line engraving by Louis Jean Desire Delaistre, after a design by Julien Leopold Boilly
Lavoisier
–
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier by
Jules Dalou 1866
Lavoisier
–
Portrait of Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and his wife by
Jacques-Louis David, ca. 1788
Lavoisier
–
Joseph Priestley, an English chemist known for isolating
oxygen, which he termed "dephlogisticated air."
8.
Laboratory
–
A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed. Laboratories used for scientific research take many forms because of the requirements of specialists in the various fields of science. A physics laboratory might contain a particle accelerator or vacuum chamber, a chemist or biologist might use a wet laboratory, while a psychologists laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as commonly used by computer scientists. Scientists in other fields will use other types of laboratories. Engineers use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices, scientific laboratories can be found as research and learning spaces in schools and universities, industry, government, or military facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft. Early instances of laboratories recorded in English involved alchemy and the preparation of medicines, larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a scientific instrument. Both laboratory equipment and scientific instruments are increasingly being designed and shared using open hardware principles, open source labs use open source scientific hardware. The title of laboratory is used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. In many labs, though, hazards are present, in laboratories where dangerous conditions might exist, safety precautions are important. Rules exist to minimize the risk, and safety equipment is used to protect the lab user from injury or to assist in responding to an emergency. This standard is referred to as the Laboratory Standard. Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a Chemical Hygiene Plan which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, the CHP must be reviewed annually. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a Chemical Hygiene Officer to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is used to provide an objective outside view which provides a fresh look at areas. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance, training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries, efforts are made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging. The dictionary definition of laboratory at Wiktionary Media related to Laboratory at Wikimedia Commons Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories
Laboratory
–
A medical laboratory run by the Graduate Institute of Cancer Biology of
China Medical University (
Taiwan)
Laboratory
–
Molecular Biology Technics Laboratory at Faculty of Biology of
Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan
Laboratory
–
A workbench in a chemistry laboratory
Laboratory
–
The
Schuster Laboratory,
University of Manchester (a physics laboratory)
9.
Blaise Pascal
–
Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Christian philosopher. He was a prodigy who was educated by his father. Pascal also wrote in defence of the scientific method, in 1642, while still a teenager, he started some pioneering work on calculating machines. After three years of effort and 50 prototypes, he built 20 finished machines over the following 10 years, following Galileo Galilei and Torricelli, in 1647, he rebutted Aristotles followers who insisted that nature abhors a vacuum. Pascals results caused many disputes before being accepted, in 1646, he and his sister Jacqueline identified with the religious movement within Catholicism known by its detractors as Jansenism. Following a religious experience in late 1654, he began writing works on philosophy. His two most famous works date from this period, the Lettres provinciales and the Pensées, the set in the conflict between Jansenists and Jesuits. In that year, he wrote an important treatise on the arithmetical triangle. Between 1658 and 1659 he wrote on the cycloid and its use in calculating the volume of solids, Pascal had poor health, especially after the age of 18, and he died just two months after his 39th birthday. Pascal was born in Clermont-Ferrand, which is in Frances Auvergne region and he lost his mother, Antoinette Begon, at the age of three. His father, Étienne Pascal, who also had an interest in science and mathematics, was a local judge, Pascal had two sisters, the younger Jacqueline and the elder Gilberte. In 1631, five years after the death of his wife, the newly arrived family soon hired Louise Delfault, a maid who eventually became an instrumental member of the family. Étienne, who never remarried, decided that he alone would educate his children, for they all showed extraordinary intellectual ability, the young Pascal showed an amazing aptitude for mathematics and science. Particularly of interest to Pascal was a work of Desargues on conic sections and it states that if a hexagon is inscribed in a circle then the three intersection points of opposite sides lie on a line. Pascals work was so precocious that Descartes was convinced that Pascals father had written it, in France at that time offices and positions could be—and were—bought and sold. In 1631 Étienne sold his position as president of the Cour des Aides for 65,665 livres. The money was invested in a government bond which provided, if not a lavish, then certainly a comfortable income which allowed the Pascal family to move to, but in 1638 Richelieu, desperate for money to carry on the Thirty Years War, defaulted on the governments bonds. Suddenly Étienne Pascals worth had dropped from nearly 66,000 livres to less than 7,300 and it was only when Jacqueline performed well in a childrens play with Richelieu in attendance that Étienne was pardoned
Blaise Pascal
–
Painting of Blaise Pascal made by François II Quesnel for Gérard Edelinck in 1691.
Blaise Pascal
–
An early
Pascaline on display at the
Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris
Blaise Pascal
–
Portrait of Pascal
Blaise Pascal
–
Pascal studying the
cycloid, by
Augustin Pajou, 1785,
Louvre
10.
Calculators
–
An electronic calculator is a small, portable electronic device used to perform operations ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics. The first solid state electronic calculator was created in the 1960s, building on the history of tools such as the abacus. It was developed in parallel with the computers of the day. The pocket sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the first microprocessor and they later became used commonly within the petroleum industry. Modern electronic calculators vary, from cheap, give-away, credit-card-sized models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers and they became popular in the mid-1970s. By the end of decade, calculator prices had reduced to a point where a basic calculator was affordable to most. In addition to general purpose calculators, there are designed for specific markets. For example, there are scientific calculators which include trigonometric and statistical calculations, some calculators even have the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, as of 2016, basic calculators cost little, but the scientific and graphing models tend to cost more. In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the worlds general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information, by 2007, this diminished to less than 0. 05%. Modern 2016 electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations, most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button, however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with key combinations. Large-sized figures and comma separators are used to improve readability. Various symbols for function commands may also be shown on the display, fractions such as 1⁄3 are displayed as decimal approximations, for example rounded to 0.33333333. Also, some fractions can be difficult to recognize in decimal form, as a result, Calculators also have the ability to store numbers into computer memory. Basic types of these only one number at a time. The variables can also be used for constructing formulas, some models have the ability to extend memory capacity to store more numbers, the extended memory address is termed an array index. Power sources of calculators are, batteries, solar cells or mains electricity, some models even have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put off. Crank-powered calculators were also common in the computer era
Calculators
–
An electronic pocket calculator with a
LCD seven-segment display, that can perform arithmetic operations.
Calculators
–
A modern scientific calculator with a
dot matrix LCD display.
Calculators
–
Scientific calculator displays of fractions and decimal equivalents.
Calculators
–
An office calculating machine with a paper printer.
11.
Industrial design
–
Industrial design is a process of design applied to products that are to be manufactured through techniques of mass production. This distinguishes industrial design from craft-based design, where the form of the product is determined by the creator at the time of its creation. The role of a designer is to create and execute design solutions for problems of form, function, usability, physical ergonomics, marketing, brand development, sustainability. The division of labour that underlies the practice of design did have precedents in the pre-industrial era. The use of drawing to specify how something was to be constructed later was first developed by architects and shipwrights during the Italian Renaissance. The emergence of industrial design is linked to the growth of industrialisation and mechanisation that began with the industrial revolution in Great Britain in the mid 18th century. The first use of the industrial design is often attributed to the industrial designer Joseph Claude Sinel in 1919. Christopher Dresser is considered among the first independent industrial designers, Industrial designs origins lie in the industrialization of consumer products. The earliest use of the term may have been in The Art Union, the Practical Draughtsmans Book of Industrial Design by Jacques-Eugène Armengaud was printed in 1853. The subtitle of the work explains, that it wants to offer a course of mechanical, engineering. The study of those types of drawing, according to Armengaud. This work paved the way for a big expansion in the drawing education in France, the United Kingdom. Robert Lepper helped to establish one of the countrys first industrial design programs at Carnegie Institute of Technology. Product design and industrial design overlap in the fields of user interface design, information design, except for certain functional areas of overlap between industrial design and engineering design, educational programs in the U. S. Most industrial designers complete a design or related program at a school or university. Diplomas and degrees take two to four years of study, the study results in a Bachelor of Industrial Design, Bachelor of Science or Bachelor of Fine Arts. Afterwards, the programme can be extended to postgraduate degrees such as Master of Design, Master of Fine Arts. Industrial design studies function and form—and the connection between product, user, and environment, generally, industrial design professionals work in small scale design, rather than overall design of complex systems such as buildings or ships
Industrial design
–
An
iPod, an industrially designed product.
Industrial design
–
KitchenAid 5 qt. Stand Mixer, designed in 1937 by Egmont Arens, remains very successful today
Industrial design
–
Western Electric
Model 302 telephone, found throughout the United States from 1937 until the introduction of touch-tone dialing.
Industrial design
–
Calculator Olivetti Divisumma 24 designed in 1956 by Marcello Nizzoli
12.
Supercomputer
–
A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of computing performance compared to a general-purpose computer. Performance of a supercomputer is measured in floating-point operations per second instead of instructions per second. As of 2015, there are supercomputers which can perform up to quadrillions of FLOPS and it tops the rankings in the TOP500 supercomputer list. Sunway TaihuLights emergence is also notable for its use of indigenous chips, as of June 2016, China, for the first time, had more computers on the TOP500 list than the United States. However, U. S. built computers held ten of the top 20 positions, in November 2016 the U. S. has five of the top 10, throughout their history, they have been essential in the field of cryptanalysis. The use of multi-core processors combined with centralization is an emerging trend, the history of supercomputing goes back to the 1960s, with the Atlas at the University of Manchester and a series of computers at Control Data Corporation, designed by Seymour Cray. These used innovative designs and parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance, Cray left CDC in 1972 to form his own company, Cray Research. Four years after leaving CDC, Cray delivered the 80 MHz Cray 1 in 1976, the Cray-2 released in 1985 was an 8 processor liquid cooled computer and Fluorinert was pumped through it as it operated. It performed at 1.9 gigaflops and was the second fastest after M-13 supercomputer in Moscow. Fujitsus Numerical Wind Tunnel supercomputer used 166 vector processors to gain the top spot in 1994 with a speed of 1.7 gigaFLOPS per processor. The Hitachi SR2201 obtained a performance of 600 GFLOPS in 1996 by using 2048 processors connected via a fast three-dimensional crossbar network. The Intel Paragon could have 1000 to 4000 Intel i860 processors in various configurations, the Paragon was a MIMD machine which connected processors via a high speed two dimensional mesh, allowing processes to execute on separate nodes, communicating via the Message Passing Interface. Approaches to supercomputer architecture have taken dramatic turns since the earliest systems were introduced in the 1960s, early supercomputer architectures pioneered by Seymour Cray relied on compact innovative designs and local parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance. However, in time the demand for increased computational power ushered in the age of massively parallel systems, supercomputers of the 21st century can use over 100,000 processors connected by fast connections. The Connection Machine CM-5 supercomputer is a parallel processing computer capable of many billions of arithmetic operations per second. Throughout the decades, the management of heat density has remained a key issue for most centralized supercomputers, the large amount of heat generated by a system may also have other effects, e. g. reducing the lifetime of other system components. There have been diverse approaches to management, from pumping Fluorinert through the system. Systems with a number of processors generally take one of two paths
Supercomputer
–
IBM 's
Blue Gene/P supercomputer at
Argonne National Laboratory runs over 250,000 processors using normal data center air conditioning, grouped in 72 racks/cabinets connected by a high-speed optical network
Supercomputer
–
A
Cray-1 preserved at the
Deutsches Museum
Supercomputer
–
A
Blue Gene /L cabinet showing the stacked
blades, each holding many processors
Supercomputer
–
An
IBM HS20 blade
13.
Cray-2
–
The Cray-2 is a supercomputer with four vector processors built with emitter-coupled logic and made by Cray Research starting in 1985. At 1.9 GFLOPS peak performance, it was the fastest machine in the world when it was released, the Cray-2 was replaced as the worlds fastest computer by the ETA-10G in 1990. With the successful launch of his famed Cray-1, Seymour Cray turned to the design of its successor. By 1979 he had become fed up with management interruptions in what was now a large company, and as he had done in the past, decided to resign his management post and move to form a new lab. As with his move to Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin from Control Data HQ in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Cray management understood his needs and supported his move to a new lab in Boulder. Working as an independent consultant at these new Cray Labs, he put together a team and this Lab would later close, and a decade later a new facility in Colorado Springs would open. The classic example of design is the CDC8600, which packed four CDC 7600-like machines based on ECL logic into a 1 x 1 meter cylinder. Unfortunately the density needed to achieve this cycle time led to the machines downfall, one solution to this problem, one that most computer vendors had already moved to, was to use integrated circuits instead of individual components. Each IC included a selection of components from a module pre-wired into a circuit by the construction process. If an IC did not work, another one would be tried, at the time the 8600 was being designed the simple MOSFET-based technology did not offer the speed Cray needed. Relentless improvements changed things by the mid-1970s, however, and the Cray-1 had been able to use newer ICs, in fact, the Cray-1 was actually somewhat faster than the 8600 because it packed considerably more logic into the system due to the ICs small size. Although IC design continued to improve, the size of the ICs was constrained largely by mechanical limits. In order to gain another 10-fold increase in performance over the Cray-1, the goal Cray aimed for, another design problem was the increasing performance gap between the processor and main memory. In the era of the CDC6600 memory ran at the speed as the processor. Cray solved this by adding ten smaller computers to the system, allowing them to deal with the external storage. Adding four processors simply made this problem worse and it was the foreground processors task to run the computer, handling storage and making efficient use of the multiple channels into main memory. It drove the background processors by passing in the instructions they should run via eight 16 word buffers, modern CPUs use a variation of this design as well, although the foreground processor is now referred to as the load/store unit and is not a complete machine unto its own. Main memory banks were arranged in quadrants to be accessed at the same time, the downside to this approach is that the cost of setting up the scatter/gather unit in the foreground processor was fairly high
Cray-2
–
Cray-2
Cray-2
Cray-2
–
A Cray-2 and its
Fluorinert -cooling "waterfall", formerly serial number 2101, the only 8-processor system ever made, for
NERSC
Cray-2
–
A Cray-2 operated by
NASA
14.
Priory of Saint-Martin-des-Champs
–
The Priory of Saint-Martin-des-Champs was an influential monastery established in what is now the city of Paris, France. Its surviving buildings are considered treasures of Medieval architecture in the city, the oldest known structure on the site was a chapel dedicated to St. Martin of Tours, founded during the Merovingian dynasty, which appears in a text of 710. At a date which remains unknown, a community of monks became established there around the chapel, the abbey they founded was pillaged and destroyed by Norman invaders during the late 10th century. In 1060, King Henry I of France chose to rebuild the complex of the former abbey, at that era, it still remained outside the walls of the city, thus its designation as des champs. In 1079 the priory was given to St, the priory church was completed in 1135, having a choir section with a double ambulatory, topped by a simple ribbed arch. The nave was completed during the 13th century, as was the refectory of the priory, the later two are attributed to Pierre de Montreuil. These are the surviving portions of the monastic complex today. The priory maintained a presence in the religious and social life of Paris. Over time, the priory fell subject to the system of commendatory abbots, the famous Cardinal Richelieu can be counted among their number. The priory was suppressed in 1790 under the new laws of the French Revolution, the monastic walls and dormitories was soon torn down. The surviving structures of the priory became the home of the Museum of Arts and Crafts, the original Foucault Pendulum was housed there from 1855 until it was irreparably damaged in 2010
Priory of Saint-Martin-des-Champs
–
Musée des Arts et Métiers
15.
3rd arrondissement of Paris
–
The 3rd arrondissement of Paris, situated on the right bank of the River Seine, is the smallest in area after the 2nd arrondissement. The arrondissement contains the northern, quieter part of the district of Le Marais. The oldest surviving house of Paris, built in 1407, is to be found in the 3rd arrondissement. The ancient Jewish quarter, the Pletzel which dates from the 13th century begins in the part of the 3rd arrondissement. It is home to the Musée dart et dhistoire du judaïsme, although trendy boutiques are now taking up many of the storefronts, there are still landmark stores selling traditional Jewish foods. With a land area of 1.171 km2, the 3rd arrondissement is the second smallest arrondissement in the city, the area now occupied by the third arrondissement attained its peak population in the period preceding the re-organization of Paris in 1860. In 1999, the population was 34,248, while the arrondissement hosted a total of 29,723 jobs, ¹The peak of population actually occurred before 1861, but the arrondissement was created in 1860, so we do not have figures before 1861
3rd arrondissement of Paris
–
Arts et Métiers (medieval priory of Saint-Martin-des-Champs), in the 3rd arrondissement of Paris
3rd arrondissement of Paris
–
the
Mairie (
town hall) of the 3rd arrondissement
3rd arrondissement of Paris
–
Square du Temple
16.
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Saint-Denis is a commune in the northern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 9.4 km from the centre of Paris, Saint-Denis is a subprefecture of the department of Seine-Saint-Denis, being the seat of the arrondissement of Saint-Denis. Saint-Denis is home to the necropolis of the Basilica of Saint Denis and was also the location of the associated abbey. It is also home to Frances national football and rugby stadium, Saint-Denis is a formerly industrial suburb currently changing its economic base. Inhabitants of Saint-Denis are called Dionysiens, until the 3rd century, Saint-Denis was a small settlement called Catolacus or Catulliacum, probably meaning estate of Catullius, a Gallo-Roman landowner. About 250 AD, the first bishop of Paris, Saint Denis, was martyred on Montmartre hill, shortly after 250 his grave became a shrine and a pilgrimage centre, with the building of the Abbey of Saint Denis, and the settlement was renamed Saint-Denis. In 1793, during the French Revolution, Saint-Denis was renamed Franciade in a gesture of rejection of religion, in 1803, however, under the Consulate of Napoléon Bonaparte, the city reverted to its former name of Saint-Denis. During its history, Saint-Denis has been associated with the French royal house. Starting from Dagobert I, almost every French king was buried in the Basilica, however, Saint-Denis is older than that. In the 2nd century, there was a Gallo-Roman village named Catolacus on the location that Saint-Denis occupies today, Saint Denis, the first bishop of Paris and patron saint of France, was martyred in about 250 and buried in the cemetery of Catolacus. Denis tomb quickly became a place of worship, around 475, Sainte Geneviève had a small chapel erected on Denis tomb, which by then had become a popular destination for pilgrims. It was this chapel that Dagobert I had rebuilt and turned into a royal monastery, during the Middle Ages, because of the privileges granted by Dagobert, Saint-Denis grew to become very important. Merchants from all over Europe came to visit its market, in 1140, Abbot Suger, counselor to the King, granted further privileges to the citizens of Saint-Denis. He also started the work of enlarging the Basilica of Saint Denis that still exists today, the new church was consecrated in 1144. Saint-Denis suffered heavily in the Hundred Years War, of its 10,000 citizens, during the French Wars of Religion, the Battle of Saint-Denis was fought between Catholics and Protestants on 10 November 1567. The Protestants were defeated, but the Catholic commander Anne de Montmorency was killed, in 1590, the city surrendered to Henry IV, who converted to Catholicism in 1593 in the abbey of Saint-Denis. King Louis XIV started several industries in Saint-Denis, weaving and spinning mills and dyehouses. His successor, Louis XV, whose daughter was a nun in the Carmelite convent, took a lively interest in the city, he added a chapel to the convent and also renovated the buildings of the royal abbey
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
–
The
Canal Saint-Denis with swing bridge, pedestrian overpass leading to the
Stade de France and the
Basilique Saint-Denis in the background.
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Battle of Saint-Denis (1567)
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Saint-Denis 1830
Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Maison d'éducation de la Légion d'honneur de Saint-Denis.
17.
Statue of Liberty
–
The Statue of Liberty is a colossal neoclassical sculpture on Liberty Island in New York Harbor in New York City, in the United States. The copper statue, a gift from the people of France to the people of the United States, was designed by French sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, the statue was dedicated on October 28,1886. The Statue of Liberty is a female figure representing Libertas. She holds a torch above her head, and in her left arm carries a tabula ansata inscribed July 4,1776, a broken chain lies at her feet. The statue became an icon of freedom and of the United States, due to the post-war instability in France, work on the statue did not commence until the early 1870s. In 1875, Laboulaye proposed that the French finance the statue, Bartholdi completed the head and the torch-bearing arm before the statue was fully designed, and these pieces were exhibited for publicity at international expositions. The torch-bearing arm was displayed at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876, fundraising proved difficult, especially for the Americans, and by 1885 work on the pedestal was threatened due to lack of funds. Publisher Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World started a drive for donations to complete the project attracted more than 120,000 contributors. The statue was constructed in France, shipped overseas in crates, the statues completion was marked by New Yorks first ticker-tape parade and a dedication ceremony presided over by President Grover Cleveland. The statue was administered by the United States Lighthouse Board until 1901 and then by the Department of War, public access to the balcony surrounding the torch has been barred for safety reasons since 1916. The project is traced to a conversation between Édouard René de Laboulaye, a staunch abolitionist and Frédéric Bartholdi, a sculptor. The National Park Service, in a 2000 report, however, deemed this a legend traced to an 1885 fundraising pamphlet, in order to honor these achievements, Laboulaye proposed that a gift be built for the United States on behalf of France. Laboulaye hoped that by calling attention to the recent achievements of the United States, according to sculptor Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, who later recounted the story, Laboulayes comment was not intended as a proposal, but it inspired Bartholdi. Given the repressive nature of the regime of Napoleon III, Bartholdi took no action on the idea except to discuss it with Laboulaye. Sketches and models were made of the work, though it was never erected. There was a precedent for the Suez proposal, the Colossus of Rhodes. This statue is believed to have been over 100 feet high, any large project was further delayed by the Franco-Prussian War, in which Bartholdi served as a major of militia. In the war, Napoleon III was captured and deposed, Bartholdis home province of Alsace was lost to the Prussians, and a more liberal republic was installed in France
Statue of Liberty
–
Statue of Liberty
Statue of Liberty
–
Bartholdi's design patent
Statue of Liberty
–
Bartholdi's
Lion of Belfort
Statue of Liberty
–
Detail from a fresco by
Constantino Brumidi in the
U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C., showing two early symbols of America:
Columbia (left) and the Indian princess
18.
Auguste Bartholdi
–
Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi was a French sculptor who is best known for designing Liberty Enlightening the World, commonly known as the Statue of Liberty. Bartholdi was born in Colmar, France on August 2,1834 and he was born to a family of German Protestant heritage, with his family name Latinized from Barthold. Bartholdis father, a property owner and counselor to the prefecture, afterwards, Bartholdi moved with his mother and his older brother Jean-Charles to Paris, where another branch of their family resided. With the family returning to spend long periods of time in Colmar, the family maintained ownership and visited their house in Alsace. While in Colmar, Bartholdi took drawing lessons from Martin Rossbach, in Paris, he studied sculpture with Antoine Etex. He also studied architecture under Henri Labrouste and Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, Bartholdi attended the Lycee Louis-le-Grand in Paris, and received a BA in 1852. He then went on to study architecture at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts as well as painting under Ary Scheffer in his studio in the Rue Chaptal, later, Bartholdi turned his attention to sculpture, which afterward exclusively occupied him. In 1853, Bartholdi submitted a Good Samaritan-themed sculptural group to the Paris Salon of 1853, the statue was later recreated in bronze. Within two years of his Salon debut, Bartholdi was commissioned by his hometown of Colmar to sculpt a memorial of Jean Rapp. In 1855 and 1856 Bartholdi traveled in Yemen and Egypt with travel companions such as Jean-Léon Gérôme, the trip sparked Bartholdis interest in colossal sculpture. In 1869, Bartholdi returned to Egypt to propose a new lighthouse to be built at the entrance of the Suez Canal, the lighthouse, which was to be shaped as a massive draped figured holding a torch, was not commissioned. As an officer, he took part in the defense of Colmar from Germany, distraught over his regions defeat, over the following years he constructed a number of monuments celebrating French heroism in the defense against Germany. Among these project was the Lion of Belfort, which he started working on in 1871, only finishing the massive sandstone statue in 1880. In 1871, he made his first trip to the United States, the idea, which had first been broached to him in 1865 by his friend Édouard René de Laboulaye, resulted in the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor. After years of work and fundraising, the statue was inaugurated in 1876, during this period, Bartholdi also sculpted a number of monuments for American cities, such as a cast-iron fountain in Washington, DC completed in 1878. In 1875, he joined the Freemasons Lodge Alsace-Lorraine in Paris, in 1876, Bartholdi was one of the French commissioners in 1876 to the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition. There he exhibited statues of The Young Vine-Grower, Génie Funèbre, Peace and Genius in the Grasp of Misery. His 1878 statue Gribeauval became the property of the French nation, a prolific creator of statues, monuments, and portraits, Bartholdi exhibited at the Paris Salons until the year of his death in 1904
Auguste Bartholdi
–
Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi in 1880
Auguste Bartholdi
–
The
Statue of Liberty
Auguste Bartholdi
–
Bartholdi's
Lion of Belfort
Auguste Bartholdi
–
Replica of Statue of Liberty in Paris
19.
Aviation in the pioneer era
–
Once the principles of powered controlled flight had been established there was a period in which many different aircraft configurations were experimented with. By 1914 the tractor configuration biplane had become the most popular form of aircraft design, consequently, attempts to achieve powered flight continued, principally in France. To publicize the aeronautical concourse at the upcoming Worlds Fair in St. Louis, Octave Chanute gave a number of lectures at aero-clubs in Europe and he showed slides of his own glider flying experiments as well as some of the Wrights glider flying in 1901 and 1902. All these talks were reproduced in club journals and you, the Maecenases, and you too, the Government, put your hands in your pockets—or else we are beaten. P. W. Boulton of the United Kingdom in 1868 and this was not successful and Esnault-Pelterie was later to use its failure to support the position that the Wright Brothers claims were unfounded. However his design was not a copy of the Wrights glider. Voisin and Blériot then constructed a tandem wing biplane, which was subjected to a number of modifications without any success. Full details of the Wright Brothers flight control system was published in lAérophile in the January 1906 issue, nevertheless, the crucial importance of lateral control in making controlled turns was not appreciated, and the French experimenters instead aimed to construct inherently stable aircraft. On 16 November 1907 he successfully flew his Blériot VII, a monoplane with tail surfaces moved differentially for roll control, the AEA produced a number of fundamentally similar biplane designs, greatly influenced by the Wrights work, and these were flown with increasing success during 1908. On 4 July 1908 their next aircraft, the June Bug piloted by Glenn Curtiss, after the AEAs disbandment at the end of March 1909, one of its American members went on to start a growing US-based aviation firm. I am not sufficiently calm after the event to express my opinion. My view can be best conveyed in the words, It is marvellous, leon Delagrange simply said We are beaten. His first design, the Farman III was one of the most successful designs of the pioneer era. 1909 can be regarded as the year in which aviation came of age, at the end of 1908 the first exhibition devoted to aircraft was held in the Grand Palais in Paris, and this was followed by the first London Aero Exhibition at Olympia in May 1909. The Aéro-Club de France issued its first pilots licences in January, the first British magazine to be devoted to the subject, Flight published its first issue in January. This was met by widespread derision, the satirical magazine Punch responded by offering a prize for a flight to Mars. In June 1909 Louis Blériot won their £1000 prize for the first flight across the English channel. One contemporary newspaper led its account of the event with the headline Britain is no longer an island, Blériot became world-famous, and the publicity resulted in over a hundred orders for copies of his design within a few weeks
Aviation in the pioneer era
–
Vue du Pont de Sévres, painted in 1908 by
Henri Rousseau
Aviation in the pioneer era
–
Wilbur Wright gliding, October 1902
Aviation in the pioneer era
–
Illustration of Santos-Dumont's 12 November 1906 flight on the cover of Le Petit Journal
Aviation in the pioneer era
–
Henri Farman winning the Grand Prix d'Aviation, 13 January 1908
