1.
Culture of the Dominican Republic
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The Dominican people and their customs have origins consisting predominately in a European cultural basis, with both African and native Taíno influences. The Dominican Republic was the site of the first European settlement in the New World, namely Santo Domingo, shortly after the arrival of Europeans, African peoples were imported to the island to serve as slave labor. The fusion of European, African and Taino traditions and customs contributed to the development of present-day Dominican culture, Spanish is the predominant language in the Dominican Republic. The local dialect is called Dominican Spanish and it closely resembles Canarian Spanish, and also has borrowed vocabularies from the Arawak language. Some common words derived from the Taino natives include, barbecue, canoe, caribbean, hammock, hurricane, iguana, manatee, mangrove, savannah, schools in the Dominican Republic are based on a Spanish educational model. Both English and French are taught as secondary languages on private, Haitian Creole is spoken by the population of Haitian origin. There is a community of about 8,000 speakers of Samaná English in the Samaná Peninsula and they are the descendants of formerly enslaved Africans who arrived in the nineteenth century. Tourism, American pop culture, the influence of Dominican Americans, the Dominican Republic is 68. 9% Roman Catholic,18. 2% Evangelical,10. 6% with no religion, and 2. 3% other. Other sources place the irreligious ratio at 7% and nearly 10%, the nation has two patroness saints, Nuestra Señora de la Altagracia and Nuestra Señora de las Mercedes. The Catholic Church began to lose popularity in the late 19th century and this was due to a lack of funding, of priests, and of support programs. During the same time, the Protestant evangelical movement began to gain support, religious tension between Catholics and Protestants in the country has been rare. There has always been religious freedom throughout the entire country, not until the 1950s were restrictions placed upon churches by Trujillo. Letters of protest were sent against the arrests of government adversaries. Trujillo began a campaign against the church and planned to arrest priests and this campaign ended before it was even put into place, with his assassination. During World War II, a group of Jews escaping Nazi Germany fled to the Dominican Republic and it has remained the center of the Jewish population since. Its syncopated beats use Latin percussion, brass instruments, bass, between 1937 and 1950 merengue music was promoted internationally by Dominican groups like Chapuseaux and Damiron Los Reyes del Merengue, Joseito Mateo, and others. Radio, television, and international media popularized it further, some well-known merengue performers include Johnny Ventura, singer/songwriter Juan Luis Guerra, Fernando Villalona, Eddy Herrera, Sergio Vargas, Toño Rosario, Milly Quezada, and Chichí Peralta. S. Started performing in the Latin club scene and gained radio airplay, bachata, a form of music and dance that originated in the countryside and rural marginal neighborhoods of the Dominican Republic, has become quite popular in recent years
2.
Merengue music
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Merengue was first mentioned around the middle of the 19th century and has locally been very popular since then. The genre was later promoted even more by Rafael Trujillo, the dictator from 1930 to 1961, who turned it into the countrys national music and dance style. In the United States it was first popularized by New York-based groups and bandleaders like Rafael Petiton Guzman, beginning in the 1930s, and Angel Viloria y su Conjunto Típico Cibaeño in the 1950s. It was during the Trujillo era that the merengue Compadre Pedro Juan, by Luis Alberti, became an international hit, Milly Quezada is known as the Queen of Merengue. The popularity of Merengue is growing fast in Venezuela, venezuelan merengueros include Roberto Antonio, Miguel Moly, Natusha, Porfi Jiménez, Billos Caracas Boys, and Los Melodicos. Merengue is also popular in the city of Guayaquil in Ecuador. The merengue produced in New York City has become popular among the lovers of this rhythm. Some of the New Yorkers who produce this new merengue sound are Mala Fe, Henry Jimenez, although the etymology of the name can be disputed, there are only a few theories about where the word might have derived from. The origins of the music are traced to the land of Cibao, the word Cibao was a native name for the island, although the Spanish used it in their conquest to refer to a specific part of the island, the highest mountainous range. Literally speaking, the term Merengue Cibaeño is therefore partially native and so Merengue might also be a derivation or mistranslation of a word related to song, music. Another theory includes Western African words related to dance and music, Merengue was first mentioned in the mid 19th century with the earliest documented evidence being newspaper articles. Some of the articles inform about a dance, and also highlight Merengue displacing the Tumba. The genre had originated within the rural, northern region around the city of Santiago called the Cibao. It later spread throughout the country and became popular among the urban population, anecdotal evidence suggests that one of the first merengue song was written in 1844, the year of the Dominican Republics Independence from Haiti. The song was written as a satire, to mock one Thomas Torres who had deserted his troops in the Battle of Talanquera. The lyrics of the alleged first merengue as follows, This account first surfaced in 1927, however, the songs role as the first emergence of merengue has been often refuted, being cited as a patriotic song or ballad instead. The oldest form of Merengue was typically played on stringed instruments, when the accordion came to the island in the 1880s, introduced by German traders, it quickly became the primary instrument, and to this day is still the instrument of choice in Merengue tipico. Later on, the piano and brass instruments were introduced to the genre, three main types of merengue are played in the Dominican music because of its suggestive lyrics and the sensual movements of merengue dancers
3.
Dominican Carnival
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The Carnival in the Dominican Republic is a Dominican celebration that takes place throughout February, although some Dominicans celebrate it during Holy Week in March, or in August. Dominicans are usually most festive on February 27th, which is the Dominican Independence Day, in Santo Domingo, celebrations include a large military display with the Dominican air force, navy, and army. Festivities often include the wearing of costumes that symbolize Dominican religious and traditional characters such as Calife, Guloya. Festivities take place all over the island, with each adding its own twist to the celebration. The Christian slave-owners who lived on the island would let their slaves have a once a year so that they could get the wild out of their systems. The slave-owners considered this to be a celebration, and therefore mixed Christian traditions into it. Evidence has been found in the ruins of La Vega Vieja showing that Carnival has been celebrated in the Dominican Republic since 1510, the celebration originally consisted of the residents of the island dressing themselves as Moors and Christians. Though it is not known for certain, it is thought that the colony of Santo Domingo was the first place in the Americas to have a pre-Lenten costume, the celebration became a way to escape from the rigid religious traditions brought from the old world. By the late 1700s, the carnival had become a celebration in the colony. The celebration is symbolized by an upside-down Chicken, and its character is the Diablo Cojuelo. A tale on the island says that this devil was banished to earth because of his childish pranks, when he hit the earth he hurt his leg, causing him to limp. A Dominican tale claims that the mask is meant to represent the Spaniards who came to the island, roba la Gallina, is an festivity that satires the fact that some people used to steal chickens from farms. While this used to consist of a man dressing up in a dress and using the chickens as their cleavage and hips, califé, is a character that shouts poetry during the festivities, making complaints about events and government officials, and represents the voice of the people. Se me muere Rebeca, is a festivity where someone acts out a woman from a low social class with an ill daughter, who cant pay for medicine, La Ciguapa, is a female character who comes out at night. She is naked with long black hair, and her feet are backwards. She enchants the men she comes across, Los Indios, are a group of men and women dressed in the typical native Taino Indian attire. They travel together representing Dominican origins, there are many ways in which the carnival is celebrated, although most celebrations have several similarities, They are held primarily on the main streets of the town or city. People gather in the streets to watch parades, most of the disguised people carry a Vejiga or whip to hit people
4.
National Anthem of the Dominican Republic
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Dominican National Anthem is the national anthem of the Dominican Republic. Its music was composed by José Rufino Reyes Siancas, and its lyrics were authored by Emilio Prud’Homme, the first public performance of the national anthem took place on 17 August 1883. Though the music was an instant success, several objections were made to the lyrics for having various historical inaccuracies, in 1897, Prud’Homme submitted revised lyrics which stand to this day. The Spanish name of the Dominican Republic, República Dominicana, is never used in the anthems official Spanish lyrics nor is the denonym for Dominicans, dominicanos. Rather, the word for the island of Hispaniola, Quisqueya, is used twice and its derivative denonym. However, research shows that these words does not seem to derive from the original Arawak Taíno language. In public, the anthem is usually performed through the end of the lyrics fourth paragraph. Also note that, no translation of the Spanish lyrics into any other language. Audio of the anthem of the Dominican Republic with information
5.
Music of Antigua and Barbuda
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Antigua and Barbuda is a Caribbean nation in the Lesser Antilles island chain. The country is a home for many of the pan-Caribbean genres of popular music. Of these, steeldrum and calypso are the most integral parts of modern Antiguan popular music, little to no musical research has been undertaken on Antigua and Barbuda. As a result, much knowledge on the topic derives from novels, essays, documented music in Antigua and Barbuda began only with the discovery of Antigua, then populated by Arawak and Caribs, by Christopher Columbus in 1493. The islands early music, however, remains little studied, in the 1780s, documentation exists for African workers participating in outdoor dances accompanied by the banjar and toombah, a drum decorated with shell and tin jingles. By the 1840s, sophisticated subscription balls were common, held biweekly with European-derived quadrilles accompanied by fiddle, tambourine, colonial era churches and missionary activity displaced and otherwise influenced the music of the African slaves, who adopted elements of European-derived religious music. The brass bands of the Salvation Army are an important example, in the mid- to late 19th century, a number of Portuguese indentured workers came to Antigua, bringing with them their styles of music. When most of the Portuguese left in the 1880s, Lebanese music was brought to the island by immigrants from that country, during the period of French colonial rule, African slaves were prohibited from celebrating in Carnival, they continued to do so, secretly, at home. There, an Afro-Caribbean style of percussion, dance and song called benna developed, later, Antiguan and Barbudan folk music became more dominated by Trinidadian calypso and steelpan. Most forms of modern Antiguan and Barbudan music are not indigenous to the islands, and were imported from France, colonial dance styles like the highland fling and the quadrille remain popular in Africanized form. The Old Time Christmas Festival was a culturally significant celebration, replaced in 1957 by a Trinidadian-inspired Carnival, the Antiguan Christmas Festival included several elements that have been adopted into the modern Carnival. Christmas Festival traditions include both music and dance, especially related to masquerades and iron bands, the highland fling is a common Christmas Festival dance, also played in the modern Carnival, performed by people wearing Scottish kilts, masks made of wire and bearing whips of cowhide. Benna is an uptempo Antiguan folk song that was introduced following the prohibition of slavery, songs usually focused on scandalous and bawdy rumors and gossip, and were in a call-and-response form with a leader and an audience. Bennas popularity and similarity to calypso helped make the island receptive to that genres introduction, by the beginning of the 20th century, it had become a method of folk communication, disseminating news and reports from across the island. In the 1940s and 50s, an improvisational benna singer named John Quarkoo Thomas sang up-to-date stories on legal scandals, and he was eventually imprisoned because of the lyrics to Cocoatea, which was about the daughter of a respected citizen, and her secret pregnancy while in a convent. In other popular genres of music Antigua is best known for oldest and most successful band the Burning Flames. Another well-known Antiguan musician was Patrick Johnny Gomes, who worked for, among many others, country recording artists Billy Rose and Wayne Daniel were also born on the island of Antigua. See full article, Antigua Carnival The Antiguan Carnival is a celebration of music, the most important day is that of the jouvert, in which brass and steel bands perform for much of the islands population
6.
Music of the Bahamas
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The music of the Bahamas is associated primarily with junkanoo, a celebration which occurs on Boxing Day and again on New Years Day. Parades and other celebrations mark the ceremony, groups like The Baha Men, Ronnie Butler and Kirkland Bodie have gained massive popularity in Japan, the United States and other places. Other popular Bahamian artists include Stileet and Stevie S. Calypso is a style of Afro-Caribbean music which originated in Trinidad and this form of music has spread through many parts of the Caribbean, including The Bahamas. Soca is a form of music which originated from many calypso music in Trinidad. It originally combined the melodic lilting sound of calypso with insistent percussion, the word junkanoo is said to be derived from a Ghanaian leader, John Connu, or from the Qujo supreme deity and ancestral spirits. The junkanoo was formerly practiced in North Carolina and remnants still exist in Belize and it is most well known, though, from Nassau and Freeport. Tourism has also had an impact, bringing in Japanese, European, junkanoos origins are obscure and much-debated. Another theory is that the term derives from scrap metal or other used to create the distinctive goombay drum. Similar celebrations once existed cross the Caribbean and in North Carolina, in 1973, the year the Bahamas achieved independence from the United Kingdom, black professionals of the middle and upper classes began to dominate junkanoo celebrations. Costuming and competitions became more complex and commonplace, and soon became a tourist draw, aside from being a type of drum, goombay is also a percussion music made famous by Alphonso Blind Blake Higgs, who played to tourists arriving at Nassau International Airport for several years. Rake-and-scrapes popularity has been declining in recent years, but performers like Lassie Do, christian rhyming spirituals and the antems of sponge fishermen are now mostly dead traditions, decimated by the arrival of pop music, a 1930s sponge blight and other causes. E. Clement Bethels masters thesis on traditional Bahamian music was adapted for the stage by his daughter, Nicolette Bethel, Music of The Bahamas was first performed at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 1991, and was revived in 2002 for fresh Bahamian audiences. A recording of that show is available for sale from Ringplay Productions, rake and scrape music comes from the musical traditions of the Turks and Caicos Islands, and is characterized by the use of a saw as the primary instrument. It was brought by immigrants from those islands from the 1920s to about the 1940s, who settled on Cat Island, rake and scrape is traditionally used to accompany the Bahamian Quadrille and the heel-toe polka all relics of the initial mixture of Africa and Europe. Many of these Turks and Caicos Islanders became some of the most famous musicians in the Bahamas, many eventually moved back to their homelands, bringing with them junkanoo. Turks and Caicos are now the home for junkanoo. Membranophones, The Goombay drum is main rhythmic component in rake-n-scrape and it is also referred to a goatskin drum, as the skin of a goat was stretched over a wooden barrel. It is decorated by simple or complex geometric designs in bright colors, the drum is always heated over fire to retain its tone
7.
Music of Barbados
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The music of Barbados includes distinctive national styles of folk and popular music, including elements of Western classical and religious music. The culture of Barbados is a mix of African and British elements, and the islands music reflects this mix through song types and styles, instrumentation, dances. Barbadian folk traditions include the Landship movement, which is a satirical, informal organization based on the British navy, tea meetings, tuk bands and numerous traditional songs, in modern Barbados, popular styles include calypso, spouge, contemporary folk and world music. Barbados is, along with Guadeloupe, Martinique, Trinidad, Cuba, Puerto Rico, bajan culture is syncretic, and the islands musical culture is perceived as a mixture of African and British musics, with certain unique elements that may derive from indigenous sources. Simple entertainment is the basis for most Barbadians participation in music and dance activities, though religious, Barbadian folk culture declined in importance in the 20th century, but then rekindled in the 1970s, when many Barbadians became interested in their national culture and history. The religious music of the Barbadian Christian churches plays an important role in Barbadian musical identity, many distinctive Barbadian musical and other cultural traditions derive from parodies of Anglican church hymns and British military drills. The British military performed drills to both provide security for the population, as well as intimidate slaves. Modern Barbadian tea meetings, tuk bands, the Landship tradition, british-Barbadians used music for cultural and intellectual enrichment and to feel a sense of kinship and connection with the British Isles through the maintenance of British musical forms. Plantation houses featured music as entertainment at balls, dances and other gatherings and these songs remain a part of Barbadian culture and form a rich folk repertoire. Western classical music is the most socially accepted form of expression for Barbadians in Bridgetown, including a variety of vocal music, chamber and orchestral music. Though inhabited prior to the 16th century, little is known about Barbadian music before the arrival of the Portuguese in 1536, the Portuguese left little influence, but English culture and music helped shape the islands heritage. Irish and Scottish settlers emigrated in the 17th century, working in the tobacco industry, the middle of the 17th century saw the decline of the tobacco industry and the rise of sugarcane, as well as the introduction of large numbers of African slaves. Modern Barbadian music is largely a combination of English and African elements, with Irish, Scottish. By the 19th century, the Barbadian colonialists grew to fear slave revolts, and specifically, as a result, the government passed laws to restrict musical activities among slaves. At the same time, American and other forms of imported music were brought to Barbados, while many important elements of modern Barbadian music, like tuk bands, also emerged. In the 20th century, many new styles were imported to Barbados, most influentially including jazz, ska, reggae, calypso and soca. Barbadian culture and music are mixtures of European and African elements, with influence from the indigenous peoples of the island. Significant numbers of Asian, specifically Chinese and Japanese, people have moved to Barbados, slavery continued, however, and the colonial and slaveowning authorities eventually outlawed musical instruments among slaves
8.
Music of Cuba
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The music of Cuba, including its instruments, performance and dance, comprises a large set of unique traditions influenced mostly by west African and European music. Due to the nature of most of its genres, Cuban music is often considered one of the richest and most influential regional musics of the world. For instance, the son cubano merges an adapted Spanish guitar, melody, harmony, almost nothing remains of the original native traditions, since the native population was exterminated in the 16th century. Since the 19th century Cuban music has been popular and influential throughout the world. It has been perhaps the most popular form of music since the introduction of recording technology. Cuban music has contributed to the development of a variety of genre and musical styles around the globe, most notably in Latin America. Examples include rhumba, Afro-Cuban jazz, salsa, soukous, many West African re-adaptations of Afro-Cuban music, Spanish fusion genres, large numbers of African slaves and European, mostly Spanish, immigrants came to Cuba and brought their own forms of music to the island. European dances and folk musics included zapateo, fandango, paso doble, later, northern European forms like minuet, gavotte, mazurka, contradanza, and the waltz appeared among urban whites. There was also an immigration of Chinese indentured laborers later in the 19th century, the African slaves and their descendants made many percussion instruments and preserved rhythms they had known in their homeland. The most important instruments were the drums, of which there were originally about fifty different types, today only the bongos, congas, also important are the claves, two short hardwood batons, and the cajón, a wooden box, originally made from crates. Claves are still used often, and wooden boxes were used during periods when the drum was banned. In addition, there are other instruments in use for African-origin religious ceremonies. Chinese immigrants contributed the corneta china, a Chinese reed instrument still played in the comparsas, or carnival groups, the great instrumental contribution of the Spanish was their guitar, but even more important was the tradition of European musical notation and techniques of musical composition. Hernando de la Parras archives give some of our earliest available information on Cuban music and he reported instruments including the clarinet, violin and vihuela. There were few professional musicians at the time, and fewer still of their songs survive, one of the earliest is Ma Teodora, supposed to be related to a freed slave, Teodora Ginés of Santiago de Cuba, who was famous for her compositions. The piece is said to be similar to 16th-, 17th- and 18th-century Spanish popular songs, Cuban music has its principal roots in Spain and West Africa, but over time has been influenced by diverse genres from different countries. Important among these are France, and the United States, Cuban music has been immensely influential in other countries. The African beliefs and practices certainly influenced Cubas music, polyrhythmic percussion is an inherent part of African music, as melody is part of European music
9.
Music of Dominica
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The music of Dominica includes a variety of genres including all the popular genres of the world. Popular music is widespread, with a number of native Dominican performers gaining national fame in imported genres such as calypso, reggae, soca, kompa, zouk and rock and roll. Dominicas own popular music industry has created a form called bouyon, groups include WCK, Native musicians in various forms, such as reggae, kadans (Ophelia Marie, and calypso, have also become stars at home and abroad. There is also Cadence-lypso, the Dominica kadans, which has set the stage for some of the regions most significant musical developments such as zouk, bouyon, like the other Francophone musics of the Lesser Antilles, Dominican folk music is a hybrid of African and European elements. The quadrille is an important symbol of French Antillean culture, and is, on Dominica, in addition, Dominicas folk tradition includes folk songs called bélé, traditional storytelling called kont, masquerade, childrens and work songs, and Carnival music. This perception changed in the mid- to late 20th century, when Afro-Dominican culture came to be celebrated through the work of promoters like Cissie Caudeiron, Dominicas terrain is rugged, which has fostered distinct regional traditions. The northern, eastern, southern, western and central parts of the island are music areas, the villages of Wesley and Marigot are also unique in their preservation of English language and music rather than the more French-based styles of the rest of the island. Dominican folk music is a tradition, learned informally through watching others perform. As of 1987, most performers of music were either over 50 years old or under 35. Characteristics of Dominican music include the West African use of call and response singing, clapping as a part of rhythm and lyrical, dance. Lyrics are almost all in Dominican Creole French, and are sung by women. Drums, generically known as lapo kabwit, are the most prominent part of Dominicas instrumental tradition, Dominican folk music includes, most influentially, the French Antillean quadrille tradition, the jing ping style of dance music, as well as bélé and heel-and-toe polka. Traditional Carnival music includes chanté mas and lapo kabwit, folk music on Dominica has historically been a part of everyday life, including work songs, religious music and secular, recreational music. The quadrille is one of the most important dance of the Dominican folk tradition, the bidjin, mereng, sotis, polka pil, vals o vyenn and mazouk are particularly widespread. All bélé are accompanied by a drum, the tanbou bélé, along with the tingting. Bélés start with a lead vocalist, who is followed by the chorus, then a drummer. Traditional dances revolve around stylized courtship between a male and female dancer, known as the kavalyé and danm respectively, the bélé song-dances include the bélé soté, bélé priòrité, bélé djouba, bélé contredanse, bélé rickety and bélé pitjé. The quadrille is a form that is an important symbol of French Antillean culture, not just in Dominica
10.
Music of Guadeloupe
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Zouks popularity was particularly intense in France, where the genre became an important symbol of identity for Guadeloupe and Martinique. Zouks origins are in the music of Guadeloupe and Martinique, especially Guadeloupan gwo ka and Martinican chouval bwa. Carnival is an important festival in Guadeloupe and Martinique. Carnival in both islands declined following World War II, bouncing back with new formats and new traditions only in the 1980s. Both islands feature participatory, call-and-response style songs during their Carnival celebrations, biguine vidé is an up tempo version of the biguine rhythm, combining other carnival elements. It is participatory music, with the singing a verse. It allows one to grab an improvised percussion instrument and join in, traditionally, Carnival includes dances of African origin, including laghia, haut-taille, grage, calinda and bel-air. Traditional instruments include the chacha, tibwa, maké, boula, tanbou chan, aside from the biguine vidé bands, Vaval includes song and costume contests, masquerading and zouk parties. Gwo ka is a family of drums used to create a form of folk music from Guadeloupe. There are seven rhythms in gwo ka, and multiple variations on each. Gwo ka singing is usually guttural, nasal and rough, though it can also be bright and smooth, rural Guadeloupans still use gwo ka drums in communal experiences called lewozes, this is the most traditional manifestation of gwo ka in modern Guadeloupe. Gwo ka is also played at Carnival and other celebrations, a modernized and popularized form of gwo ka is well-known on the islands, it is known as gwo ka moderne. Guadeloupean balakadri persisted into the 20th century and, despite disruption after World War II, the Guadeloupean-administered island of Marie-Galante has also had a vital and well-documented balakadri tradition. As in Martinique, kwadril dances are in sets consisting of proper quadrilles, plus creolized versions of 19th-century couple dances, biguines, mazouks and valses Créoles. The world-famous zouk band Kassav remains easily the most famous performers from the island and these Haitians drew upon previous success from mini-jazz artists like Les Gentlemen, Les Leopards, and Les Vikings de Guadeloupe. Later in the decade and into the 1980s, the French Antilles became home to a style of music called cadence-lypso. Drawing on these influences, the supergroup Kassav invented zouk and popularized it with hit songs like Zouk-La-Se Sel Medikaman Nou Ni, Kassav formed from Paris in 1978. However, all these small jazz or bands had their guitars with sophisticated styles, the 1970s were dominated by mini-jazz, which still used a variant of the méringue style
11.
Music of Haiti
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The music of Haiti combines a wide range of influences drawn from the many people who have settled on this Caribbean island. It reflects French, African rhythms, Spanish elements and others who have inhabited the island of Hispaniola, Haiti hadnt had a recorded music until 1937 when Jazz Guignard was recorded non-commercially. One of the most popular Haitian artists is Wyclef Jean and his music is somewhat hip-hop mixed with world music. Haitian music is influenced mostly by European colonial ties and African migration, in the case of European colonization, musical influence has derived primarily from the French. One of Haitis musical traditions is known to simply as compas. But in the former non-standardized Haitian Creole, Haitians identify it variously as compa, conpa, regardless of its various spellings, compas refers to a complex, ever-changing music genre that fuses African rhythms, European ballroom dancing, and Haitian bourgeois aesthetics. The word may have derived from the Spanish compás, which relates to the rhythm of the beat or pulse. One of the most distinctive features of Haitian compas music is the steady, pulsing drum beat, Haïti Chérie is a traditional patriotic and most recognizable song of Haiti that was written and composed by Dr. Othello Bayard de Cayes and was initially called Souvenir dHaïti. It represents the pride Haitian people feel for their country and culture, within the Haitian community, at home and abroad, it is widely considered as a second national anthem to La Dessalinienne and the song has recorded several different versions. Méringue is a guitar-based style historically connected to merengue but without the use of the accordion, the blend of African and European cultures has created popular dance music, music played on simple acoustic instruments. Méringue has lost popularity to kompa, Rara music is a Lenten processional music with strong ties to the Vodou religious tradition. It has been confused with Haitian Carnival since both celebrations involve large groups of dancing revelers in the streets. Rara is performed between Ash Wednesday until Easter Sunday Rara bands roam the streets performing religious ceremonies as part of their obligations to the loa or spirits of Haitian Vodou. Twoubadou is a form of music played by peripatetic troubadours playing some combination of acoustic, guitar, beat box and accordion instruments singing ballads of Haitian, French or Caribbean origin. It is in ways similar to Son Cubano from Cuba as a result of Haitian migrant laborers who went to work on Cuban sugar plantations at the turn of the 20th century. Musicians perform at the Port-au-Prince International Airport and also at bars, compas, short for compas direct, is the modern méringue that was popularized in the mid-1950s by the sax and guitar player Nemours Jean-Baptiste. His méringue soon became popular throughout the Antilles, especially in Martinique, webert Sicot and Nemours Jean-Baptiste became the two leaders in the group. Sicot then left and formed a new group and a rivalry developed
12.
Music of Jamaica
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The music of Jamaica includes Jamaican folk music and many popular genres, such as mento, ska, rocksteady, reggae, dub music, dancehall, ska jazz, reggae fusion and related styles. Jamaicas music culture is a fusion of elements from neighboring Caribbean islands such as Trinidad, Reggae is especially popular through the international fame of Bob Marley. Jamaican musics influence on music styles in other countries includes the practice of toasting, British genres such as Lovers rock, jungle music and grime are also influenced by Jamaican music. Mento is a style of Jamaican music that predates and has greatly influenced ska, mento typically features acoustic instruments, such as acoustic guitar, banjo, hand drums, and the rhumba box—a large mbira in the shape of a box that can be sat on while played. The rhumba box carries the bass part of the music, lord Flea and Count Lasher are two of the more successful mento artists. Well-known mento songs include Day-O, Jamaica Farewell and Linstead Market, mento is often confused with calypso, a musical form from Trinidad and Tobago. As in many Anglo-Caribbean Caribbean islands, the music of Trinidad & Tobago has become part of the culture of Jamaica. Jamaicas own local music mento is often confused with calypso music, although the two share many similarities, they are separate and distinct musical forms. During the mid-20th century, mento was conflated with calypso, and mento was frequently referred to as calypso, kalypso and mento calypso, mento singers frequently used calypso songs and techniques. As in calypso, mento uses topical lyrics with a slant, commenting on poverty. The Trinidadian calypso and soca music are popular in Jamaica, popular calypso/soca artists from Jamaica include Byron Lee, Fab 5, and Lovindeer. Harry Belafonte introduced American audiences to calypso music, and Belafonte was dubbed the King of Calypso, from early in the 20th century, Jamaica produced many notable jazz musicians. In this development the enlightened policy of the Alpha Boys School in Kingston, also significant was the brass band tradition of the island, strengthened by opportunities for musical work and training in military contexts. However, limited scope for making a career playing jazz in Jamaica resulted in local jazz musicians leaving the island to settle in London or in the United States. Also internationally successful were trumpeters Dizzy Reece, Leslie Jiver Hutchinson and Leslie Thompson, bassist Coleridge Goode, guitarist Ernest Ranglin, Reece and Alexander worked in the US. Ska combined elements of Caribbean mento and calypso with American jazz and rhythm, the first ever ska recording was made by Count Ossie, a Nyabhingi drummer from the rasta community. It is characterized by a bass line accented with rhythms on the upbeat. In the early 1960s, ska was the dominant music genre of Jamaica and was popular with British mods, later it became popular with many skinheads
13.
Music of Martinique
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Main article, Music of Martinique and Guadeloupe The music of Martinique has a heritage which is intertwined with that of its sister island, Guadeloupe. Despite their small size, the islands have created a popular music industry. Zouks popularity was particularly intense in France, where the genre became an important symbol of identity for Martinique, Zouks origins are in the folk music of Martinique and Guadeloupe, especially Martinican chouval bwa, and Guadeloupan gwo ka. Theres also notable influence of the pan-Caribbean calypso tradition and Haitian kompa, carnival is a very important festival, known as Vaval on Martinique. Music plays a role, with Martinican big bands marching across the island. Vaval declined following World War II, bouncing back with new band formats, like Guadeloupe, Martinique features participatory, call-and-response style songs during its Vaval celebrations. In the early 20th century on Martinique, Creole bands travelled on trucks or small carts during Vaval and these large bands, known as groups à pied, are each identified with a neighborhood. Biguine vidé is an up tempo version of the biguine rhythm and it participatory music, with the bandleader singing a verse and the audience responding. Modern instrumentation includes a variety of improvised drums made from containers of all kinds, plastic plumbing, bells, tanbou débonda, bélé chacha, tibwa, aside from the biguine vidé bands, Vaval includes song and costume contests, masquerading and zouk parties. The bel air is a legacy of the music tradition. The bélé itself is a huge tambour drum that players ride as though it was a horse and it is characterized, in its rhythm, by the tibwa played on a length of bamboo mounted on a stand to the tambour bélé, and is often accompanied by a chacha. The tibwa rhythm plays a pattern and the drum comes to mark the highlights. It is organized in a way, the first entry of the singer. Then the Bwatè sets the pace, followed by bélé drum, finally, the dancers take the stage. A dialogue is created between the dancers and the tanbouyè, the answer play opposite the singer, the audience can also participate. As a family, together singers, dancers, musicians and audiences are lured by its mesmerizing rhythms, edmond Mondesir is a popular bélé musician from Martinique. Chouval bwa is a kind of Martinican traditional music, featuring percussion, bamboo flute, accordion, the music originated among rural Martinicans, as a form of celebratory holiday music played to accompany a dance called the manege. In French Caribbean culture, especially of the Lesser Antilles, the kwadril is a Creole term referring to a folk dance derived from the quadrille
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Music of Puerto Rico
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The music of Puerto Rico has evolved as a heterogeneous and dynamic product of diverse cultural resources. Puerto Rican music culture today comprises a wide and rich variety of genres and their music, from salsa to the boleros of Rafael Hernández, cannot be separated from music culture of Puerto Rico itself. Nevertheless, this entry will emphasize music culture as it has flourished on the island, Music culture in Puerto Rico during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries is poorly documented. Certainly it included Spanish church music, military music, and diverse genres of dance music cultivated by the jíbaros and enslaved Africans. While these later never constituted more than 11% of the islands population, the African people of the island used drums made of carved harwood covered with an untreated rawhide on one side, commonly made from goatskin. Jibaros are small farmers of primarily Hispanic descent—constituted the overwhelming majority of the Puerto Rican population until the mid-twentieth century and they are traditionally recognized as romantic icons of land cultivation, hard work and self-sufficiency, hospitality, and love of song and dance. Their instruments were relatives of the Spanish vihuela, especially the cuatro—which evolved from four single strings to five pairs—and the lesser known tiple, a typical jíbaro group nowadays might feature a cuatro, guitar, and percussion instrument such as the güiro scraper and/or bongo. Lyrics to jíbaro music are generally in the form, consisting of ten octosyllabic lines in the rhyme scheme abba. Décima form derives from 16th-century Spain, although it has largely died out in that country, it took root in various places in Latin America—especially Cuba and Puerto Rico—where it is sung in diverse styles. In between the décimas, lively improvisations can be played on the cuatro and this music form is also known as Tipica as well as Tropica. The décimas are sung to stock melodies, with standardized cuatro accompaniment patterns, about twenty such song-types are in common use. These are grouped into two categories, viz. seis and aguinaldo. Traditionally, the seis could accompany dancing, but this tradition has died out except in tourist shows. The aguinaldo is most characteristically sung during the Christmas season, when groups of revelers go from house to house, singing jíbaro songs and partying. The aguinaldo texts are not about Christmas, and also unlike Anglo-American Christmas carols. In general, Christmas season is a time when traditional music—both seis and aguinaldo—is most likely to be heard, fortunately, many groups of Puerto Ricans are dedicated to preserving traditional music by continued practice. Jíbaro music came to be marketed on commercial recordings in the twentieth century, however, jíbaros themselves were becoming an endangered species, as agribusiness and urbanization have drastically reduced the numbers of small farmers on the island. Many jíbaro songs dealt accordingly with the vicissitudes of migration to New York, historical references indicate that by the decades around 1800 plantation slaves were cultivating a music and dance genre called bomba
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Music of Saint Kitts and Nevis
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The music of Saint Kitts and Nevis is known for a number of musical celebrations including Carnival. The last week in June features the St Kitts Music Festival, in addition, there are other festivals on the island of Saint Kitts. These celebrations typically feature parades, street dances and salsa, jazz, soca, calypso, the most well-known kind of traditional music is probably seasonal Christmas songs, though there also chanteys and other songs. Music is also a part of the Tea Meetings which are common on the island, Carnival in Saint Kitts and Nevis features music quite prominently. Big Drum and string bands accompany folk performers, other instruments include shack-shack, baha, triangle, fife, guitar and quarto. Iron bands were introduced to Saint Kitts and Nevis Carnival in the 1940s, the following decade saw the introduction a Trinidadian style called steelpan, brought by Lloyd Matheson, C. B. E. The first steelpan band was Roy Martins Wilberforce Steel Pan, other bands included the Eagle Squadron, Boomerang, Casablanca, Boston Tigers and The Invaders. Modern Carnival in Saint Kitts and Nevis did not begin until the late 1950s, in the 1960s, brass bands dominated first Carnival, then much of popular music. Calypso is a style of music from Trinidad and Tobago, consisting of highly lyrical songs that frequently makes topical comments on the ruling classes, Calypso music originated in West Africa, and was introduced in the Caribbean during the slave trade by slaves who lived on the sugar plantations. During slavery, calypso was used for commentary against the oppression and this form was called Caiso meaning the town cry, while the singer/composer was called the Caisonian. This singing was then nicknamed calypso by the European slave masters, the caisonians were then pressured by their masters to sing songs to entertain them in return for certain privileges and an ease of tasks, and for money during the post-emancipation period. Calypso was subsequently commercialized in Trinidad, where it was mainly for entertainment in shows called calypso tents during the Trinidad carnival celebrations. From Trinidad, calypso spread across the Caribbean, and became a part of Kittitian and Nevisian music with the introduction of formal calypso competitions in the 1950s. Prominent early calypsonians from this period included Mighty Kush, Lord Mike, Elmo Osborne, Lord Harmony, King Monow, by the 1980s, calypso had begun to peak in popularity on Saint Kitts and Nevis, while the two dominant performers were the rivals Starshield and Ellie Matt. Culture of St. Kitts and Nevis SKNVibes, St. Kitts - Nevis Carnival History. St. Kitts - Nevis Carnival Calypso Music, Caribbean Voyage, Nevis & St Kitts. Caribbean Islands Handbook with the Bahamas
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Music of Trinidad and Tobago
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The art form was most popularised at that time by Harry Belafonte. There are also local communities which practise and experiment with classical and pop music. MusicTT was established in 2014 to facilitate the development and export activity of the music industry in Trinidad. The Cedula of Population of 1783 laid the foundation and growth of the population of Trinidad, the islands Spanish possessors contributed little towards advancements, with El Dorado the focus, Trinidads geographical location made it the center of that focus. Following the Cedula, French planters from the French Antilles of Martinique, Grenada, Guadeloupe and this exodus was encouraged due to the French Revolution. The Spanish also gave incentives to lure settlers to the island, including exemption from taxes for 10 years. These new immigrants established local communities of Blanchisseuse, Champs Fleurs, Paramin, Cascade, Carenage, Trinidads population jumped from less than 1,400 in 1777, to over 15,000 by the end of 1789. In 1797, Trinidad became a British crown colony, with a French-speaking population, Carnival had arrived with the French. Official and elite unease over carnival revelry grew during the few decades. This injunction came after a disturbance during the 1881 Carnival. These canboulay processions were popular, and often incorporated kalenda, to make sure that the point got across, stick-fighting itself was banned in 1884. An ingenious substitute for the drums and sticks, called tamboo bamboo, was introduced in the 1890s, tamboo-bamboo bands consist of three different instruments, boom, foulé, and cutter. The boom serves as the instrument, is usually about five feet long. The foulé, an instrument, consists of two pieces of bamboo, each about a foot long, and is played by striking these pieces end to end. The cutter, the instrument in the ensemble, is made from a thinner piece of bamboo and is struck with a stick. These three types of instruments combined to beat out rhythms that accompanied the chantwells and were a staple of carnival celebrations for many years and they were gradually rendered obsolete by the steel band. The 1930s saw contests between tents become a part of Carnival, and in 1939, Growling Tiger was crowned the first calypso monarch of Trinidad. Carnival festivities split into two kinds of venues during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, occupying both the street and more performance-oriented calypso tents, both of these spaces, however, were the preserve of the lower class and of Afro-Creoles
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Music of the Virgin Islands
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Though the United States Virgin Islands and British Virgin Islands are politically separate, they maintain close cultural ties. From its neighbors, the Virgin Islands has imported various pan-Caribbean genres of music, including calypso from Trinidad, the major indigenous form of music is the scratch band, which use improvised instruments like gourds and washboards to make a kind of music called Quelbe. A Virgin Island folk song called cariso is also popular, as well as St. Thomas bamboula, the quadrille is the traditional folk dance of the islands, and include varieties like St. Croixs Imperial Quadrille and St. Thomas Flat German Quadrille. The Heritage Dancers are a dance troupe that perform traditional folk dances from the Virgin Islands. Virgin Islander culture is syncretic, based primarily on African, European, though the Danish controlled the present-day U. S. The Dutch, the French and the Danish also contributed elements to the culture, as have immigrants from the Arab world, India. The single largest influence on modern Virgin Islander culture, however and these African slaves brought with them traditions from across a wide swathe of Africa, including what is now Nigeria, Senegal, both Congos, Gambia and Ghana. Virgin Islander folk music has declined since the century, though some traditions, such as scratch bands. These changes local traditions and younger generations from becoming involved in music, because popular styles came to be viewed as having more prestige, class. String instruments were common, including the banjo, ukulele or a six-string guitar. The ass pipe, made out of a car exhaust tube, often provided the bass, since about the 1980s, the instrumentation for scratch bands became more rigid. The alto saxophone became the most common instrument, replaced sometimes by a silver flute. Conga drums, squash, electric guitar or bass guitar, banjo or ukulele, keyboard and additional saxophones or other melodic instruments are more rarely found in modern bands. The music of bands are a type of folk music that dates back to the days of slavery. The slaves on the islands used found objects to fashion instruments, lyrics traditionally function as oral history, spreading news and gossip. Modern scratch bands play a range of dances, including calypsos, boleros, quadrilles, international pop songs, merengues, mazurkas, waltzes, jigs. They perform at church services, private parties, public festivals, local dances and fairs, christenings and weddings, and also perform for tourists. The scratch band tradition remains most vibrant on St. Croix, where the bands Bully & the Kafooners, Stanley & the Ten Sleepless Knights, and Blinky & the Roadmasters are well known
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Culture of Europe
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The culture of Europe is rooted in the art, architecture, music, literature, and philosophy that originated from the European cultural region. European culture is rooted in what is often referred to as its common cultural heritage. Because of the number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single. Nonetheless, there are elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe. One list of elements given by K. Berting says that these points fit with Europes most positive realisations. The concept of European culture is linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. If Asia were converted to Christianity tomorrow, it would not thereby become a part of Europe and it is in Christianity that our arts have developed, it is in Christianity that the laws of Europe have--until recently--been rooted. It is against a background of Christianity that all our thought has significance, only a Christian culture could have produced a Voltaire or a Nietzsche. I do not believe that the culture of Europe could survive the complete disappearance of the Christian Faith, the oldest known cave paintings are at the El Castillo cave, older than 40,800 years. The history of Western painting represents a continuous, though disrupted, until the mid 19th century it was primarily concerned with representational and Classical modes of production, after which time more modern, abstract and conceptual forms gained favor. Developments in Western painting historically parallel those in Eastern painting, in general a few centuries later, the earliest European sculpture to date portrays a female form, and has been estimated at dating from 35,000 years ago. See Classical sculpture, Ancient Greek sculpture, Gothic art, Renaissance, Mannerist, Baroque, Neoclassicism, Modernism, Postminimalism, found art, Postmodern art, Classical music, Important classical composers from Europe include Hildegard von Bingen, J. S. Luciano Pavarotti was a popular opera singer. Folk music, Europe has a wide and diverse range of music, sharing common features in rural. Folk music is embedded in an unwritten, aural tradition, but was transcribed from the nineteenth century onwards. Many classical composers used folk melodies, and folk has influenced popular music in Europe. See the list of European folk musics, popular music, Europe has also imported many different genres of music, mainly from the United States, ranging from Blues, Jazz, Soul, Pop, Rap, Hip-Hop, RnB and Dance
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Music
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Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers
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Tambora (Dominican drum)
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The Dominican tambora is a two headed drum played in merengue music. In many countries, especially the Dominican Republic, tamboras were made from salvaged rum barrels, performers on the tambora are referred to as tamboreros. There are three types of tambora for the style of music. The oldest kind is the rope-tuned tambora with black-colored heads and this is seen more in folkloric music of the Dominican republic and Afro-Caribbean slaves. The second type is a rope tuned tambora played with goatskin, or chivo heads, the third type, as made by modern companies, is bolt-tuned with rawhide conga heads. This kind usually has metal or wooden rims to hit as a filler for rhythms, sounding, if one strikes it correctly and this type can also be tuned to higher pitches and can sound like a conga. In merengue tipico, known also as perico ripiao, the tambora has a large role, playing many different types of rhythms. However, in orchestra merengue, the usually only plays the merengue derecho rhythm as a background instrument, while congas are the main rhythm instrument. In orchestra merengue, a performer for timbales can be seen very frequently, while in perico ripiao. Timbales are said to have been introduced into the genre by Dominican percussionist Ray Chino Diaz, there are three basic strokes, slap, rim/woodblock, and open tone, these three are all used in standard merengue rhythms, such as merengue derecho and pambiche
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Accordion
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Accordions are a family of box-shaped musical instruments of the bellows-driven free-reed aerophone type, colloquially referred to as a squeezebox. A person who plays the accordion is called an accordionist, the concertina and bandoneón are related, the harmonium and American reed organ are in the same family. The instrument is played by compressing or expanding the bellows while pressing buttons or keys, causing pallets to open and these vibrate to produce sound inside the body. Valves on opposing reeds of each note are used to make the instruments reeds sound louder without air leaking from each reed block. The performer normally plays the melody on buttons or keys on the manual. The accordion is widely spread across the world, nevertheless, in Europe and North America, some popular music acts also make use of the instrument. Additionally, the accordion is used in cajun, zydeco, jazz music. The piano accordion is the official city instrument of San Francisco, the oldest name for this group of instruments is harmonika, from the Greek harmonikos, meaning harmonic, musical. Today, native versions of the accordion are more common. These names refer to the type of accordion patented by Cyrill Demian, accordions have many configurations and types. Similar to a bow, the production of sound in an accordion is in direct proportion to the motion of the player. The bellows is located between the right- and left-hand manuals, and is made from pleated layers of cloth and cardboard, with added leather and metal. It is used to pressure and vacuum, driving air across the internal reeds and producing sound by their vibration. These boxes house reed chambers for the right- and left-hand manuals, each side has grilles in order to facilitate the transmission of air in and out of the instrument, and to allow the sound to better project. The grille for the manual is usually larger and is often shaped for decorative purposes. The right-hand manual is used for playing the melody and the left-hand manual for playing the accompaniment. The manual mechanism of the instrument either enables the air flow, or disables it, the different types have varying components. All instruments have reed ranks of some format, the most typical accordion is the piano accordion, which is used for many musical genres
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Salsa music
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Salsa music is a popular dance music that initially arose in New York City during the 1960s. Salsa is the product of various genres including the Cuban son montuno, guaracha, cha cha chá, mambo, and to a certain extent bolero. Latin jazz, which was developed in New York City, has had a significant influence on salsa arrangers, piano guajeos. Salsa is primarily Cuban son, itself a fusion of Spanish canción and guitar and Afro-Cuban percussion, Salsa also occasionally incorporates elements of rock, R&B, and funk. All of these elements are grafted onto the basic Cuban son montuno template when performed within the context of salsa. The first salsa bands were predominantly Cubans and Puerto Ricans who moved to New York since 1930’s, the music eventually spread throughout Colombia and the rest of the Americas. Ultimately, it became a global phenomenon, some of the founding salsa artists were Johnny Pacheco, Celia Cruz, Ray Barretto, Rubén Blades, Willie Colón, Larry Harlow, Roberto Roena, Bobby Valentín, Eddie Palmieri, and Héctor Lavoe. Salsa means sauce in the Spanish language, and carries connotations of the common in Latin. In the 20th century, salsa acquired a meaning in both English and Spanish. In this sense salsa has been described as a word with vivid associations, Cuban immigrants and Puerto Rican in New York have used the term analogously to swing or soul music. In this usage salsa connotes a frenzied, hot and wild musical experience that draws upon or reflects elements of Latin culture, various music writers and historians have traced the use of salsa to different periods of the 20th century. Max Salazar traces the word back to the early 1930s, when Ignacio Piñeiro composed Échale salsita, World music author Sue Steward claims salsa was originally used in music as a cry of appreciation for a particularly piquant or flashy solo. I was using salsa, but the music wasnt defined by that, the music was still defined as Latin music. And that was a very, very broad category, because it even includes mariachi music, so salsa defined this particular type of music. Its a name that everyone could pronounce, Sanabrias Latin New York magazine was an English language publication. Consequently, his promoted events were covered in The New York Times, as well as Time and they reported on this new phenomenon taking New York by storm—salsa. But promotion certainly wasnt the factor in the musics success, as Sanabria makes clear, Musicians were busy creating the music. Johnny Pacheco, the director and producer of Fania Records, molded New York salsa into a tight, polished
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Rock and roll
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While elements of rock and roll can be heard in blues records from the 1920s and in country records of the 1930s, the genre did not acquire its name until the 1950s. For the purpose of differentiation, this deals with the first definition. The beat is essentially a blues rhythm with an accentuated backbeat, classic rock and roll is usually played with one or two electric guitars, a double bass or string bass or an electric bass guitar, and a drum kit. Beyond simply a style, rock and roll, as seen in movies and on television, influenced lifestyles, fashion, attitudes. In addition, rock and roll may have contributed to the civil rights movement because both African-American and white American teens enjoyed the music and it went on to spawn various genres, often without the initially characteristic backbeat, that are now more commonly called simply rock music or rock. The term rock and roll now has at least two different meanings, both in common usage, the American Heritage Dictionary and the Merriam-Webster Dictionary both define rock and roll as synonymous with rock music. Encyclopædia Britannica, on the hand, regards it as the music that originated in the mid-1950s. In 1934, the song Rock and Roll by the Boswell Sisters appeared in the film Transatlantic Merry-Go-Round, in 1942, Billboard magazine columnist Maurie Orodenker started to use the term rock-and-roll to describe upbeat recordings such as Rock Me by Sister Rosetta Tharpe. By 1943, the Rock and Roll Inn in South Merchantville, in 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing this music style while popularizing the phrase to describe it. The origins of rock and roll have been debated by commentators. The migration of former slaves and their descendants to major urban centers such as St. The immediate roots of rock and roll lay in the rhythm and blues, then called race music, particularly significant influences were jazz, blues, gospel, country, and folk. The 1940s saw the use of blaring horns, shouted lyrics. In the same period, particularly on the West Coast and in the Midwest, similarly, country boogie and Chicago electric blues supplied many of the elements that would be seen as characteristic of rock and roll. Rock and roll arrived at a time of technological change, soon after the development of the electric guitar, amplifier and microphone. It was the realization that relatively affluent white teenagers were listening to music that led to the development of what was to be defined as rock. Because the development of rock and roll was a process, no single record can be identified as unambiguously the first rock. Other artists with rock and roll hits included Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis
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Refrain
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A refrain is the line or lines that are repeated in music or in verse, the chorus of a song. Poetic fixed forms that feature refrains include the villanelle, the virelay, the use of refrains is particularly associated with where the verse-chorus-verse song structure typically places a refrain in almost every song. The refrain or chorus often contrasts the verse melodically, rhythmically, and harmonically. Chorus form, or strophic form, is a sectional and/or additive way of structuring a piece of music based on the repetition of one section or block played repeatedly. In music, a refrain has two parts, the lyrics of the song, and the melody, a similar refrain is found in the Battle Hymn of the Republic, which affirms in successive verses that Our God, or His Truth, is marching on. Refrains usually, but not always, come at the end of the verse, some songs, especially ballads, incorporate refrains into each verse. Fa la la la la la la la la, as one grew bright as is the sun, Lay the bent to the bonny broom So coal black grew the other one. Here, the refrain is syntactically independent of the poem in the song, and has no obvious relationship to its subject. The device can also convey material which relates to the subject of the poem, such a refrain is found in Dante Gabriel Rossettis Troy Town, Heavenborn Helen, Spartas queen, O Troy Town. Had two breasts of heavenly sheen, The sun and moon of the desire, All Loves lordship lay between, A sheen on the breasts I Love. O Troys down, Tall Troys on fire, phrases of apparent nonsense in refrains, and solfege syllables such as fa la la, familiar from the Christmas carol Deck the Halls with Boughs of Holly, have given rise to much speculation. Some believe that the traditional refrain Hob a derry down O encountered in some English folksongs is in fact an ancient Celtic phrase meaning dance around the oak tree, there are two distinct uses of the word chorus. In the thirty-two bar song form that was most common in the earlier twentieth-century popular music, beginning in the rock music of the 1950s, another form became more common in commercial pop music, which was based in an open-ended cycle of verses instead of a fixed 32-bar form. In this form, choruses with fixed lyrics are alternated with verses in which the lyrics are different with each repetition, in this use of the word, chorus contrasts with the verse, which usually has a sense of leading up to the chorus. Many popular songs, particularly early in this century, are in a verse. Most popular songs from the middle of the century consist only of a chorus, according to the musicologists Ralf von Appen and Markus Frei-Hauenschild, In German, the term, Refrain, is used synonymously with chorus when referring to a chorus within the verse/chorus form. At least one English-language author, Richard Middleton, uses the term in the same way, in this usage, the refrain does not constitute a discrete, independent section within the form. A large number of Tin-Pan Alley songs using thirty-two bar form are central to the jazz repertoire
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Call and response (music)
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In music, a call and response is a succession of two distinct phrases usually played by different musicians, where the second phrase is heard as a direct commentary on or response to the first. It corresponds to the pattern in human communication and is found as a basic element of musical form, such as verse-chorus form. Call and response patterns between two musicians are common in Indian Classical Music, particularly in the style of Jugalbandi, Call and response is likewise widely present in parts of the Americas touched by the trans-Atlantic slave trade. It is extensively used in Cuban music, both in the rumba and in the African religious ceremonies. In 1644, lining out – where one person sang a solo and it has influenced popular music singing styles. Scottish Gaelic psalm-singing by precenting the line was the earliest form of congregational singing adopted by Africans in America and it is common in folk traditions of choral singing of many people, especially in African musical cultures. In Cuban music and other Latin music genres such as salsa, call, the form is found in the military cadence or Jody which is used as an a cappella work song or to keep time when marching or running in formation. In Western classical music, call and response is known as antiphony, the phenomenon of call and response is pervasive in modern Western popular music, as well, largely because Western music has been so heavily shaped by African contributions. Cross-over rhythm and blues, rock n roll and rock music exhibit call-and-response characteristics, three examples are The Whos song My Generation, Black Dog by Led Zeppelin, and The Pogues Fairytale of New York. In Indian Film music, Ilaiyaraajas songs largely exhibit call-and-response pattern, but, each A and B part may itself consist of a short call and a short response, and those 2-bar calls and response may also be divided into 1-bar-each call-response pairs. To make an attempt at diagramming it, Twelve bars, A, 4-bar CALL A, 4-bar CALL B, a single leader makes a musical statement, and then the chorus responds together. American bluesman Muddy Waters utilizes call and response in one of his songs, Mannish Boy which is almost entirely leader/chorus call. CALL, Waters vocal, Now when I was a young boy RESPONSE, CALL, Waters, At the age of 5 RESPONSE, CALL, Drop the coin right into the slot. RESPONSE, CALL, You gotta get something thats really hot, RESPONSE, A contemporary example is from Carly Rae Jepsens Call Me Maybe. CALL, Hey I just met you RESPONSE, CALL, And this is crazy RESPONSE, while mostly in the chorus, it can also be heard in the breakdown between the vocals and distorted guitar. Part of the band poses a question, or a phrase that feels unfinished. In the blues, the B section often has a question-and-answer pattern, an example of this is the Christmas song Must Be Santa, CALL, Who laughs this way, ho ho ho. RESPONSE, Santa laughs this way, ho ho ho, a similar question-and-answer exchange occurs in the movie Casablanca between Sam and the band in the song Knock On Wood, CALL, Whos got trouble
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Irony
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Irony, in its broadest sense, is a rhetorical device, literary technique, or event in which what appears, on the surface, to be the case, differs radically from what is actually the case. Irony may be divided into such as verbal, dramatic. Verbal, dramatic, and situational irony are often used for emphasis in the assertion of a truth, other forms, as identified by historian Connop Thirlwall, include dialectic and practical irony. Also, Eric Partridge, in Usage and Abusage, writes that Irony consists in stating the contrary of what is meant, the use of irony may require the concept of a double audience. The term is used as a synonym for incongruous and applied to every trivial oddity in situations where there is no double audience. The American Heritage Dictionarys secondary meaning for irony, incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs and this sense, however, is not synonymous with incongruous but merely a definition of dramatic or situational irony. It is often included in definitions of irony not only that incongruity is present, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, The term irony has its roots in the Greek comic character Eiron, a clever underdog who by his wit repeatedly triumphs over the boastful character Alazon. The Socratic irony of the Platonic dialogues derives from this comic origin. e, the word came into English as a figure of speech in the 16th century as similar to the French ironie. It derives from the Latin ironia and ultimately from the Greek εἰρωνεία eirōneía, meaning dissimulation, Romantic irony, A self-aware and self-critical form of fiction. Cosmic irony, A contrast between the absolute and the relative, the general and the individual, which Hegel expressed by the phrase, when the audience knows that the character will die before morning. It is most often used when the author causes a character to speak or act erroneously, in tragic irony, the audience knows the character is making a mistake, even as the character is making it. Verbal irony is distinguished from situational irony and dramatic irony in that it is produced intentionally by speakers, for instance, if a man exclaims, Im not upset. But reveals an upset emotional state through his voice while truly trying to claim hes not upset, but if the same speaker said the same words and intended to communicate that he was upset by claiming he was not, the utterance would be verbal irony. This distinction illustrates an important aspect of verbal irony—speakers communicate implied propositions that are contradictory to the propositions contained in the words themselves. Were left in no doubt as to whos ambitious and whos honourable, the literal truth of whats written clashes with the perceived truth of whats meant to revealing effect, which is irony in a nutshell. Ironic similes are a form of verbal irony where a speaker intends to communicate the opposite of what they mean, a fair amount of confusion has surrounded the issue of the relationship between verbal irony and sarcasm. Fowlers A Dictionary of Modern English Usage states, Sarcasm does not necessarily involve irony and irony has often no touch of sarcasm and this suggests that the two concepts are linked but may be considered separately. 2 a, a mode of satirical wit depending for its effect on bitter, caustic, the psychologist Martin, in The Psychology of Humour, is quite clear that irony is where the literal meaning is opposite to the intended and sarcasm is aggressive humor that pokes fun
