1.
Energia
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Energia was a Soviet rocket that was designed by NPO Energia to serve as a heavy-lift expendable launch system as well as a booster for the Buran spacecraft. Control system main developer enterprise was the NPO Electropribor, the Energia used four strap-on boosters each powered by a four-chamber RD-170 engine burning kerosene/LOX, and a central core stage with 4 one-chamber RD-0120 engines fueled by liquid hydrogen/LOX. The rocket had the capacity to place about 100 tonnes in Low Earth orbit, up to 20 tonnes to geostationary orbit, work on the Energia/Buran system began in 1976 after the decision was made to cancel the unsuccessful N1. The cancelled N1 rocket-based Manned Lunar Launch Facilities and Infrastructure were used for Energia, Energia also replaced the Vulkan concept, which was a design based on the Proton and using the same hypergolic propellants, but much larger and more powerful. The Vulkan designation was given to a variation of the Energia which has eight boosters. This configuration required the addition of a stage to perform the final orbital insertion. Due to the termination of the Buran programme the Energia program was concluded after only two launches, and further the payload on the first launch didnt perform the final boost properly, the Energia was first test-launched on 15 May 1987, with the Polyus spacecraft as the payload. The intended orbit was altitude 280 km, inclination 64. 6°, the two stages of the Energia launcher functioned as designed, but due to a software error in its attitude control system, Polyus orbital insertion motor failed to inject the payload into orbit. Instead, the Polyus reentered the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean, the second flight, and the first one where payload successfully reached orbit, was launched on 15 November 1988. This mission launched the unmanned Soviet Shuttle vehicle, Buran, at apogee, the Buran spacecraft made a 66.7 m/s burn to reach a final orbit of 251 km x 263 km. Production of Energia rockets ended with the fall of the Soviet Union, ever since, there have been persistent rumors of the renewal of production, but given the current political realities, that is highly unlikely. While the Energia is no longer in production, the Zenit boosters are still in production, the four strap-on liquid-fuel boosters, which burned kerosene and liquid oxygen, were the basis of the Zenit rocket which used the same engines. The engine is the four combustion chamber RD-170 and its derivative, the RD-171, is still used on the Zenit rocket. In August 2016, plans were announced to develop a super heavy-lift launch vehicle from existing Energia components instead of pushing the less-powerful Angara A5V project, three major variants were conceptualized after the original configuration, each with vastly different payloads. The Energia M was the smallest design configuration, the number of Zenit boosters was reduced from four to two, and instead of four RD-0120 engines in the core, it had only one. It was designed to replace the Proton rocket, but lost the 1993 competition to the Angara rocket, Energia II, named Uragan, was a rocket proposed to be fully reusable with the design feature to land on a conventional airfield. S. The Energia II core as proposed would be capable of re-entering and gliding to a landing, the final unflown configuration was also the largest. With eight Zenit booster rockets and an Energia-M core as the upper stage, the development of rocket-carrier Vulcan and the refurbishment of the Energia launch pad for its launches was in progress in 1990-1993
2.
MAKS Air Show
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MAKS is an international airshow held at Zhukovsky International Airport, the home of the Gromov Flight Research Institute in Zhukovsky,40 km southeast of Moscow, Russia. The event was organized by the Russian Ministry of Industry and Trade until 2009, more recently by the Government of Moscow, the first show, Mosaeroshow-92, was held in 1992. Since 1993, the airshow was renamed as MAKS and is held biennially on odd years, MAKS is an important event for the Russian aviation industry and the Commonwealth of Independent States. The airshows history traces back to 1911, when one was held in Mikhailovskiy square in Saint-Petersburg, the USSR held annual airshows on the Tushino airfield in Moscow 22 years later. Its history in Zhukovskiy, however, began later with the Engineering Show by Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute in 1990. The objective of the MAKS airshow is to demonstrate leading technologies, a large portion of the show is dedicated to holding scientific conferences and symposia, under the auspices of Russias Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute. The airshow is held in the city of Zhukovsky, at Zhukovsky International Airport, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, many aviation companies eventually moved to Zhukovsky, using the Gromov Flight Research Institutes airfield for MosAeroShow-92 held on 11–16 August 1992. A second show was held in 1993, now renamed MAKS, since then the airshow has been held biannually. It lasts for six days, three of which are open to the general public, after this incident a Mi-8 was called to take the place of the destroyed Yak-38. The pilot from a Su-15 ejected during an experimental low-altitude ejection of a due to the inability to regain control. The prototype amphibious aircraft Be-103 crashed on the day before the opening of MAKS-1997, the pilot, Vladimir Nikolaevich Ulyanov, was killed. The death of Tkachenko was paid tribute to by a minute of silence at the opening of the airshow, the wing from an An-70 getting ready for takeoff scratched the ladder of a stationary aircraft. No one was hurt in this accident, nor were the aircraft, antonov denied the occurrence of this collision, and the An-70 flew to Kiev on August 20. An L-39 from the Baltic bees left the runway while landing, a PAK FA suffered a compressor stall while accelerating, after which a drogue chute was deployed and the aircraft stopped on the runway. A main criticism of the airshow is the influx of visitors. The high cost of electricity and the lack of air conditioning in the exhibition halls are also subject to criticism. Some critics accused the organizers for still showing outdated Soviet-era aircraft, critics believe that the MAKS is still inferior to other leading airshows of the world, and do not agree with other parts of Russian and western press. The Danish daily newspaper Børsen comments that the MAKS is not worse than the Le Bourget, the airshow administration argues that the airshows are conducted in a highly organized fashion, and is the hallmark of Russia.1 to 1.8 times lower than that at Farnborough
3.
Cargo aircraft
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A cargo aircraft is a fixed-wing aircraft that is designed or converted for the carriage of cargo rather than passengers. Such aircraft usually do not incorporate passenger amenities and generally one or more large doors for loading cargo. Freighters may be operated by passenger or cargo airlines, by private individuals or by the armed forces of individual countries. Cargo aircraft represent a small proportion of the air freight market. The majority is carried in special ULD containers in the holds of normal passenger aircraft. Aircraft were put to use carrying cargo in the form of air mail as early as 1911, although the earliest aircraft were not designed primarily as cargo carriers, by the mid-1920s aircraft manufacturers were designing and building dedicated cargo aircraft. The Vickers Vernon, a development of the Vickers Vimy Commercial, in February 1923 this was put to use by the RAFs Iraq Command who flew nearly 500 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first ever strategic airlift of troops. The Victorians also helped to pioneer air routes for Imperial Airways Handley Page HP.42 airliners, the World War II German design, the Arado Ar 232 was the first purpose built cargo aircraft. The Ar 232 was intended to supplant the earlier Junkers Ju 52 freighter conversions, most other forces used freighter versions of airliners in the cargo role as well, most notably the C-47 Skytrain version of the Douglas DC-3, which served with practically every Allied nation. This aircraft, like most of its era, used tail-dragger landing gear caused the aircraft to have a decided rearward tilt when landed. A similar rear loading ramp even appeared in a different form on the nosewheel gear-equipped. Postwar Europe also served to play a role in the development of the modern air cargo. To rapidly supply the numbers of aircraft, many older types. In operation it was found that it took as long or longer to unload these older designs as the much larger tricycle landing gear Douglas C-54 Skymaster which was easier to move about in when landed. The C-47s were quickly removed from service, and from then on flat-decks were a requirement of all new cargo designs, in the years following the war era a number of new custom-built cargo aircraft were introduced, often including some experimental features. For instance, the USs C-82 Packet featured a cargo area. Although larger, smaller and faster designs have been proposed for many years and these designs offer the ability to carry the heaviest loads, even main battle tanks, at global ranges. The Boeing 747 was originally designed to the specification as the C-5
4.
Myasishchev
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V. M. Myasishchev Experimental Design Bureau or OKB-23, founded in 1951 by Vladimir Myasishchev) was one of the chief Soviet aerospace design bureaus until its dissolution in 1960. Vladimir Myasishchev went on to head TsAGI, in 1967, Myasishchev left TsAGI and recreated his bureau, which still exists to this day. As of 2003, its workforce is estimated at one thousand. Myasishchev and NPO Molniya intend to use the V-MT or M-55 as launch vehicle for sub-orbital spaceflight,3.7.2014 and 25.7.2014 information from Board of Directors OAO Il about integration between Ilyushin and Myasishchev. Myasishchev M-90 Air Ferry - very heavy multi-purpose transport project, not built, m-101 Gzhel/Duet and Duet business aircraft M-112 and M-150 cargo-passenger aircraft M-500 agricultural aircraft Space Adventures C-21 Space Adventures M-55X M-4 Bison a strategic bomber. Buran program, cockpit Cosmopolis XXI suborbital craft VKA-23 spaceplane project RSS-40 Buran, nuclear cruise missile project Official site, in English and Russian
5.
Vladimir Mikhailovich Myasishchev
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Vladimir Mikhailovich Myasishchev was a Soviet aircraft designer, Major General of Engineering, Hero of Socialist Labor, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Honored Science Worker of the RSFSR. As an assistant to Boris Pavlovich Lisunov, he traveled to the United States in 1937 to help translate the Douglas DC-3 drawings in preparation for the production of the Lisunov Li-2, in 1938, Myasishchev became a victim of a repression campaign. While in confinement, he worked at NKVDs Central Design Bureau No.29 in Moscow under the guidance of Vladimir Petlyakov, in 1940, after his release, Myasishchev headed a design bureau, working on the long-range high-altitude bomber DVB-102. In 1946–1951, Myasishchev was the head of the faculty and later dean of the Department of Aircraft Design at Moscow Aviation Institute, in 1956, he became chief aircraft designer. In 1960–1967, Myasishchev was appointed Head of the Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute, in 1967–1978, Myasishchev held a post of the chief aircraft designer of the Experimental Machine Building Factory, which would bear his name starting 1981. Myasishchev designed different kinds of aircraft, including Pe-2B, Pe-2I, Pe-2M, DIS, DB-108, M-4, 3M. He also worked on a cargo aircraft VM-T Atlant and high-altitude airplane M-17 Stratosfera, myasishchevs aeroplanes, the 3M and M-4, set nineteen world records, and the M-17 Stratosfera twenty. Myasishchev was awarded Hero of Socialist Labor gold star, three Orders of Lenin, the Order of Suvorov II degree, the Order of the October Revolution, Myasishchev Design Bureau Encyclopædia Astronautix entry Тайны забытых побед. Ostashev, Sergey Pavlovich Korolyov - The Genius of the 20th Century —2010 M. of Public Educational Institution of Higher Professional Training MGUL ISBN 978-5-8135-0510-2
6.
Soviet Air Forces
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The Soviet Air Forces was the official designation of one of the air forces of the Soviet Union. The other was the Soviet Air Defence Forces, the Air Forces were formed from components of the Imperial Russian Air Service in 1917, and faced their greatest test during World War II. The groups were involved in the Korean War, and dissolved along with the Soviet Union itself in 1991–92. Former Soviet Air Forces assets were divided into several air forces of former Soviet republics. March of the Pilots was its anthem, the All-Russia Collegium for Direction of the Air Forces of the Old Army was formed on 20 December 1917. This was a Bolshevik aerial headquarters initially led by Konstantin Akashev and it became the Directorate of the USSR Air Forces on 28 March 1924, and then the Directorate of the Workers-Peasants Red Army Air Forces on 1 January 1925. Gradually its influence on aircraft design became greater, from its earliest days, the force mimicked ground forces organization especially in the 1930s, by which time it was made up of air armies, aviation corps, aviation divisions, and aviation regiments. At first, the I-16 proved superior to any Luftwaffe fighters, however, the Soviets refused to supply the plane in adequate numbers, and their aerial victories were soon squandered because of their limited use. Later, Bf-109s delivered to Francos Spanish Nationalist air forces secured air superiority for the Nationalists, on 19 November 1939, VVS headquarters was again titled the Main Directorate of the Red Army Air Forces under the WPRA HQ. Between 1933 and 1938, the Soviet government planned and funded missions to break numerous world aviation records, not only did aviation records and achievements become demonstrations of the USSRs technological progress, they also served as legitimization of the socialist system. With each new success, Soviet press trumpeted victories for socialism, furthermore, Soviet media idolized record-breaking pilots, exalting them not only as role models for Soviet society, but also as symbols of progress towards the socialist-utopian future. The early 1930s saw a shift in focus away from collectivist propaganda. In the case of aviation, the government began glorifying people who utilized aviation technology instead of glorifying the technology itself. Pilots such as Valery Chkalov, Georgy Baydukov, Alexander Belyakov, in May 1937, Stalin charged pilots Chkalov, Baydukov, and Belyakov with the mission to navigate the first transpolar flight in history. On 20 June 1937, the aviators landed their ANT-25 in Vancouver, a month later, Stalin ordered the departure of a second crew to push the boundaries of modern aviation technology even further. The public reaction to the flights was euphoric. The media called the pilots Bolshevik knights of culture and progress, Soviet citizens celebrated Aviation Day on 18 August with as much zeal as they celebrated the October Revolution anniversary. Literature including poems, short stories, and novels emerged celebrating the feats of the aviator-celebrities, feature films like Victory, Tales of Heroic Aviators, and Valery Chkalov reinforced the positive hero imagery, celebrating the aviators individuality within the context of a socialist government
7.
Roscosmos
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The Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities, commonly known as Roscosmos, is the governmental body responsible for the space science program of Russia and general aerospace research. The Corporation was established on the basis of the now-defunct Federal Space Agency on December 28,2015, Roscosmos was previously known as the Russian Aviation and Space Agency. The headquarters of Roscosmos are located in Moscow, while the main Mission Control space center is located in the city of Korolev. The Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center is in Star City, the Launch facilities used are Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, and Vostochny Cosmodrome being built in the Russian Far East in Amur Oblast. The current Director since January 2015 is Igor Komarov, in 2015 the Russian government merged Roscosmos with the United Rocket and Space Corporation, the re-nationalized Russian space industry, to create the Roscosmos State Corporation. The Soviet space program did not have central executive agencies, instead, its organizational architecture was multi-centered, it was the design bureaus and the council of designers that had the most say, not the political leadership. The creation of a central agency after the separation of Russia from the Soviet Union was therefore a new development, Russian Space Agency was formed on February 25,1992, by a decree of President Yeltsin. Yuri Koptev, who had worked with designing Mars landers at NPO Lavochkin. In the early years, the agency suffered from lack of authority as the design bureaus fought to protect their own spheres of operation. For example, the decision to keep Mir in operation beyond 1999 was not taken by the agency, instead, another example is that the decision to develop the new Angara rocket was rather a function of Khrunichevs ability to attract resources than a conscious long-term decision by the agency. The 1990s saw serious financial problems because of decreased cash flow and this resulted in Roscosmos leading role in commercial satellite launches and space tourism. In March 2004, director Yuri Koptev was replaced by Anatoly Perminov, the Russian economy boomed throughout 2005 from high prices for exports, such as oil and gas, the outlook for future funding in 2006 appeared more favorable. The budget for 2006 was as high as 25 billion rubles, under the current 10-year budget approved, the budget of the Space Agency shall increase 5–10% per year, providing the space agency with a constant influx of money. In addition to the budget, Roscosmos plans to have over 130 billion rubles flowing into its budget by other means, such as industry investments and it is around the time US-based The Planetary Society entered a partnership with Roscosmos. In 2011, the government spent 115 billion rubles in the space programs. The proposed project core budget for 2013 to be around 128.3 billion rubles, the budget for the whole space program is,169.8 billion rubles. By 2015, the amount of the budget can be increased to 199.2 billion rubles, priorities of the Russian space program include the new Angara rocket family and development of new communications, navigation and remote Earth sensing spacecraft. The GLONASS global navigation system has for many years been one of the top priorities and has been given its own budget line in the federal space budget
8.
Soviet space program
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The Soviet space program comprised the rocketry and space exploration programs conducted by the former Soviet Union from the 1930s until its dissolution in 1991. Sergey Korolev was the head of the design group, his official title was chief designer. Because of the programs classified status, and for value, announcements of the outcomes of missions were delayed until success was certain. Ultimately, as a result of Mikhail Gorbachevs policy of glasnost in the 1980s, with the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia and Ukraine inherited the program. Russia created the Russian Aviation and Space Agency, now known as the Roscosmos State Corporation, on August 18,1933, GIRD launched the first Soviet liquid-fueled rocket Gird-09, and on November 25,1933, the first hybrid-fueled rocket GIRD-X. In 1940-41 another advance in the reactive propulsion field took place, during the 1930s Soviet rocket technology was comparable to Germanys, but Joseph Stalins Great Purge severely damaged its progress. Many leading engineers were killed, and Korolev and others were imprisoned in the Gulag, under the direction of Dimitri Ustinov, Korolev and others inspected the drawings. Korolevs OKB-1 design bureau was dedicated to the liquid-fueled cryogenic rockets he had been experimenting with in the late 1930s, ultimately, this work resulted in the design of the R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missile which was successfully tested in August 1957. The Soviet space program was tied to the USSRs Five-Year Plans, nonetheless, the first Soviet rocket with animals aboard launched in July 1951, the two dogs were recovered alive after reaching 101 km in altitude. Two months ahead of Americas first such achievement, this and subsequent flights gave the Soviets valuable experience with space medicine, Plans were approved for Earth-orbiting satellites to gain knowledge of space, and four unmanned military reconnaissance satellites, Zenit. Further planned developments called for a manned Earth orbit flight by 1964, with closed-loop life support systems and electrical rocket engines, and launched from large orbiting space stations, these plans were much more ambitious than Americas goal of landing on the moon. The Soviet space program was secondary in military funding to the Strategic Rocket Forces ICBMs, missions were planned based on rocket availability or ad hoc reasons, rather than scientific purposes. Korolev planned to move forward with the Soyuz craft and N-1 heavy booster that would be the basis of a permanent manned space station and manned exploration of the Moon. Yangel had been Korolevs assistant but with the support of the military he was given his own bureau in 1954 to work primarily on the military space program. This had the rocket engine design team including the use of hypergolic fuels. He also continued to develop his own heavy booster designs similar to Korolevs N-1 both for applications and for cargo flights into space to build future space stations. Glushko was the rocket engine designer but he had a personal friction with Korolev. Chelomei benefited from the patronage of Khrushchev and in 1960 was given the job of developing a rocket to send a manned craft around the moon
9.
Myasishchev M-4
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The Myasishchev design bureau was formed to build such a bomber. First flying soon after the first flight of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress, the aircraft was a surprise to the United States, which had not known that the Soviets had built a jet bomber. However, it became clear that the bomber had an insufficient range to attack the United States. Only a few of the original production M-4s were actually put into service, to remedy this problem, the Myasishchev design bureau introduced the 3M, known to the West as the Bison-B, which was considerably more powerful than the previous version. This new model first flew in 1955, among other things, two of the five original gun barbettes were removed to lighten the aircraft. In July 1955 American observers saw 28 Bisons in two groups during a Soviet air show, the United States government believed that the bomber was in mass production, and the Central Intelligence Agency estimated that 800 would be available by 1960. The display was a hoax, the first group of ten repeated the flyby with eight more, the classified estimates led, however, to American politicians warning of a bomber gap. This time, it was not the Soviet Air Force that wanted the 3M, though it could still not bomb Washington, D. C. the 3M had a sufficient range to fulfill the need for a long-range maritime patrol aircraft. In 1959, the 3M broke numerous world records, however, it was thought by the West that the 3M was the original M-4, meaning that the capability of the M-4 was vastly overestimated by Western intelligence agencies. In the early 1960s, the Bison-C, with a search radar, was introduced. By this time, many of the original M-4s had been converted to M-4-2 fuel tankers for aerial refueling, later, 3Ms were converted to 3MS-2 and 3MN-2 tankers as well. Neither the M-4 nor the 3M ever saw combat, and none were converted for low-altitude attack, as many American B-52s were. Production of the Bison aircraft stopped in 1963, by which time 93 of them had been built, the last aircraft, an M-4-2 fuel tanker, was withdrawn from service in 1994. The three VM-T heavy lift aircraft were converted from 3MN-2 tankers, with large loads carried piggy-back above the fuselage. The single vertical fin/rudder was replaced with two large rectangular fin/rudders at the tips of the horizontal stabilizers to improve due to the turbulence caused by the cargo pod. With the withdrawal of the Myasishchev bombers and tankers the vast majority of the airframes were broken up under the terms of the relevant arms limitation treaty. SDB – The government designation for the M-4 programme, subject 25 – The VVS designation for the strategic bomber program. Myasishchev M-4 – The designation used for production aircraft,35 built including two prototypes and a static test article
10.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
11.
Strategic airlift
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An airlift is the organized delivery of military supplies or military personnel primarily via military transport aircraft. Airlifting consists of two types, strategic and tactical airlifting. Typically, strategic airlifting involves moving material long distances, whereas a tactical airlift focuses on deploying resources, depending on the situation, airlifted supplies can be delivered by a variety of means. When the destination and surrounding airspace is considered secure, the aircraft land at an appropriate airport or airbase to have its cargo unloaded on the ground. However, when the area is too small for this method, as with a base, and/or is too dangerous to land in. Serbian Air Force, made first transport of wounded soldiers from Serbia through Albania to Corfu and that was the first Medevac operation in air history. April 1923 aircraft of the RAFs Iraq Command flew 280 Sikh troops from Kingarban to Kirkuk in the first British air trooping operation, the worlds first long-range combat airlift took place in July 1936. Luftwaffe Ju 52 and Italian Air Force Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 were used by the Spanish Nationalists to transport troops from Spanish Morocco to Spain at the beginning of the Spanish Civil War. Airlifts became practical during World War II as aircraft became large and this joint effort is estimated to have saved more than a million lives in Biafra. Most airplanes departed from the Portuguese colony of Sao Tome and Principe to the landing strip of Uli, the only operational airport in Biafra. Flights were made flying at night all lights off and under near-total radio silence to avoid Nigerian MIG aircraft. All the airplanes, crews and logistics were paid, set up, JCA and their crews and aircraft kept flying into Biafra at the cost of many crews lives. Strategic airlift is the use of transport aircraft to transport materiel, weaponry. Typically, this involves airlifting the required items between two airbases which are not in the same vicinity and this allows commanders to bring items into a combat theater from a point on the other side of the planet, if necessary. Aircraft which perform this role are considered strategic airlifters and this contrasts with tactical airlifters, such as the C-130 Hercules and Transall C-160, which can normally only move supplies within a given theater of operations. This difficulty has prompted investment in lighter armoured fighting vehicles, as well as some research into alternative airlift technologies such as ground effect vehicles. Civilian aircraft are commonly used for transportation. For some civilian airlines, such as Miami Air International and Volga-Dnepr Airlines, tactical airlift is a military term for the airborne transportation of supplies and equipment within a theatre of operations
12.
Airplane
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An airplane or aeroplane is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward by thrust from a jet engine or propeller. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing configurations, the broad spectrum of uses for airplanes includes recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research. Commercial aviation is a massive industry involving the flying of tens of thousands of daily on airliners. Most airplanes are flown by a pilot on board the aircraft, the Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903, recognized as the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight. They built on the works of George Cayley dating from 1799, between 1867 and 1896, the German pioneer of human aviation Otto Lilienthal also studied heavier-than-air flight. Following its limited use in World War I, aircraft continued to develop. Airplanes had a presence in all the battles of World War II. The first jet aircraft was the German Heinkel He 178 in 1939, the first jet airliner, the de Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952. The Boeing 707, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in service for more than 50 years. Aéroplane originally referred just to the wing, as it is a plane moving through the air, in an example of synecdoche, the word for the wing came to refer to the entire aircraft. In the United States and Canada, the airplane is used for powered fixed-wing aircraft. In the United Kingdom and most of the Commonwealth, the aeroplane is usually applied to these aircraft. Many stories from antiquity involve flight, such as the Greek legend of Icarus and Daedalus, and this machine may have been suspended for its flight. Some of the earliest recorded attempts with gliders were those by the 9th-century poet Abbas ibn Firnas, leonardo da Vinci researched the wing design of birds and designed a man-powered aircraft in his Codex on the Flight of Birds. In 1799, George Cayley set forth the concept of the airplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion. Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, in 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, by having his glider LAlbatros artificiel pulled by a horse on a beach. Then Alexander F. Mozhaisky also made some innovative designs, in 1883, the American John J. Montgomery made a controlled flight in a glider. Other aviators who made similar flights at that time were Otto Lilienthal, Percy Pilcher, sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot wingspan that was powered by two 360-horsepower steam engines driving two propellers
13.
Booster (rocketry)
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Boosters are traditionally necessary to launch spacecraft into low Earth orbit, and are certainly necessary for a space vehicle to go beyond Earth orbit. The booster is dropped to fall back to Earth once its fuel is expended, the rest of the launch vehicle continues flight with its core or upper-stage engines. The booster may be recovered and reused, as in the case of the Space Shuttle, the latter are frequently designated zero stages. Boosters are traditionally necessary to launch spacecraft into low Earth orbit absent a single-stage-to-orbit design, when the booster´s fuel is empty it is dropped to fall back to Earth, a point known as booster engine cut-off. The rest of the vehicle continues to fly with its core or upper-stage engines. The booster may be recovered and reused, as in the case of the Space Shuttle, the SM-65 Atlas rocket used three engines, one of which was fixed to the fuel tank, and two of which were mounted on a skirt which dropped away at BECO. This was used as an Intercontinental ballistic missile, to launch the manned Project Mercury capsule into orbit, and as the first stage of the Atlas-Agena and Atlas-Centaur launch vehicles. The Titan III, used by the United States Air Force as an unmanned vehicle, was developed from the Titan II launch vehicle by adding a pair of strap-on solid rocket boosters. It was also planned to be used for the Manned Orbital Laboratory program, strap-on boosters are sometimes used to augment the payload or range capability of military jet aircraft. NASAs Space Shuttle was the first manned vehicle to use solid-fueled boosters as strap-ons, the solid boosters consisted of stacked segments, and were recovered and reused multiple times. The booster casings for the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster were recovered and refurbished for reuse from 1981–2011 as part of the Space Shuttle program. In a new development program initiated in 2011, SpaceX developed technologies to facilitate the return, vertical landing, the program was intended to reduce launch prices significantly, opening new markets for the use of space. Rocket boosters used on aircraft are known as Jet-Assisted TakeOff rockets, various missiles also use solid rocket boosters. Examples are, 2K11 which uses SRBs as a first stage, s-200 which uses SRBs as the first stage, followed by a liquid fuel rocket. Surface-launched versions of the turbojet powered Boeing Harpoon use an SRB, another use of the term booster in spaceflight is the Booster Systems Engineer, whose call sign is Booster. This is a position at NASAs Mission Control Center
14.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
15.
Space Shuttle
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The Space Shuttle was a partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated by the U. S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program name was Space Transportation System, taken from a 1969 plan for a system of reusable spacecraft of which it was the only item funded for development, the first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982. Five complete Shuttle systems were built and used on a total of 135 missions from 1981 to 2011, the Shuttle fleets total mission time was 1322 days,19 hours,21 minutes and 23 seconds. Shuttle components included the Orbiter Vehicle, a pair of solid rocket boosters. The Shuttle was launched vertically, like a rocket, with the two SRBs operating in parallel with the OVs three main engines, which were fueled from the ET. The SRBs were jettisoned before the vehicle reached orbit, and the ET was jettisoned just before orbit insertion, at the conclusion of the mission, the orbiter fired its OMS to de-orbit and re-enter the atmosphere. The orbiter then glided as a spaceplane to a landing, usually at the Shuttle Landing Facility of KSC or Rogers Dry Lake in Edwards Air Force Base. After landing at Edwards, the orbiter was back to the KSC on the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. The first orbiter, Enterprise, was built in 1976 for use in Approach, four fully operational orbiters were initially built, Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, and Atlantis. Of these, two were lost in accidents, Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003, with a total of fourteen astronauts killed. A fifth operational orbiter, Endeavour, was built in 1991 to replace Challenger, the Space Shuttle was retired from service upon the conclusion of Atlantiss final flight on July 21,2011. Nixons post-Apollo NASA budgeting withdrew support of all components except the Shuttle. The vehicle consisted of a spaceplane for orbit and re-entry, fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen tanks. The first of four orbital test flights occurred in 1981, leading to operational flights beginning in 1982, all launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The system was retired from service in 2011 after 135 missions, the program ended after Atlantis landed at the Kennedy Space Center on July 21,2011. Major missions included launching numerous satellites and interplanetary probes, conducting space science experiments, the first orbiter vehicle, named Enterprise, was built for the initial Approach and Landing Tests phase and lacked engines, heat shielding, and other equipment necessary for orbital flight. A total of five operational orbiters were built, and of these and it was used for orbital space missions by NASA, the US Department of Defense, the European Space Agency, Japan, and Germany. The United States funded Shuttle development and operations except for the Spacelab modules used on D1, sL-J was partially funded by Japan
16.
Buran programme
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The Buran-class space shuttle orbiters used the expendable Energia rocket as a launch vehicle. The Buran programme was started by the Soviet Union as a response to the United States Space Shuttle program, the project was the largest and the most expensive in the history of Soviet space exploration. Development work included sending BOR-5 test vehicles on multiple sub-orbital test flights, Buran completed one unmanned orbital spaceflight in 1988 before its cancellation in 1993. Orbiter K1, which flew the test flight in 1988 was crushed in a collapse on 12 May 2002 in Kazakhstan. The OK-GLI resides in Technikmuseum Speyer, although Soviet/Russian Buran spacecraft was similar in appearance to NASAs Space Shuttle, and could similarly operate as a re-entry spaceplane, its internal and functional design was distinct. For example, the engines during launch were on the Energia rocket and were not taken into orbit by the spacecraft. Smaller rocket engines on the body provided propulsion in orbit. The Buran orbital vehicle programme was developed in response to the U. S, Space Shuttle programme, which in the 1980s raised considerable concerns among the Soviet military and especially Defense Minister Dmitriy Ustinov. An authoritative chronicler of the Soviet and later Russian space programmes, the Soviet government asked the TsNIIMash for an expert opinion. Institute director, Yuri Mozzhorin, recalls that for a time the institute could not envisage a civilian payload large enough to require a vehicle of that capacity. Officially, the Buran orbital vehicle was designed for the delivery to orbit and return to Earth of spacecraft, cosmonauts, before the Mriya was ready, the Myasishchev VM-T Atlant, a variant on the Soviet Myasishchev M-4 Molot bomber, fulfilled the same role. The Soviet reusable space-craft programme has its roots in the beginning of the space age. The idea of Soviet reusable space flight is very old, though it was neither continuous, before Buran, no project of the programme reached production. The idea saw its first iteration in the Burya high-altitude jet aircraft, several test flights are known, before it was cancelled by order of the Central Committee. The Burya had the goal of delivering a nuclear payload, presumably to the United States, the cancellation was based on a final decision to develop ICBMs. The next iteration of the idea was Zvezda from the early 1960s, decades later, another project with the same name was used as a service module for the International Space Station. After Zvezda, there was a hiatus in reusable projects until Buran, the development of the Buran began in the early 1970s as a response to the U. S. Soviet officials were concerned about a military threat posed by the U. S
17.
Baikonur Cosmodrome
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Baikonur Cosmodrome is a spaceport located in southern Kazakhstan. It is the worlds first and largest operational space launch facility, the spaceport is located in the desert steppe of Baikonur, about 200 kilometres east of the Aral Sea and north of the river Syr Darya. It is near the Tyuratam railway station and is about 90 metres above sea level, currently leased by the Kazakh Government to Russia until 2050, the spaceport is managed jointly by the Roscosmos State Corporation and the Russian Aerospace Forces. The shape of the area leased is an ellipse, measuring 90 kilometres east–west by 85 kilometres north–south, with the cosmodrome at the centre and it was originally built by the Soviet Union in the late 1950s as the base of operations for the Soviet space program. Under the current Russian space program, Baikonur remains a busy spaceport, with commercial, military. All manned Russian spaceflights are launched from Baikonur, both Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, and Vostok 1, the first manned spaceflight, were launched from Baikonur. The launch pad used for missions was renamed Gagarins Start in honor of Russian Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, pilot of Vostok 1. The Soviet government issued the decree for Scientific Research Test Range No.5 on 12 February 1955 and it was actually founded on 2 June 1955, originally a test center for the worlds first intercontinental ballistic missile, the R-7 Semyorka. NIIP-5 was soon expanded to include facilities for space flights. The site was selected by a led by Gen. Vasily Voznyuk, influenced by Sergey Korolyov, the Chief Designer of the R-7 ICBM. It had to be surrounded by plains, as the control system of the rocket required receiving uninterrupted signals from ground stations hundreds of kilometres away. Additionally, the trajectory had to be away from populated areas. Also, it is an advantage to place a space launch site closer to the equator, taking these constraints into consideration, the commission chose Tyuratam, a village in the heart of the Kazakh Steppe. A supporting town was built around the facility to provide housing, schools and it was raised to city status in 1966 and named Leninsk. The American U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance plane found and photographed the Tyuratam missile test range for the first time on 5 August 1957, there are conflicting sources about origins of the name Baikonur. Other sources state that Baikonur was name of the Tyuratam region even before the cosmodrome existed, the main cosmodrome-supporting town Leninsk was renamed to Baikonur on 20 December 1995 by Boris Yeltsin. In 1997, the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation changed the path and removed the ejected rocket stages near Nyurbinsky District. Scientific literature collected enough data that confirmed adverse effects of rockets on environment, heptyl, or UDMH, a fuel used in Russian rocket engines, is considered to be highly toxic
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Empennage
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The empennage, also known as the tail or tail assembly, provides stability for aircraft, in a way similar to the feathers on an arrow. The term derives from the French language word empenner which means to feather an arrow, most aircraft feature an empennage incorporating vertical and horizontal stabilising surfaces which stabilise the flight dynamics of yaw and pitch, as well as housing control surfaces. In spite of effective control surfaces, many aircraft that lacked a stabilising empennage were virtually unflyable. Even so-called tailless aircraft usually have a tail fin, heavier-than-air aircraft without any kind of empennage are rare. Structurally, the empennage consists of the tail assembly, including the tailfin, the tailplane. On an airliner this would be all the flying and control surfaces behind the pressure bulkhead. The front section of the tailplane is called the tailplane or horizontal stabiliser and is used to pitch stability. The rear section is called the elevator, and is hinged to the horizontal stabiliser. The elevator is a movable aerofoil that controls changes in pitch, some aircraft employ an all-moving stabiliser and elevators in one unit, known as a stabilator or full-flying stabiliser. The vertical tail structure has a front section called the vertical stabiliser. The rear section of the fin is the rudder, a movable aerofoil that is used to turn the aircrafts nose to one side or the other. When used in combination with the ailerons, the result is a banking turn, some aircraft are fitted with a tail assembly that is hinged to pivot in two axes forward of the fin and stabiliser, in an arrangement referred to as a movable tail. The entire empennage is rotated vertically to actuate the horizontal stabiliser, in some aircraft trim devices are provided to eliminate the need for the pilot to maintain constant pressure on the elevator or rudder controls. The trim device may be, a tab on the rear of the elevators or rudder which act to change the aerodynamic load on the surface. Usually controlled by a wheel or crank. an adjustable stabiliser into which the stabiliser may be hinged at its spar. Usually controlled by a cockpit crank, a bungee trim system which uses a spring to provide an adjustable preload in the controls. Usually controlled by a cockpit lever, an anti-servo tab used to trim some elevators and stabilators as well as increased control force feel. Usually controlled by a wheel or crank
19.
Dihedral (aeronautics)
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Dihedral angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing aircraft. Anhedral angle is the given to negative dihedral angle, that is. Dihedral angle has an influence on dihedral effect, which is named after it. Dihedral effect is the amount of roll moment produced per degree of sideslip, dihedral effect is a critical factor in the stability of an aircraft about the roll axis. It is also pertinent to the nature of an aircrafts Dutch roll oscillation, longitudinal dihedral is a comparatively obscure term related to the pitch axis of an airplane. It is the angle between the zero axis of the wing and horizontal tail. Longitudinal dihedral can influence the nature of controllability about the pitch axis, when the term dihedral is used by itself it is usually intended to mean dihedral angle. However, context may otherwise indicate that dihedral effect is the intended meaning, dihedral Angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings of a fixed-wing aircraft, or of any paired nominally-horizontal surfaces on any aircraft. The term can apply to the wings of a bird. Dihedral Angle is also used in some types of such as box kites. Wings with more than one Angle change along the span are said to be polyhedral. Dihedral Angle has important stabilizing effects on flying bodies because it has an influence on the dihedral effect. Dihedral effect of an aircraft is a rolling moment resulting from the vehicle having an angle of sideslip. Increasing the dihedral angle of an aircraft increases the effect on it. However, many other parameters also have a strong influence on dihedral effect. Some of these important factors are, wing sweep, vertical center of gravity, dihedral angle on an aircraft almost always implies the angle between two paired surfaces, one on each side of the aircraft. Even then, it is almost always between the left and right wings, however, mathematically dihedral means the angle between any two planes. Longitudinal dihedral can also mean the angle between the zero axis of the wing and tail instead of between the root chords of the two surfaces
20.
Stabilizer (aeronautics)
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An aircraft stabilizer is an aerodynamic surface, typically including one or more movable control surfaces, that provides longitudinal and/or directional stability and control. A stabilizer can feature a fixed or adjustable structure on which any movable control surfaces are hinged, depending on the context, stabilizer may sometimes describe only the front part of the overall surface. In the conventional configuration, separate vertical and horizontal stabilizers form an empennage positioned at the tail of the aircraft. Other arrangements of the empennage, such as the V-tail configuration, feature stabilizers which contribute to a combination of longitudinal and directional stabilization, Longitudinal stability and control may be obtained with other wing configurations, including canard, tandem wing and tailless aircraft. Some types of aircraft are stabilized with electronic control, in this case, fixed. Transonic flight makes special demands on horizontal stabilizers, since the crossing of the barrier is associated with a sudden move aft of the center of lift. Another role of a stabilizer is to provide longitudinal static stability. Stability can be defined only when the vehicle is in trim and this maintains a constant aircraft attitude, with unchanging pitch angle relative to the airstream, without active input from the pilot. The elevator serve to control the pitch axis, in case of a movable tail. In the conventional configuration the horizontal stabilizer is a horizontal tail or tailplane located to the rear of the aircraft. This is the most common configuration, on many aircraft, the tailplane assembly consists of a fixed surface fitted with a hinged aft elevator surface. Trim tabs may be used to pilot input forces, conversely in some cases, such as small aircraft with all-moving stabilizers. Most airliners and transport aircraft feature a large, slow-moving trimmable tail plane which is combined with independently-moving elevators. The elevators are controlled by the pilot or autopilot and primarily serve to change the attitude, while the whole assembly is used to trim. Many supersonic aircraft feature an all-moving tail assembly, also named stabilator, variants on the conventional configuration include the T-tail, Cruciform tail, Twin tail and Twin-boom mounted tail. Three-surface aircraft such as the Piaggio P, lacking elevators, the tailplanes of these aircraft were not what is now called conventional stabilizers. For example, the Voisin was a layout with a foreplane that was neither stabilizing nor mainly lifting, it was called an équilibreur. In the canard configuration, a wing, or foreplane, is located in front of the main wing
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Vertical stabilizer
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It is analogous to a skeg on boats and ships. On aircraft, vertical stabilizers generally point upwards and these are also known as the vertical tail, and are part of an aircrafts empennage. If the vertical stabilizer was mounted on the underside, it would produce a positive feedback whenever the aircraft dove or banked, the trailing end of the stabilizer is typically movable, and called the rudder, this allows the aircraft pilot to control yaw. Often navigational radio or airband transceiver antennas are placed on or inside the vertical tail, in all known trijets, the vertical stabilizer houses the central engine or engine inlet duct. Vertical stabilizers, or fins, have also used in automobiles, specifically in top level motor sports. A few aircraft models have a fin under the rear end. Normally this is small, or can fold sideways, to allow landing, the vertical stabilizer is mounted exactly vertically, and the horizontal stabilizer is directly mounted to the empennage. This is the most common vertical stabilizer configuration, a T-tail has the horizontal stabilizer mounted at the top of the vertical stabilizer. It is commonly seen on aircraft, such as the Bombardier CRJ200, the Fokker 70, the Boeing 727, the Vickers VC10 and Douglas DC-9. T-tails are often incorporated on configurations with fuselage mounted engines to keep the horizontal stabilizer away from the engine exhaust plume, T-tail aircraft are more susceptible to pitch-up at high angles of attack. This pitch-up results from a reduction in the horizontal stabilizers lifting capability as it passes through the wake of the wing at moderate angles of attack and this can also result in a deep stall condition. T-tails present structural challenges since loads on the stabilizer must be transmitted through the vertical tail. The cruciform tail is arranged like a cross, the most common configuration having the horizontal stabilizer intersecting the vertical tail somewhere near the middle, the PBY Catalina uses this configuration. Falconjets from Dassault always have cruciform tail, rather than a single vertical stabilizer, a twin tail has two. These are vertically arranged, and intersect or are mounted to the ends of the horizontal stabilizer, the Beechcraft Model 18 and many modern military aircraft such as the American F-14, F-15, and F/A-18 use this configuration. A variation on the tail, it has three vertical stabilizers. An example of configuration is the Lockheed Constellation. On the Constellation it was done to give the maximum vertical stabilizer area while keeping the overall height low enough so that it could fit into maintenance hangars
22.
Fuselage
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The fuselage is an aircrafts main body section. It holds crew, passengers, and cargo, the fuselage also serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to lifting surfaces, which is required for aircraft stability and maneuverability. This type of structure is still in use in lightweight aircraft using welded steel tube trusses. A box truss fuselage structure can also be out of wood—often covered with plywood. Simple box structures may be rounded by the addition of supported lightweight stringers, allowing the fabric covering to form an aerodynamic shape. Geodesic structural elements were used by Barnes Wallis for British Vickers between the wars and into World War II to form the whole of the fuselage, including its aerodynamic shape. In this type of construction multiple flat strip stringers are wound about the formers in opposite spiral directions and this proved to be light, strong, and rigid and had the advantage of being made almost entirely of wood. A similar construction using aluminum alloy was used in the Vickers Warwick with less materials than would be required for other structural types, the geodesic structure is also redundant and so can survive localized damage without catastrophic failure. A fabric covering over the completed the aerodynamic shell. The logical evolution of this is the creation of fuselages using molded plywood, in this method, the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the primary structure. A typical early form of this was built using molded plywood, a later form of this structure uses fiberglass cloth impregnated with polyester or epoxy resin, instead of plywood, as the skin. An example of a larger molded plywood aircraft is the de Havilland Mosquito fighter/light bomber of World War II, no plywood-skin fuselage is truly monocoque, since stiffening elements are incorporated into the structure to carry concentrated loads that would otherwise buckle the thin skin. The use of molded fiberglass using negative molds is prevalent in the production of many modern sailplanes. The use of molded composites for fuselage structures is being extended to large aircraft such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. This is the method of constructing an all-aluminum fuselage. First, a series of frames in the shape of the cross sections are held in position on a rigid fixture. These frames are then joined with lightweight longitudinal elements called stringers and these are in turn covered with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by riveting or by bonding with special adhesives. The fixture is then disassembled and removed from the fuselage shell, which is then fitted out with wiring, controls
23.
Buran (spacecraft)
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Buran was the first spaceplane to be produced as part of the Soviet/Russian Buran programme. It carried the GRAU index serial number 11F35 K1 and is – depending on the source – also known as OK-1K1, Orbiter K1, besides describing the first operational Soviet/Russian shuttle orbiter, Buran was also the designation for the whole Soviet/Russian space shuttle project. OK-1K1 completed one unmanned spaceflight in 1988, and was destroyed in 2002 when the hangar it was stored in collapsed and it remains the only Soviet reusable spacecraft to be launched into space. The Buran-class orbiters used the expendable Energia rocket, a class of super heavy-lift launch vehicle, the construction of the Buran-class space shuttle orbiters began in 1980, and by 1984 the first full-scale orbiter was rolled out. Construction of a second started in 1988. The Buran programme was cancelled in 1993. The only orbital launch of a Buran-class orbiter occurred at 03,00,02 UTC on 15 November 1988 from Baikonur Cosmodrome launch pad 110/37, Buran was lifted into space, on an unmanned mission, by the specially designed Energia rocket. The automated launch sequence performed as specified, and the Energia rocket lifted the vehicle into a temporary orbit before the orbiter separated as programmed. After making an approach to Site 251, Buran touched down under its own control at 06,24,42 UTC. Despite a lateral speed of 61.2 kilometres per hour. It was the first space shuttle to perform an unmanned flight and it was later found that Buran had lost only eight of its 38,000 thermal tiles over the course of its flight. In 1989, it was projected that OK-1K1 would have a second flight by 1993. Because the Buran programme was cancelled after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, on 12 May 2002, the MIK112 hangar at the Baikonur Cosmodrome housing OK-1K1 collapsed, as a result of poor maintenance, during a massive storm in Kazakhstan. The collapse killed eight workers and destroyed the craft as well as an Energia carrier rocket, OK-GLI — Buran Analog BST-02 test vehicle Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105 — Soviet orbital spaceplane Space Shuttle program Hendrickx, Bart, Vis, Bert. Elser, Heinz, Elser-Haft, Margrit, Lukashevich, Vladim, history and Transportation of the Russian Space Shuttle OK-GLI to the Technik Museum Speyer
24.
Antonov
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Antonov State Company, formerly the Antonov Aeronautical Scientific-Technical Complex, and earlier the Antonov Design Bureau, is a Ukrainian aircraft manufacturing and services company. Antonovs particular expertise is in the fields of very large aeroplanes and aeroplanes using unprepared runways, Antonov has built a total of approximately 22,000 aircraft, and thousands of planes are currently operating in the former Soviet Union and in developing countries. Antonov StC is a commercial company. Its headquarters and main grounds are located in or adjacent to Kiev. On 12 May 2015 it was transferred from the Ministry of Economic Development, the company was established in 1946 at the Novosibirsk Aircraft Production Association as the top-secret Soviet Research and Design Bureau No.153. It was headed by Oleg Antonov and specialised in military transport aircraft. The An-2 biplane was an achievement of this period, with hundreds of these aircraft still operating as of 2013. In 1952, the Bureau was relocated to Kiev, a city with an aviation history. The 1957 introduction of the An-10/An-12 family of mid-range turboprop aeroplanes began the production of thousands of these aircraft. In 1959, the bureau began construction of the separate Flight Testing, in 1965, the Antonov An-22 heavy military transport entered serial production to supplement the An-12 in major military and humanitarian airlifts by the Soviet Union. The model became the first Soviet wide-body aircraft, and it remains the worlds largest turboprop-powered aircraft, Antonov designed and presented a nuclear-powered version of the An-22. In 1966, after expansion in the Sviatoshyn neighbourhood of the city. Two independent aircraft production and repair facilities, under engineering-supervision of the Antonov Bureau, in the 1970s and early 1980s, the company established itself as USSRs main designer of military transport aircraft with dozens of new modifications in development and production. In the late 1980s, the Antonov Bureau achieved global prominence after introduction of its extra large aeroplanes, the An-124 Ruslan became the Soviet Unions mass-produced strategic airlifter. The Bureau enlarged the Ruslan design even more for the Soviet space shuttle programme logistics, Mriya is still the worlds largest and heaviest aeroplane. The end of the Cold War and perestroika allowed the Antonov companys first step to commercialisation, in 1989, the Antonov Airlines subsidiary was created for its own aircraft maintenance and cargo projects. Antonov Design Bureau remained a company after Ukraine achieved its independence in 1991 and is since regarded as a strategic national asset. Since independence, Antonov has certified and marketed both Soviet-era and newly developed models for sale in new markets outside of the former soviet-sphere of influence, new models introduced to serial production and delivered to customers include the Antonov An-140, Antonov An-148 and Antonov An-158 regional airliners
25.
Antonov An-225 Mriya
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The Antonov An-225 Mriya is a strategic airlift cargo aircraft that was designed by the Antonov Design Bureau in the Ukrainian SSR within the Soviet Union during the 1980s. It is powered by six engines and is the longest and heaviest airplane ever built. It also has the largest wingspan of any aircraft in operational service, the single example built has the Ukrainian civil registration UR-82060. A second airframe with a different configuration was partially built. Its construction was halted in 1994 because of lack of funding and interest, on 30 August 2016, Antonov agreed to complete the second airframe for Aerospace Industry Corporation of China as a prelude to AICC commencing series production. The Antonov An-225, initially developed for the task of transporting the Buran spaceplane, was an enlargement of the successful Antonov An-124, the first and only An-225 was completed in 1988. After successfully fulfilling its Soviet military missions, it was mothballed for eight years and it was then refurbished and re-introduced, and is in commercial operation with Antonov Airlines carrying oversized payloads. The airlifter holds the world records for an airlifted single-item payload of 189,980 kilograms. It has also transported a payload of 247,000 kg on a commercial flight, the Antonov An-225 was designed to airlift the Energia rockets boosters and the Buran orbiter for the Soviet space program. It was developed as a replacement for the Myasishchev VM-T, the An-225s original mission and objectives are almost identical to that of the United States Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. The An-225 first flew on 21 December 1988 with a 74-minute flight from Kiev, the aircraft was on static display at the Paris Air Show in 1989 and it flew during the public days at the Farnborough air show in 1990. Two aircraft were ordered, but only one An-225 was finished and it can carry ultra-heavy and oversize freight, up to 250,000 kg internally, or 200,000 kg on the upper fuselage. Cargo on the fuselage can be 70 m long. A second An-225 was partially built during the late 1980s for the Soviet space program, following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the cancellation of the Buran space program, the lone operational An-225 was placed in storage in 1994. The six Ivchenko-Progress engines were removed for use on An-124s, the first An-225 was later re-engined and put into service. By 2000, the need for additional An-225 capacity had become apparent, the second airframe was scheduled for completion around 2008, then delayed. By August 2009, the aircraft had not been completed and work had been abandoned, according to different sources, the second aircraft is 60–70% complete. In April 2013, the Russian government announced plans to revive Soviet-era air launch projects that would use a modification to the An-225 as a midair launchpad
26.
Zhukovsky, Moscow Oblast
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Zhukovsky is a city in Moscow Oblast, Russia, located on the Moskva River,40 kilometers southeast of Moscow. The urban-type settlement of Stakhanovo was founded in 1935 from the dacha settlement Otdykh and it was named after Alexey Stakhanov, a famous Soviet miner. On April 23,1947, the settlement was granted town status and renamed Zhukovsky, in honor of the pioneer of aero-, within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as Zhukovsky City Under Oblast Jurisdiction—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Zhukovsky City Under Oblast Jurisdiction is incorporated as Zhukovsky Urban Okrug, Zhukovsky is a home to the M. M. Gromov Flight Research Institute known as LII and N. Ye. Zhukovsky Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute known as TsAGI—they are two major facilities involved in testing and designing aircraft and these facilities were employers for a great portion of the citys population before perestroika. Also, there is situated the Aeromechanics faculty of MIPT, there are a number smaller, but also important enterprises, such as, V. V. The airline Aviastar-TU has its office in Zhukovsky. There are also some aviation design bureaus - Sukhoy, Ilyushin, Tupolev, machine-building, woodworking plants, spare parts factory, paper-mill Food industry - Inko, Nestlé, local bread-baking plant. Zhukovsky International Airport is in the city, Zhukovsky is the center of track and field athletics in Moscow Oblast. Most notable athletes born in Zhukovsky are Yuriy Borzakovskiy, Yekaterina Podkopayeva, Andrey Yepishin, Dmitry Bogdanov, in 2005, Meteor Stadium, a new world class athletics stadium was opened. In 2008, President Vladimir Putin signed a decree establishing the National Aircraft Construction Center. Zhukovsky is twinned with, Le Bourget, France Sydals Municipality, Denmark Ulyanovsk, Закон №11/2013-ОЗ от31 января2013 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Московской области», в ред, Закона №72/2015-ОЗ от5 мая2015 г. Вступил в силу на следующий день после официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №24,12 февраля2013 г. Закон №171/2004-ОЗ от15 декабря2004 г, «О статусе и границе городского округа Жуковский», в ред. Вступил в силу со дня официального опубликования, Подмосковье, №247,29 декабря2004 г
27.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
28.
TsAGI
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The Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute was founded in Moscow by the pioneer of Russian aviation, Nikolai Yegorovich Zhukovsky on December 1,1918. Since 1925 and into the 1930s, TsAGI developed and hosted Tupolevs AGOS, the first aircraft design bureau in Soviet Union, in 1930, two other major aircraft design bureaus in the country were the Ilyushins unsystematic TsKB and an independent, short-lived Kalinins team in Kharkiv. In 1935 TsAGI was partly relocated to the dacha settlement Otdykh converted to the new urban-type settlement Stakhanovo. It was named after Alexey Stakhanov, a famous Soviet miner, on April 23,1947, the settlement was granted town status and renamed to Zhukovsky. The Moscow branch of the institute is known as MAGI. In 1965 in Zhukovsky an Aeromechanics faculty of MIPT was established under TsAGI, among latest TsAGI developments are the rocket Energia and the Space Shuttle Buran. In 2013 TsAGI developed a testbench for high-speed compound helicopters with propellers. 1918–1921, Nikolai Yegorovich Zhukovsky 1921–1931, S. A. Tschaplygin 1932–1937, N. M. Charlamow 1938–1939, M. N. Schulschenko 1940–1941, I. F. Petrow 1941–1950, S. N. Schischkin 1950–1960, A. I. Makarewski 1960–1967, V. M. Mjassischtschew 1967–1989, G. P. Swischtschjow 1989–1995, G I. Neuland 1998–2006, W. G. Dmitrijew 2006–2007, W. A. Kargopolzew 2007–2009, S. L. Tschrenyschtschjow 2009–present, B. S. Aljoschin TsAGI official website Page on TsAGI TsAGI on Google Maps
29.
Gromov Flight Research Institute
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M. M. Gromov Flight Research Institute or LII for short is an important Russian aircraft test base, scientific research center located in Zhukovsky,40 km south-east of Moscow. It has one of the longest runways in Europe at 5,403 m, lIIs concrete surfacing covers the area of 2.5 million square meters. LII was used as the landing site for the Shuttle Buran test program. LII periodically holds the MAKS event, the International Air Show, at present, LII is also used as a cargo airport. Mikhail Gromov, a legendary test pilot and a Hero of the Soviet Union, from the very beginning the Institute participated in development and testing of aircraft and airborne systems, conducted flight research in order to pave the way to further scientific activities. The first years of the Institutes existence fell on the Great Patriotic War, but it is in these days that versatility of the Institutes functions and resources manifested itself the brightest. Zhukovskiy airfield was the Soviet Union’s equivalent to the USAF’s Edwards, here some western aircraft were tested or analyzed. It’s unknown if any flight evaluations were made by the USSR, Google Earth look around for the Zhukovskiy airfield and Ramenskoye Airport shows an F-4 parked there. A F-86 Sabre was shot down during Korea and crashlanded in a marsh with limited damage. That aircraft was recovered and evaluated in Russia, two VNAF F-5s were transferred to Soviet soon after the end of Vietnam war in 1975. One F-5 was extensively tested by Soviet pilots from Chkalovs State Flight Tests Center, an A-37B captured in South Vietnam was also evaluated in Soviet Union. Wrecks from F-111s shot down over North Vietnam were sent to Zhukovskiy to be analyzed, there are also rumors an Iranian F-14 Tomcat defected to Soviet Union. The plane and its AIM-54 Phoenix misseles may have been tested, some F-14 wrecks were probably brought to Russia for examination. Pieces of the F117 shot down over Serbia were sent to Russia, pieces of US planes shot down in North Vietnam and their captured electronic countermeasures equipment were taken for evaluation. Captured VNAF helicopters are believed to have been tested, due to financial problems in the 1990s, tourist fighter flights in former top secret jets became available, mainly for wealthy western tourists. The security check was comparable to the Russian visa, from June 2006, flights stopped on Zhukovsky. Today, flights in the Aero L-39 Albatros are available with the famous Aerobatik-Team Wjasma Rus, moskovia Airlines, also Gromov Air MAKS, Aviasalon web-site LII airfield at Google Maps
30.
Ryazan
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Ryazan is a city and the administrative center of Ryazan Oblast, Russia, located on the Oka River 196 kilometers southeast of Moscow. It is argued that the Ryazan kremlin was founded in 800, by Slavic settlers, initially it was built of wood, gradually replaced by masonry. The oldest preserved part of the dates back to the 12th century. However, the first written mention of the city, under the name of Pereslavl, at that time, the city was part of the independent Principality of Ryazan, which had existed since 1078 and which was centered on the old city of Ryazan. The first ruler of Ryazan was supposedly Yaroslav Sviatoslavich, Prince of Ryazan, by the end of the 12th century, the capital of Duchy was burnt several times by the armies of Suzdal. Ryazan was the first Russian city to be sacked by the Mongol horde of Batu Khan, on December 21,1237, it was thoroughly devastated and never fully recovered. As result of the sack, the seat of the principality was moved about 55 kilometers to the town of Pereslavl-Ryazansky, the site of the old capital now carries the name of Staraya Ryazan, close to Spassk-Ryazansky. Late in the 13th century, the Princes of Ryazan moved their capital to Pereslavl, the principality was finally incorporated into that of Moscow in 1521. Immediately after World War II, rapid development of the city began, Ryazan became a major industrial, scientific, and military center of the European part of Russia. Massive factories were constructed in the city, occupying the urban areas. Leading areas of industry are heavy and non-ferrous metallurgy, oil refining and machine-tool industry, mechanical engineering, more than half of the plants produce for export. Several positioned MANPADS protect the urban sky, besides the Airborne School, Ryazan hosts the Automobile School and Institute of Communications, a regiment of railway troops, airbase strategic bombers, and a training center in Diaghilev. Ryazan developed particularly rapidly while Nadezhda Nikolaevna Chumakova served as Chair of the Council of Peoples Deputies of Ryazan and Ryazan mayor, under Chumakova, the citys population increased more than seven times, from 72 to 520 thousand people. Chumakova oversaw the construction of social and cultural amenities, more than 20 urban areas, landscaping became a fundamental strategy for the development of the city at that time. Ryazan repeatedly won recognition among the cities of the Soviet Union for its landscaping, during her 26 years in office, Nadezhda Chumakova often accepted awards of the Red Banner of the USSR on behalf of Ryazan. In September 1999, Ryazan became one of the involved in the Russian apartment bombings episode. In the Political system of Ryazan, the legislature, a city council is the Ryazan City Duma, kind of the lower house of the municipality - Youth Parliament, preparing draft legislative initiatives. Executive power in the city of Ryazan carried by the administration headed by the city manager, control over the activities of the authorities is administered by the Public Chamber of the city of Ryazan, work with youth involved in the headquarters of youth activists
31.
Payload
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Payload is the carrying capacity of an aircraft or launch vehicle, usually measured in terms of weight. Depending on the nature of the flight or mission, the payload of a vehicle may include cargo, passengers, flight crew, munitions, scientific instruments or experiments, extra fuel, when optionally carried, is also considered part of the payload. In a commercial context, payload may refer only to revenue-generating cargo or paying passengers, for a rocket, the payload can be a satellite, space probe, or spacecraft carrying humans, animals, or cargo. For a ballistic missile, the payload is one or more warheads and related systems, the fraction of payload to the total liftoff weight of the air or spacecraft is known as the payload fraction. When the weight of the payload and fuel are considered together, in spacecraft, mass fraction is normally used, which is the ratio of payload to everything else, including the rocket structure. There is a natural trade-off between the payload and the range of an aircraft, a payload range diagram illustrates the trade-off. The top horizontal line represents the maximum payload and it is limited structurally by maximum zero-fuel weight of the aircraft. Maximum payload is the difference between maximum zero-fuel weight and operational empty weight, moving left-to-right along the line shows the constant maximum payload as the range increases. More fuel needs to be added for more range, the vertical line represents the range at which the combined weight of the aircraft, maximum payload and needed fuel reaches the maximum take-off weight of the aircraft. If the range is increased beyond that point, payload has to be sacrificed for fuel, the maximum take-off weight is limited by a combination of the maximum net power of the engines and the lift/drag ratio of the wings. The diagonal line after the point shows how reducing the payload allows increasing the fuel when taking off with the maximum take-off weight. The second kink in the curve represents the point at which the fuel capacity is reached. Flying further than that point means that the payload has to be reduced further, the absolute range is thus the range at which an aircraft can fly with maximum possible fuel without carrying any payload.314 m3 and 2 x 0.414 m3 Envelope, each 1. So even when the airplane has been loaded with its maximum payload that the wings can support, launch and transport system differ not only on the payload that can be carried but also in the stresses and other factors placed on the payload. The payload must not only be lifted to its target, it must also arrive safely, to ensure this the payload, such as a warhead or satellite, is designed to withstand certain amounts of various types of punishment on the way to its destination. Most aircraft payloads are carried within the fuselage for similar reasons, outsize cargo may require a fuselage with unusual proportions, such as the Super Guppy. The various constraints placed on the system can be roughly categorized into those that cause physical damage to the payload. Heavy-lift launch vehicle Medium-lift launch vehicle Tsiolkovsky rocket equation Shannon Ackert, using the Payload/Range and Takeoff Field Length Charts in the Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning Documents
32.
Wingspan
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The wingspan of a bird or an airplane is the distance from one wingtip to the other wingtip. For example, the Boeing 777 has a wingspan of about 60 metres, and a wandering albatross caught in 1965 had a wingspan of 3.63 metres, the official record for a living bird. The term wingspan, more technically extent, is used for other winged animals such as pterosaurs, bats, insects, etc. In humans, the term also refers to the distance between the length from one end of an individuals arms to the other when raised parallel to the ground at shoulder height at a 90º angle. Former professional basketball player Manute Bol stands at 77 and owns one of the largest wingspans at 86, the wingspan of an aircraft is always measured in a straight line, from wingtip to wingtip, independently of wing shape or sweep. The lift from wings is proportional to their area, so the heavier the animal or aircraft the bigger that area must be. The area is the product of the times the width of the wing, so either a long. For efficient steady flight, the ratio of span to chord, long-ranging birds, like albatrosses, and most commercial aircraft maximize aspect ratio. Alternatively, animals and aircraft which depend on maneuverability need to be able to roll fast to turn, for them, short-span, broad wings are preferred. The highest aspect ratio wings are aircraft propellers, in their most extreme form as helicopter rotors. In basketball and gridiron football, a measurement is used to determine the players wingspan. This is called reach in boxing terminology, the wingspan of Manute Bol, at 8 feet 6 inches, is the longest in NBA history, and his vertical reach was 10 feet 5 inches
33.
Maximum takeoff weight
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The analogous term for rockets is gross lift-off mass, or GLOW. MTOW is usually specified in units of kilograms or pounds, MTOW is the heaviest weight at which the aircraft has been shown to meet all the airworthiness requirements applicable to it. MTOW of an aircraft is fixed, and does not vary with altitude or air temperature or the length of the runway to be used for takeoff or landing. A different weight the maximum takeoff weight, or regulated takeoff weight, varies according to flap setting, altitude, air temperature, length of runway. It is different from one takeoff to the next, but can never be higher than the MTOW, certification standards applicable to the airworthiness of an aircraft contain many requirements. Performance requirements – to ensure the aircraft is capable of climbing at a gradient with all its engines operating. At the MTOW, all aircraft of a type and model must be capable of complying with all these certification requirements, with several of the manufacturers of large aircraft, the same model of aircraft can have more than one MTOW. An operator can choose to have the aircraft certified for a weight, often for a reduced cost with an option to later increase the MTOW for a fee. Some airlines which do not require a high MTOW choose to have a lower MTOW for that aircraft to reduce costs. In other examples an increased MTOW option is achieved by reinforcement due to additional or stronger materials, for example, the Airbus A330242 tonnes MTOW variant / A330neo uses Scandium–aluminium to avoid an empty weight increase. Smaller aircraft like the Cessna 208 Caravan may have an option for a reinforced undercarriage to permit an increase in MTOW, in many circumstances an aircraft may not be permitted to take off at its MTOW. In these circumstances the maximum permitted for takeoff will be determined taking account of the following, Wing flap setting. See the Spanair Flight 5022 crash Airfield altitude – This affects air pressure which affects maximum engine power or thrust, air temperature – This affects air density which affects maximum engine power or thrust. Length of runway – A short runway means the aircraft has less distance to accelerate to takeoff speed, the length for computation of maximum permitted takeoff weight may be adjusted if the runway has clearways and/or stopways. Runway wind component – The best condition is a strong headwind straight along the runway, the worst condition is a tailwind. If there is a crosswind it is the component along the runway which must be taken into account. Condition of runway – The best runway for taking off is a dry, an unpaved runway or one with traces of snow will provide more rolling friction which will cause the airplane to accelerate more slowly. See the Munich air disaster Obstacles – An airplane must be able to take off and gain height to clear all obstacles
34.
Aircraft engine
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An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines, in commercial aviation, the major players in the manufacturing of turbofan engines are Pratt & Whitney, General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and CFM International. In general aviation, the dominant manufacturer of engines has been Pratt & Whitney. General Electric announced in 2015 entrance into the market,1848, John Stringfellow made a steam engine for a 10-foot wingspan model aircraft which achieved the first powered flight, albeit with negligible payload. 1903, Charlie Taylor built an inline aeroengine for the Wright Flyer,1903, Manly-Balzer engine sets standards for later radial engines. 1906, Léon Levavasseur produces a successful water-cooled V8 engine for aircraft use,1908, René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine. 1908, Louis Seguin designed the Gnome Omega, the worlds first rotary engine to be produced in quantity. In 1909 a Gnome powered Farman III aircraft won the prize for the greatest non-stop distance flown at the Reims Grande Semaine dAviation setting a record for endurance of 180 kilometres. 1910, Coandă-1910, a ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust gases into the duct to augment thrust,1930, Frank Whittle submitted his first patent for turbojet engine. June 1939, Heinkel He 176 is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a rocket engine. August 1939, Heinkel HeS3 turbojet propels the pioneering German Heinkel He 178 aircraft,1940, Jendrassik Cs-1, the worlds first run of a turboprop engine. It is not put into service,1943 Daimler-Benz DB670, first turbofan runs 1944, Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet, the worlds first rocket-propelled combat aircraft deployed. 1945, First turboprop powered aircraft flies, a Gloster Meteor with two Rolls-Royce Trent engines,1947, Bell X-1 rocket propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound. 1948,100 shp 782, the first turboshaft engine to be applied to aircraft use,1949, Leduc 010, the worlds first ramjet-powered aircraft flight. 1950, Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, enters service,1968, General Electric TF39 high bypass turbofan enters service delivering greater thrust and much better efficiency. 2002, HyShot scramjet flew in dive,2004, NASA X-43, the first scramjet to maintain altitude. This is typically to differentiate them from radial engines, a straight engine typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-cylinder engines
35.
V speeds
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In aviation, V-speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the operation of all aircraft. Using them is considered a best practice to maximize aviation safety, the actual speeds represented by these designators are specific to a particular model of aircraft. They are expressed by the indicated airspeed, so that pilots may use them directly, without having to apply correction factors. In general aviation aircraft, the most commonly used and most safety-critical airspeeds are displayed as color-coded arcs, the lower ends of the green arc and the white arc are the stalling speed with wing flaps retracted, and stalling speed with wing flaps fully extended, respectively. These are the speeds for the aircraft at its maximum weight. The yellow range is the range in which the aircraft may be operated in air, and then only with caution to avoid abrupt control movement, and the red line is the Vne. Proper display of V speeds is a requirement for type-certificated aircraft in most countries. The most common V-speeds are often defined by a particular governments aviation regulations, in the United States, these are defined in title 14 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations, known as the Federal Aviation Regulations or FARs. In Canada, the body, Transport Canada, defines 26 commonly used V-speeds in their Aeronautical Information Manual. V-speed definitions in FAR23,25 and equivalent are for designing and certification of airplanes, the descriptions below are for use by pilots. These V-speeds are defined by regulations and they are typically defined with constraints such as weight, configuration, or phases of flight, some of these constraints have been omitted to simplify the description. Some of these V-speeds are specific to types of aircraft and are not defined by regulations. Whenever a limiting speed is expressed by a Mach number, it is expressed relative to the speed of sound, e. g. VMO, Maximum operating speed, MMO, V1 is the critical engine failure recognition speed or takeoff decision speed. It is the speed above which the takeoff will continue if a engine fails or another problem occurs. Aborting a takeoff after V1 is strongly discouraged because the aircraft will by definition not be able to stop before the end of the runway, Transport Canada defines it as, Critical engine failure recognition speed and adds, This definition is not restrictive. An operator may adopt any other definition outlined in the flight manual of TC type-approved aircraft as long as such definition does not compromise operational safety of the aircraft. Getting to grips with aircraft performance, flight Operations Support & Line Assistance
36.
Thrust-to-weight ratio
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The instantaneous thrust-to-weight ratio of a vehicle varies continually during operation due to progressive consumption of fuel or propellant and in some cases a gravity gradient. The thrust-to-weight ratio based on initial thrust and weight is often published and used as a figure of merit for quantitative comparison of the performance of vehicles. The thrust-to-weight ratio can be calculated by dividing the thrust by the weight of the engine or vehicle, note that the thrust can also be measured in pound-force provided the weight is measured in pounds, the division of these two values still gives the numerically correct thrust-to-weight ratio. For valid comparison of the initial ratio of two or more engines or vehicles, thrust must be measured under controlled conditions. The thrust-to-weight ratio and wing loading are the two most important parameters in determining the performance of an aircraft, for example, the thrust-to-weight ratio of a combat aircraft is a good indicator of the maneuverability of the aircraft. The thrust-to-weight ratio varies continually during a flight, thrust varies with throttle setting, airspeed, altitude and air temperature. Weight varies with fuel burn and changes of payload, for aircraft, the quoted thrust-to-weight ratio is often the maximum static thrust at sea-level divided by the maximum takeoff weight. In cruising flight, the ratio of an aircraft is the inverse of the lift-to-drag ratio because thrust is the inverse of drag. Rockets and rocket-propelled vehicles operate in a range of gravitational environments. The thrust-to-weight ratio is calculated from initial gross weight at sea-level on earth and is sometimes called Thrust-to-Earth-weight ratio. The thrust-to-Earth-weight ratio of a rocket or rocket-propelled vehicle is an indicator of its acceleration expressed in multiples of earth’s gravitational acceleration, the thrust-to-weight ratio for a rocket varies as the propellant is burned. If the thrust is constant, then the ratio is achieved just before the propellant is fully consumed. Each rocket has a characteristic thrust-to-weight curve or acceleration curve, not just a scalar quantity, for a takeoff from the surface of the earth using thrust and no aerodynamic lift, the thrust-to-weight ratio for the whole vehicle must be more than one. In general, the ratio is numerically equal to the g-force that the vehicle can generate. Take-off can occur when the vehicles g-force exceeds local gravity, many factors affect a thrust-to-weight ratio. The instantaneous value typically varies over the flight with the variations of thrust due to speed and altitude along with the due to the remaining propellant. The main factors include air temperature, pressure, density. Depending on the engine or vehicle under consideration, the performance will often be affected by buoyancy
37.
Antonov An-124 Ruslan
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The Antonov An-124 Ruslan is a strategic airlift jet aircraft. It was designed in the 1980s by the Antonov design bureau in the Ukrainian SSR, the An-124 remains the largest military transport aircraft in the world. During development it was known as Izdeliye 400 in house, first flown in 1982, civil certification was issued on 30 December 1992. In July 2013,26 An-124s were in service with 10 on order. In August 2014, it was reported that Antonov An-124 production was stopped due to the political tensions between Russia and Ukraine. The various operators of the An-124 are in discussions with respect to the continuing airworthiness certification of the individual An-124 planes, the original designer of the An-124 is responsible for managing the certification process for its own products, but Russian/Ukrainian conflicts are making this process difficult to manage. During the 1970s, the Military Transport Aviation arm of the Soviet Air Forces had a shortfall in strategic airlift capacity. Its largest planes consisted of about 50 Antonov An-22 turboprops, which were used heavily for tactical roles, a classified 1975 CIA analysis concluded that the USSR did. not match the US in ability to provide long-range heavy lift support. The An-124 was manufactured in parallel by two plants, the Russian company Aviastar-SP and by the Kyiv Aviation Plant AVIANT, in Ukraine, design work started in 1971 and construction of facilities began in 1973. Manufacturing on the first airframe began in 1979, ultimately this project brought together over 100 factories contracted to produce systems and parts. The first flight took place in December 1982 and the first exposure to the West followed in 1985 at the Paris Air Show, Russia and Ukraine agreed to resume the production in the third quarter of 2008. In May 2008, a new variant—the An-124-150—was announced, it featured several improvements, however, in May 2009, Antonovs partner, the Russian United Aircraft Corporation announced it did not plan production of An-124s in the period 2009–2012. In late 2009, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev ordered production of the aircraft resumed and it is expected that Russia will purchase 20 new aircraft. Externally, the An-124 is similar to the American Lockheed C-5 Galaxy and it is slightly shorter, with a slightly greater wingspan, and a 25% larger payload. Instead of the Galaxys T-tail, the An-124 uses a conventional empennage, the aircraft uses oleo strut suspension for its 24 wheels. The suspension has been calibrated to allow landing on rough terrain and is able to kneel to allow easier front loading, the plane has an onboard overhead crane capable of lifting up to 30 tonnes of cargo, and items up to 120 tonnes can be winched on board. Up to 150 tonnes of cargo can be carried in a military An-124, the cargo compartment of An-124 is 36×6. 4×4.4 m, ca. 20% larger than the main cargo compartment of C-5 Galaxy, which is 36. 91×5. 79×4.09 m. Due to limited pressurisation in the cargo compartment, it seldom carries paratroopers
38.
Shuttle Carrier Aircraft
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The Shuttle Carrier Aircraft were two extensively modified Boeing 747 airliners that NASA used to transport Space Shuttle orbiters. One is a 747-100 model, while the other is a short range 747-100SR, the SCAs were used to ferry Space Shuttles from landing sites back to the Shuttle Landing Facility at the Kennedy Space Center. In approach and landing test flights conducted in 1977, the test shuttle Enterprise was released from an SCA during flight, Air Force would have retained ownership of the C-5, while NASA could own the 747s outright. The first aircraft, a Boeing 747-100 registered N905NA, was manufactured for American Airlines. The aircraft was modified for NASA by Boeing in 1976. While first-class seats were kept for NASA passengers, its cabin and insulation were stripped, mounting struts were added. Vertical stabilizers were added to the tail to aid stability when the Orbiter was being carried, the avionics and engines were also upgraded, and an escape tunnel system similar to that used on Boeings first 747 test flights was added. The flight crew escape system was later removed following the completion of the Approach. Flying with the drag and weight of the Orbiter imposed significant fuel. The range was reduced to 1,000 nautical miles, compared to a range of 5500 nautical miles. Without the Orbiter, the SCA needed to carry ballast to balance out its center of gravity, the SCA had an altitude ceiling of 15,000 feet and a maximum cruise speed of Mach 0.6 with the orbiter attached. A crew of 170 took a week to prepare the shuttle, studies were conducted to equip the SCA with aerial refueling equipment, a modification already made to the U. S. Air Force E-4 and 747 tanker transports for the IIAF. However, during formation flying with an aircraft to test refueling approaches. While these were not likely to have been caused by the test flights, since there was no urgent need to provide an aerial refueling capacity, the tests were suspended. By 1983, SCA N905NA no longer carried the distinct American Airlines tricolor cheatline, NASA replaced it with its own livery, consisting of a white fuselage and a single blue cheatline. That year, this aircraft was used to fly Enterprise on a tour in Europe, with refuelling stops in Goose Bay, Canada, Keflavik, Iceland, England. It then went to the Paris Air Show, in 1988, in the wake of the Challenger accident, NASA procured a surplus 747-100SR from Japan Airlines. Registered N911NA it entered service with NASA in 1990 after undergoing modifications similar to N905NA and it was first used in 1991 to ferry the new shuttle Endeavour from the manufacturers in Palmdale, California to Kennedy Space Center
39.
Boeing 747-8
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The Boeing 747-8 is a wide-body jet airliner developed by Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Officially announced in 2005, the 747-8 is the generation of the 747, with a lengthened fuselage, redesigned wings. The 747-8 is the largest 747 version, the largest commercial aircraft built in the United States, the 747-8 is offered in two main variants, the 747-8 Intercontinental for passengers and the 747-8 Freighter for cargo. The first 747-8F performed the maiden flight on February 8,2010. Delivery of the first freighter aircraft occurred in October 2011 and the model began deliveries in 2012. As of January 2017, confirmed orders for the 747-8 total 136,88 of the freighter version, Boeing had considered larger-capacity versions of the 747 several times during the 1990s and 2000s. The 747-500X and -600X, proposed at the 1996 Farnborough Airshow, would have stretched the 747 and used a 777-derived wing, in 2000, Boeing offered the 747X and 747X Stretch derivatives as alternatives to the Airbus A3XX. This was a more modest proposal than the previous −500X and −600X, the 747X would increase the 747s wingspan to 229 ft by adding a segment at the root. The 747X was to carry 430 passengers up to 8,700 nmi, the 747X Stretch would be extended to 263 ft long, allowing it to carry 500 passengers up to 7,800 nmi. However, the 747X family was unable to attract enough interest to enter production, some of the ideas developed for the 747X were used on the 747-400ER. After the 747X program, Boeing continued to study improvements to the 747, the 747-400XQLR was meant to have an increased range of 7,980 nmi, with better fuel efficiency and reduced noise. Changes studied included raked wingtips similar to those used on the 767-400ER, although the 747-400XQLR did not move to production, many of its features were used for the 747 Advanced. In early 2004, Boeing announced tentative plans for the 747 Advanced that were eventually adopted, similar in nature to the 747X, the stretched 747 Advanced used technology from the Boeing 787 Dreamliner to modernize the design and its systems. On November 14,2005, Boeing announced that it was launching the 747 Advanced as the Boeing 747-8, the 747-8 was designed to be the first lengthened 747 to go into production. The 747-8 and shortened 747SP are the only 747 variants with a fuselage of modified length, the 747-8 was intended to use the same engine and cockpit technology as that of the 787, including the General Electric GEnx turbofan and partial fly-by-wire. Boeing said that the new design would be quieter, more economical, as a derivative of the already-common 747-400, the 747-8 has the economic benefit of similar training and interchangeable parts. Boeing firmed the 747-8 Freighters configuration in October 2006, the 747-8, as the current new development of Boeings largest airliner, is notably in direct competition on long-haul routes with the Airbus A380, a full-length double-deck aircraft now in service. For airlines seeking very large passenger airliners, the two have been pitched as competitors on various occasions, production of the first 747-8 Freighter began in Everett in early August 2008
40.
Airbus Beluga
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The Airbus A300-600ST or Beluga, is a version of the standard A300-600 wide-body airliner modified to carry aircraft parts and oversized cargo. It received the name of Super Transporter early on, however, the name Beluga. The Beluga XL, based on the Airbus A330 with similar modifications and dimensions, is being developed by Airbus to replace the type around 2020, several major aircraft manufacturers are multinational, and it is not unusual for them to have plants in widely separated locations. Airbus is unique in that although it is today a standalone multinational corporation, it was originally a consortium formed by the major British, French, German, and Spanish aerospace companies. The geographic location of Airbus manufacturing is not only influenced by cost and convenience, it is also a matter of aviation history and national interest. When Airbus started in 1970, road vehicles were used for the movement of components and sections, however. From 1972 onwards, a fleet of four highly modified Super Guppies took over, Airbus use of the Super Guppies led to the jest that every Airbus is delivered on the wings of a Boeing. The selected starting point for the design was the Airbus A300, the A300-600ST was not a like-for-like replacement, being larger, faster, and more efficient than the preceding Super Guppies. Airbus Industries elected to invest $1 billion into the program, this sum included the aircraft themselves, the loading system. In September 1992, construction begun on the first aircraft. In addition to the first aircraft, four more Belugas were constructed at a rate of one per year, from start to finish. Modification work was performed at Toulouse using components provided by the Airbus assembly line, originally a total of four aircraft were to be built along with an option for a fifth aircraft being available, which was later firmed up. The fleets primary task is to carry Airbus components ready for final assembly across Europe between Toulouse, Hamburg and nine sites, and they do so 60 times per week. In May 1998, ATI reportedly had an annual target of $15 million to be achieved via leasing spare capacity. Over time, the Beluga has been used to carry a variety of loads, including space station components, large and delicate artwork, industrial machinery. The A300-600STs freight compartment is 7.4 m in diameter and 37.7 m long, Airbus previously considered the A330-300 and A340-500, but each require too much of the limited 1,663 m runway 04 at Hawarden Airport near Broughton in Wales. In May 2015, Airbus confirmed that the new aircraft will have a 1 m wider cross-section than its predecessor, the Beluga XL is intended primarily for A350 work, and is designed with capacity to ship two A350 wings simultaneously. The A300-600ST Beluga shares many similarities, although substantially differing in appearance
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Boeing Dreamlifter
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The Boeing 747 Dreamlifter is a wide-body cargo aircraft. At 65,000 cubic feet the cargo hold is the largest in the world and it can hold three times the volume of a 747-400F freighter. Cargo is placed in the aircraft by the worlds longest cargo loader and it is an extensively modified Boeing 747-400 that is used exclusively for transporting Boeing 787 Dreamliner aircraft components to Boeings assembly plants from suppliers around the world. The LCF conversion was designed by Boeings Moscow bureau and Boeing Rocketdyne with the swing tail designed in partnership with Gamesa Aeronáutica of Spain. The first 747 Large Cargo Freighter was rolled out of the hangar at Taipei Taoyuan International Airport on August 17,2006 and it successfully completed its first test flight on September 9,2006 from this airport. The 747 LCFs unusual appearance has drawn comparisons to the Oscar Mayer Wienermobile, on September 16,2006, N747BC arrived at Boeing Field, Seattle to complete the flight test program. Swing-tail testing was done at the Boeing factory in Everett, the second airplane, N780BA, made its inaugural test flight on February 16,2007. The third began modification in 2007, the first two LCFs entered service in 2007 to support the final assembly of the first 787 Dreamliners. Delivery times for the 787s wings, built in Japan, will be reduced from around 30 days to just over eight hours with the 747 LCF. Evergreen International Airlines, a U. S. air freight operator based in McMinnville, Oregon, then Atlas Air, which was awarded a nine-year contract for the operation of the aircraft in March 2010, took over LCF operation. Evergreen had achieved a 93% on flight performance with the LCF, and sued Boeing for $175 million. In June 2006, the first DBL-100 cargo loader used for loading 787 parts into the 747 LCF was completed, in December 2006, Boeing announced the 747 LCF would be named Dreamlifter, a reference to the 787s name, Dreamliner. It unveiled a standard livery for the aircraft included a logo reminiscent of the 787s Dreamliner logo. Certification was initially planned for early 2007, but was pushed back to June 2007, the aircrafts winglets were removed to resolve excess vibration and other handling characteristics prior to final certification. In the meantime, as part of the flight test program, LCF delivered major sections of the 787 from partner sites around the world to the Boeing factory in Everett, the 747 LCF was granted FAA type certification on June 2,2007. From its first flight in 2006 until certification in 2007, the Dreamlifter completed 437 hours of testing along with 639 hours of ground testing. Of the four 747 Dreamlifters Boeing acquired, three were complete and operational by June 2008, and the became operational in February 2010. On November 20,2013, Dreamlifter N780BA operated by Atlas Air inadvertently landed at Colonel James Jabara Airport and its intended destination was McConnell Air Force Base,9 miles past Jabara Airport on the same heading
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
