1.
Poland
–
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
Poland
–
Reconstruction of a
Bronze Age,
Lusatian culture settlement in
Biskupin, c. 700 BC
Poland
–
Flag
Poland
–
Earliest known contemporary depiction of a Polish ruler; King
Mieszko II Lambert of Poland being presented with a
Liturgical book by
Matilda of Swabia, 1025–1031
Poland
–
Drawing of the
Battle of Grunwald, which was fought against the
German Order of Teutonic Knights, 15 July 1410
2.
Voivodeships of Poland
–
A województwo is the highest-level administrative subdivision of Poland, corresponding to a province in many other countries. The term województwo has been in use since the 14th century, the word województwo is also rendered as voivodeship or a variant spelling. The Polish local government reforms adopted in 1998, which went into effect on 1 January 1999 and these replaced the 49 former voivodeships that had existed from 1 July 1975. Todays voivodeships are mostly named after historical and geographical regions, while prior to 1998 generally took their names from the cities on which they were centered. The new units range in area from under 10,000 km2 to over 35,000 km2, voivodeships are further divided into powiats and gminas, see Administrative divisions of Poland. Competences and powers at voivodeship level are shared between the voivode, the sejmik and the marshal. In most cases these institutions are all based in one city, but in Kuyavian-Pomeranian and Lubusz Voivodeship the voivodes offices are in a different city from those of the executive, Voivodeship capitals are listed in the table below. The voivode is appointed by the Prime Minister and is the representative of the central government. The voivodes offices collectively are known as the urząd wojewódzki, the sejmik is elected every four years, at the same time as the local authorities at powiat and gmina level. It passes bylaws, including the development strategies and budget. It also elects the marszałek and other members of the executive, the marshals offices are collectively known as the urząd marszałkowski. According to 2014 Eurostat data, the GDP per capita of Polish voivodeships varies notably, Administrative division of Poland between 1979 and 1998 included 49 voivodeships upheld after the establishment of the Third Polish Republic in 1989 for another decade. This reorganization of administrative division of Poland was mainly a result of government reform acts of 1973–1975. In place of the administrative division, a new two-level administrative division was introduced. The three smallest voivodeships – Warsaw, Kraków and Łódź – had the status of municipal voivodeship. After World War II, the new division of the country within the new national borders was based on the prewar one and included 14 voivodeships. The voivodeships in the east that had not been annexed by the Soviet Union had their borders left almost unchanged. The newly acquired territories in the west and north were organized into the new voivodeships of Szczecin, Wrocław and Olsztyn, two cities were granted voivodeship status, Warsaw and Łódź
Voivodeships of Poland
–
Voivodeships 1816-1820
Voivodeships of Poland
–
Voivodeships of Poland Województwa Polski (
Polish)
Voivodeships of Poland
–
Voivodeships of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1635
3.
Silesian Voivodeship
–
The Silesian Voivodeship, or Silesia Province, is a voivodeship, or province, in southern Poland, centered on the historic region known as Upper Silesia, with Katowice serving as its capital. The Voivodeship was created on 1 January 1999 out of the former Katowice, Częstochowa and Bielsko-Biała Voivodeships and it is the most densely populated voivodeship in Poland and within the area of 12,300 squared kilometres, there are almost 5 million inhabitants. It is also the largest urbanised area in Central and Eastern Europe, in relation to economy, over 13% of Poland’s Gross Domestic Product is generated here, making the Silesian Voivodeship one of the wealthiest provinces in the country. For the first time Silesian Voivodeship was appointed in Second Polish Republic and it had much wider range of power autonomy, than other contemporary Polish voivodeships and it covered all historical lands of Upper Silesia, which ended up in the Interwar period Poland. This Voivodeship did not include – as opposed to the present one – lands, after aggression of Nazi Germany, on 8 October 1939, Hitler published a decree About division and administration of Eastern Territories. A Silesian Province was created, with a seat in Breslau and it consisted of four districts, Kattowitz, Oppeln, Breslau and Liegnitz. However, according to Hitler’s dectee from 12 October 1939 about establishing General Government, Oppeln District – Lubinitz county and parts of Tschenstochau and Warthenau counties. After the War during 1945 -1950 there existed a Silesian Voivodeship, commonly known as Śląsko-Dąbrowskie Voivodeship, in 1950 Śląsko-Dąbrowskie Voivodeship was divided into Opole and Katowice Voivodeships. The latter one had borders similar to the borders of modern Silesian Voivodeship and it is also bordered by four other Polish voivodeships, those of Opole, Łódź, Świętokrzyskie, and Lesser Poland. The region includes the Silesian Upland in the centre and north-west, the southern border is formed by the Beskidy Mountains. The current administrative unit of Silesian Voivodeship is just a fraction of the historical Silesia which is within the borders of todays Poland, Other parts of todays Polish Silesia are administered as the Opole, the Lower Silesian Voivodeships and the Lubusz Voivodeship. On the other hand, a part of the current administrative unit of the Silesian Voivodeship is not part of historical Silesia. Silesian Voivodeship has the highest population density in the country, the regions considerable industrialisation gives it the lowest unemployment rate nationally. The Silesian region is the most industrialized and the most urbanized region in Poland, 78% of its live in towns. Both northern and southern part of the voivodeship is surrounded by a green belt, Bielsko-Biała is enveloped by the Beskidy Mountains which are popular with winter sports fans. It offers over 150 ski lifts and 200 kilometres of ski routes, more and more slopes are illuminated and equipped with artificial snow generators. Szczyrk, Brenna, Wisła and Ustroń are the most popular mountain resorts. Rock climbing sites can be found in Jura Krakowsko-Czestochowska, the ruins of castles forming the Eagle Nests Trail are a famous attraction of the region
Silesian Voivodeship
–
Palace and park in
Wodzisław Śląski, south-west Silesia
Silesian Voivodeship
–
Silesian Voivodeship Województwo śląskie
Silesian Voivodeship
–
Katowice is the capital of the Silesian Voivodeship
Silesian Voivodeship
–
Jasna Góra in
Częstochowa is the holiest catholic shrine in Poland
4.
Powiat
–
A powiat is the second-level unit of local government and administration in Poland, equivalent to a county, district or prefecture in other countries. The term powiat is most often translated into English as county, a powiat is part of a larger unit, the voivodeship or province. A powiat is usually subdivided into gminas, major towns and cities, however, function as separate counties in their own right, without subdivision into gminas. They are termed city counties and have roughly the same status as county boroughs in the UK. The other type of powiats are termed land counties, as of 2008, there were 379 powiat-level entities,314 land counties, and 65 city counties. For a complete listing, see List of Polish counties. For tables of counties by voivodeship, see the articles on the individual voivodeships, the history of Polish powiats goes back to the second half of the 14th century. They remained the basic unit of organization in Poland, then in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. After Poland regained independence in 1918, the powiats were again the territorial units. Powiats were abolished in 1975 in favor of a number of voivodeships. This reform also created 16 larger voivodeships, legislative power within a powiat is vested in an elected council, while local executive power is vested in the starosta, who is elected by that council. The administrative offices headed by the starosta are called the starostwo, however, in city counties these institutions do not exist separately – their powers and functions are exercised by the city council, the directly elected mayor, and the city offices. In some cases a powiat has its seat outside its own territory, for example, Poznań County has its offices in Poznań, although Poznań is itself a city county, and is therefore not part of Poznań County. Powiats have relatively limited powers, since many local and regional matters are dealt with either at gmina or voivodeship level, the Polish the name of an county, in the administrative sense, consists of the word powiat followed by a masculine-gender adjective. In most cases, this is the formed from the name of the town or city where the county has its seat. Thus the county with its seat at the town of Kutno is named powiat kutnowski, if the name of the seat comprises a noun followed by an adjective, as in Maków Mazowiecki, the adjective will generally be formed from the noun only. There are also a few counties whose names are derived from the names of two towns, from the name of a city and an adjective, or a mountain range. There is more one way to render such names into English
Powiat
–
Division of Poland into powiats (counties)
5.
Urban area
–
An urban area is a human settlement with high population density and infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas are created through urbanization and are categorized by urban morphology as cities, in urbanism, the term contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets and in urban sociology or urban anthropology it contrasts with natural environment. The worlds urban population in 1950 of just 746 million has increased to 3.9 billion in the decades since, in 2009, the number of people living in urban areas surpassed the number living in rural areas and since then the world has become more urban than rural. This was the first time that the majority of the population lived in a city. In 2014 there were 7.25 billion people living on the planet, Urban areas are created and further developed by the process of urbanization. Urban areas are measured for various purposes, including analyzing population density, historian John Gurda writes, I have tried to uncover Milwaukees civic bedrock - the shifting foundation on which individuals have built their lives and the community has constructed its identity. There is no doubt that the deepest layer of bedrock is economic. In every age, people have chosen to live in areas not because of their climates or landmarks or cultural attractions. It was economic opportunity that brought people to Milwaukee, and it is economic opportunity that keeps them there, I define cities as concentrations of people animated by concentrations of capital. More simply put, money is the root of all cities, official definitions vary somewhat between nations. The ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population, about 3 million people live in Buenos Aires City and the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area totals around 13 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world. The metropolitan areas of Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza and Tucumán have around 1.3 million inhabitants each and La Plata, seven other provinces have over one million people each, Mendoza, Tucumán, Entre Ríos, Salta, Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones. According to IBGE urban areas already concentrate 84. 35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants. The largest metropolitan areas in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte — all in the Southeastern Region — with 20,12, and 5 million inhabitants respectively. The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, there are also non-capital metropolitan areas in the states of São Paulo, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. According to Statistics Canada, an area in Canada is an area with a population of at least 1,000 people where the density is no fewer than 400 persons per square kilometre. If two or more areas are within 2 km of each other by road, they are merged into a single urban area. Accordingly, the new definition set out three types of population centres, small, medium and large
Urban area
–
Greater Tokyo Area, the world's most populous urban area, with about 35 million people.
Urban area
–
Buenos Aires Córdoba
Urban area
Urban area
–
Rosario Mendoza
6.
Metropolitan area
–
As social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. The Greater São Paulo is a term for one of the multiple definitions the large metropolitan area located in the São Paulo state in Brazil. A metropolitan area combines an urban agglomeration with zones not necessarily urban in character and these outlying zones are sometimes known as a commuter belt, and may extend well beyond the urban zone, to other political entities. For example, El Monte, California is considered part of the Los Angeles metro area in the United States, in practice, the parameters of metropolitan areas, in both official and unofficial usage, are not consistent. Population figures given for one area can vary by millions. A polycentric metropolitan area is one not connected by continuous development or conurbation, in defining a metropolitan area, it is sufficient that a city or cities form a nucleus that other areas have a high degree of integration with. The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines statistical divisions as areas under the influence of one or more major towns or a major city. However, this definition has become obsolete with the conurbation of several statistical divisions into a larger metropolitan areas. In Brazil, metropolitan areas are called metropolitan regions, each State defines its own legislation for the creation, definition and organization of a metropolitan region. The creation of a region is not intended for any statistical purpose, although the Brazilian Institute of Geography. Their main purpose is to allow for a management of public policies of common interest to all cities involved. They dont have political, electoral or jurisdictional power whatsoever, so living in a metropolitan region do not elect representatives for them. Statistics Canada defines a metropolitan area as an area consisting of one or more adjacent municipalities situated around a major urban core. To form a CMA, the area must have a population of at least 100,000. To be included in the CMA, adjacent municipalities must have a degree of integration with the core. As of the Canada 2011 Census, there were 33 CMAs in Canada, including six with a population over one million—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary and Edmonton. In Denmark the only area is Greater Copenhagen, consisting of the Capital Region of Denmark along with the neighboring regions Region Zealand. Greater Copenhagen has an population of 1.25 million people
Metropolitan area
–
Greater Buenos Aires,
Argentina
Metropolitan area
–
Paris (
France), one of Europe's major centres
Metropolitan area
–
Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area,
Israel
Metropolitan area
–
Perth, Western Australia, an isolated metropolitan area
7.
Daylight saving time
–
Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
–
Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
–
G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
–
Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
–
William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
8.
Central European Summer Time
–
It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
Central European Summer Time
–
light blue
9.
Polish car number plates
–
Polish vehicle registration plates indicate the region of registration of the vehicle encoded in the number plate. According to Polish law, the plate is tied to the vehicle. There is no possibility for the owner to keep the number for use on a different car. The licence plates are issued by the powiat of the vehicle owners registered address of residence, if it is owned by a legal person, the place of registration is determined by the address of its seat. Vehicles leased under operating leases and many de facto finance leases will be registered at the seat of the lessor, when a vehicle changes hands, the new owner must apply for new vehicle registration document bearing his or her name and registered address. The new owner may obtain a new licence plate although it is not necessary when new owners residence address lies in the area as the previous owners. In such a situation the licence plates are carried over to the new owner. If the car has a pre- May 1,2006 plate, the plaque cannot be replaced if destroyed. The change of the set is required. The change in system shown below in 2001 is related to the reduction in the year of the number of voivodeships in Poland from 49 to 16. The pre-2001 licence plates can be used indefinitely, but since they are obsolete they have to be replaced in case of change of vehicles ownership. In the pre-2001 model, there were not sufficient letters in the Polish alphabet for each of the old voivodeships to have a single letter, only the standard latin alphabet were used, the specific Polish characters with diacritics were excluded in order to make the plates fully internationally readable. Therefore, two letters had to be used to indicate the vehicles origin, since the change, the first letter denotes the new voivodeship. One additional letter is used in cities with rights of powiat, two additional letters are used in any other powiat. It is not necessary for EU citizens to re-register the vehicles they have brought them, which are duly registered and taxed elsewhere in the EU. This emerges from European law, although local regulations have to not been changed to reflect the law. If in doubt, refer to your Embassy, if the vehicle uses only one licence plate the excessive sticker must be attached to the registration papers. Each powiat uses a two or three letter code, with the first letter denoting the powiats voivodeship
Polish car number plates
–
Polish license plates from
Radomsko
Polish car number plates
–
Polish voivodeship licence plate codes
Polish car number plates
–
Polish license plate from
Ustrzyki Dolne
Polish car number plates
–
Motorcycle plate from
Wrocław
10.
German language
–
German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
German language
–
Old Frisian (Alt-Friesisch)
German language
–
The widespread popularity of the
Bible translated into German by
Martin Luther helped establish modern German
German language
–
Examples of German language in
Namibian everyday life
German language
–
German-language newspapers in the U.S. in 1922
11.
City
–
A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
City
–
1908 map of
Piraeus, the port of
Athens, showing the grid plan of the city
City
–
Ancient
Ur of
Sumer in present-day Tell el-Mukayyar in
Iraq, one of the world's earliest cities
City
–
Mohenjo-daro, a
World Heritage site that was part of the
Indus Valley Civilization
City
–
A map dating 1669 showing the location of
Multan, Pakistan
12.
Silesia
–
Silesia is a region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic and Germany. Its area is about 40,000 km2, and its population about 8,000,000, Silesia is located along the Oder River. It consists of Lower Silesia and Upper Silesia, the region is rich in mineral and natural resources, and includes several important industrial areas. Silesias largest city and historical capital is Wrocław, the biggest metropolitan area is the Upper Silesian metropolitan area, the centre of which is Katowice. Parts of the Czech city of Ostrava fall within the borders of Silesia, Silesias borders and national affiliation have changed over time, both when it was a hereditary possession of noble houses and after the rise of modern nation-states. The first known states to hold there were probably those of Greater Moravia at the end of the 9th century. In the 10th century, Silesia was incorporated into the early Polish state, in the 14th century, it became a constituent part of the Bohemian Crown Lands under the Holy Roman Empire, which passed to the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in 1526. Most of Silesia was conquered by Prussia in 1742, later becoming part of the German Empire, the Weimar Republic, the varied history with changing aristocratic possessions resulted in an abundance of castles in Silesia, especially in the Jelenia Góra valley. The remaining former Austrian parts of Silesia were partitioned to Czechoslovakia, in 1945, after World War II, the bulk of Silesia was transferred to Polish jurisdiction by the Potsdam Agreement of the victorious Allied Powers and became part of Poland. The small Lusatian strip west of the Oder-Neisse line, which had belonged to Silesia since 1815 and its centres are Görlitz and Bautzen. Most inhabitants of Silesia today speak the languages of their respective countries. The population of Upper Silesia is native, while Lower Silesia was settled by a German-speaking population before 1945, an ongoing debate exists whether Silesian speech should be considered a dialect of Polish or a separate language. Also, a Lower Silesian German dialect is used, although today it is almost extinct and it is used by expellees within Germany, as well as Germans who were left behind. The names all relate to the name of a river and mountain in mid-southern Silesia, the mountain served as a cultic place. Ślęża is listed as one of the numerous Pre-Indo-European topographic names in the region, according to some Polish Slavists, the name Ślęża or Ślęż is directly related to the Old Slavic words ślęg or śląg, which means dampness, moisture, or humidity. They disagree with the hypothesis of an origin for the name Śląsk from the name of the Silings tribe, in the fourth century BC, Celts entered Silesia, settling around Mount Ślęża near modern Wrocław, Oława, and Strzelin. Germanic Lugii tribes were first recorded within Silesia in the 1st century, Slavic peoples arrived in the region around the 7th century, and by the early ninth century, their settlements had stabilized. Local Slavs started to erect boundary structures like the Silesian Przesieka, the eastern border of Silesian settlement was situated to the west of the Bytom, and east from Racibórz and Cieszyn
Silesia
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Silesia in an early period of
Poland's fragmentation, 1172–1177
Silesia
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Historic Silesia, superimposed on modern national borders: The medieval and early modern Bohemian and Habsburg province outlined in cyan, Prussian Silesia in yellow.
Silesia
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First map of Silesia by
Martin Helwig, 1561; north at the bottom
Silesia
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Coal Mine Bolesław Śmiały, Łaziska Górne
13.
Katowice
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Katowice /ˌkætəˈviːtsə/ is a city in southwestern Poland and the center of the Silesian Metropolis, with a population of 299,910 as of 2015. Throughout the mid-18th century, Katowice had developed into a village upon the discovery of coal reserves in the area. In 1742 the infamous Silesian War transferred Upper Silesia, including Katowice, simultaneously Silesia experienced the influx of the first Jewish settlers. In the first half of the 19th century, intensive industrialization transformed local mills and farms into industrial steelworks, mines, foundries and this also contributed to the establishment of companies and eventual rapid growth of the city. At the same time, Katowice became linked to the system with the first train arriving at the main station in 1847. The outbreak of World War I was favourable for Katowice due to the steel industry. Following Germanys defeat and the Silesian Uprisings aimed at unfair pro-German plebiscites, Katowice, Poland was then backed by the Geneva Convention and the ethnic Silesian minority. On 3 May 1921, the Polish army entered Katowice and the Polish administration took control, the city became the capital of the autonomous Silesian Voivodeship as well as the seat of the Silesian Parliament and Committee of Upper Silesia. After the plebiscite many former German citizens emigrated, however a vibrant German community remained until the end of World War II, in 1939, after the Wehrmacht seized the town, Katowice and the provinces were incorporated into the Third Reich. The town was liberated by the Allies on 27 January 1945. Katowice is a center of science, culture, industry, business, trade, and transportation in Upper Silesia and southern Poland, today, the city is considered as an emerging metropolis. The whole metropolitan area is the 16th most economically powerful city by GDP in the European Union with an output amounting to $114.5 billion, Katowice is the seat of the Polish National Radio Symphony and Orchestra. It also hosts the finals of Intel Extreme Masters, a video game tournament. The area around Katowice, in Upper Silesia, has been inhabited by ethnic Silesians from its earliest documented history, initially it was ruled by the Polish Silesian Piast dynasty until its extinction. The settlement of the area surrounding Katowice dates back to the end of the 12th century, from 1138, the Bytom castellany encompassed territories where Katowice is located nowadays. In 1177 the lands were handed over by Duke Casimir II the Just to his nephew Mieszko I Tanglefoot. From 1327, the region was under Czech administration as part of the Kingdom of Bohemia, historians assume that Katowice was founded on the right bank of the Rawa river by Andrzej Bogucki in around 1580. In 1598 a village called Villa Nova was also documented to stand in the now occupied by the city of Katowice
Katowice
Katowice
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Left to right: Skyscrapers in city center • Panorama of Miasto Katowice • Silesian Museum • Archcathedral •
Silesian Theatre • Spodek
Katowice
Katowice
14.
Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union
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The Silesian Metropolis, formally Metropolitan Association of Upper Silesia is an association of municipalities composed of 14 adjacent cities in the Polish Province of Silesia. The seat of the city council is Katowice, the largest district of the Silesian Metropolis and it is often confused as a term referring the local conurbation in a geographical context, the Katowice Urban Area and Upper Silesian metropolitan area. The Silesian Metropolis as a Katowice area lies one of the largest urban areas in European Union. It was created by local authorities with little or no actual public discourse, the intent to form the union was formally stated by the mayors of the participating cities, who signed a declaration to this effect on 9 January 2006 in Świętochłowice. The Unions registration was signed by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, in 2006 and 2007, the union planned to unite these cities into one entity, Silesia. The aim of the union is the creation of a metropolitan center with pooled resources. Nine million people live within 100 km of Silesian Stadium at the MAUS center, six European capitals are located within 600 kilometres from MAUS, Berlin, Vienna, Prague, Bratislava, Budapest and Warsaw. Outside of the area, the formation of the union appears to have less support than within it. Originally 17 cities were to enter into the union, due to technicalities in Polish law which could have prevented its legalization, nationally, the union strives to address several problems including, Poor recognition Under-investment Cities bordering directly on the Silesian Metropolis are shown below. Some of these declared their willingness to join the Silesian Metropolis. MAUS is the centre of the largest urban area in Poland and one of largest in the European Union, the area flourished in the 19th and early 20th centuries, thanks to industry and natural resources. The conurbation consists of about 40 neighbouring cities, and the Silesian metropolitan area includes over 50 cities with a population of 5 million. Katowice is also in the middle of a 7-million-population megalopolis, stretching from the Kraków region through Katowice to the Ostrava region, the area has a humid continental climate. The average temperature is 8.2 degrees Celsius, the areas characteristic light breezes blow at about 2 m/s from the west, through the Moravian Gate. MAUS is an area of concentration of industry, including coal, steel, energy, automotive, machinery. Over the last two decades, the industry has become increasingly important. Katowice is a large and dynamic business and trade-fair centre, tens of international exhibitions take place every year on the Katowice International Fairgrounds and at the Spodek arena. Katowice is also the site of the second-largest business centre in Poland, skyscrapers are located along Chorzowska and Korfantego streets in the city centre
Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union
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School in Katowice at night
Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union
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Katowice Financial Center
Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union
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Silesia City Center - a large shopping mall in Katowice, on the grounds of the old Gottwald coal mine
Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union
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Katowice Business Centre (Katowickie Centrum Biznesu)
15.
Przemsza
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Przemsza is a river in the south of Poland, a tributary of the Vistula. According to one theory, it originates at the confluence of the Black Przemsza and White Przemsza, for about 24 km it flows southwards to its Vistula mouth at Czarnuchowice. Another theory stipulates that it has the length of 88 kilometers and it is one of the most polluted rivers of Poland. It carries industrial waste from Upper Silesian and Zagłębie Dąbrowskie Coal Basin, furthermore, due to high level of pollution, the Przemsza does not freeze in winter. Among cities located along the Przemsza are Dąbrowa Górnicza, Mysłowice, Jaworzno, Chełmek, and Jezor, the Przemsza has been used for water transport since mid-18th century. By mid-19th century, it emerged as one of the most important waterways of the region, special kind of flat-bottomed, large rowboats, called galar, was used for transport of goods along the Przemsza to the Vistula. One galar took up to 70 tons of coal or stone from quarries at Jelen or Dzieckowice, in June 1926, Piast Mine from Lędziny began mass water transport of its coal, using a specially constructed port, located at the village of Chelm Maly. Other mines followed Piast, opening their own loading facilities, by 1937, there were eight such facilities along the Przemsza. Government of the Second Polish Republic had far-reaching plans about the river, a river port at Niwka was to be built, a canal Mysłowice - Spytkowice - Kraków, and a waterway to the Baltic Sea. The outbreak of World War Two terminated these plans Since the 12th century, from 1846 until 1918, on the so-called Three Emperors Corner, at the confluence of Black and White Przemsza marked the tripoint of Kingdom of Prussia, Austrian Empire and Russian Empire. Nowadays the lower Przemsza forms the border between Silesian Voivodeship in the west and Lesser Poland Voivodeship in the east, the White Przemsza is 63.9 kilometers long, and begins in a bog near Wolbrom. It flows towards the southwest, in a wide valley, the Upper White Przemsza has very clean water, which changes in the village of Klucze. Among others, the White Przemsza flows through the Błędów Desert, the Black Przemsza is 64.2 kilometers long, and its source is in Bzow, which is a district of Zawiercie since 1977. In its upper course, the water of the river is clean, but its quality gets worse in Przeczyce. Both rivers were named after the color of the water, in the past, the Black Przemsza’s bed near Bedzin was made of shallow deposits of coal. At the same time the White Przemsza flowed through limestone hills in the area of Olkusz, so its bottom was white
Przemsza
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Three Emperors' Corner
16.
Vistula River
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The Vistula is the longest and largest river in Poland, at 1,047 kilometres in length. The drainage basin area of the Vistula is 194,424 km2, the remainder is in Belarus, Ukraine and Slovakia. The Vistula rises at Barania Góra in the south of Poland,1,220 meters above sea level in the Silesian Beskids, where it begins with the White Little Vistula and the Black Little Vistula. It empties into the Vistula Lagoon or directly into the Gdańsk Bay of the Baltic Sea with a delta, the name was first recorded by Pomponius Mela in AD40 and by Pliny in AD77 in his Natural History. Mela names the river Vistula, Pliny uses Vistla, the root of the name Vistula is Indo-European *u̯eis- to ooze, flow slowly and is found in many European rivernames. The diminutive endings -ila, -ula, were used in many Indo-European languages, in writing about the Vistula River and its peoples, Ptolemy uses the Greek spelling Ouistoula. Other ancient sources spell it Istula, ammianus Marcellinus refers to the Bisula, note the absence of the -t-. Jordanes uses Viscla, while the Anglo-Saxon poem Widsith refers to it as the Wistla, the Vistula river basin covers 194,424 square kilometres, its average altitude rising to 270 metres above sea level. In addition, the majority of its basin is located at heights of 100 to 200 m above sea level. The highest point of the basin lies at 2,655 metres. The asymmetry of the basin is 73–27%. The most recent glaciation of the Pleistocene epoch, which ended around 10,000 BC, is called the Vistulian glaciation or Weichselian glaciation in regard to north-central Europe. The river forms a delta called the Żuławy Wiślane around the town of Biała Góra near Sztum, about 50 km from the mouth. In the city of Gdańsk the Head of the Leniwka branch separates again into the Szkarpawa branch, the so-called Dead Wisła divides again into the Przegalinie branch flowing into Gdańsk Bay. Until the 14th century the Vistula was divided into an eastern branch, the Elbląg Vistula, and the smaller western branch. Since 1371 the Vistula of Gdańsk is the main artery. After the flood in 1840 an additional branch formed called the Śmiała Wisła, in 1890 through 1895, additional waterworks were carried out up the Świbna. The history of the River Vistula and her valley spans over 2 million years, the river is connected to the geological period called the Quaternary, in which distinct cooling of the climate took place
Vistula River
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Confluence of the
Narew and the Vistula at
Modlin,
Poland
Vistula River
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Vistula River in the vicinity of
Płock, Poland
Vistula River
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Vistula River flowing through
Kraków, Poland
Vistula River
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Medieval
Wawel Castle in
Kraków seen from the Vistula river
17.
Autonomous Silesian Voivodeship
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The Silesian Voivodeship was an autonomous province of the interwar Second Polish Republic. At the time of its founding, it was inhabited by 110,659 ethnic Poles,29,010 ethnic Germans, the capital of the voivodeship was Katowice. The voivodeship was dissolved on October 8,1939 following the German invasion of Poland, after the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II, its territory was incorporated into a new, larger Silesian Voivodeship which existed until 1950. The Silesian Voivodeship was one of the richest and best developed provinces of inter-war Poland and it owed its wealth to rich deposits of coal, which resulted in construction of numerous coal mines and steelworks. For this reason, this Voivodeship was crucial to Polish armaments production, however, its location on the border with Germany made it vulnerable. In mid-1930s, the Polish government decided to move some sectors of industry to the nations heartland. Due to efficient agricultural practices, the Silesian Voivodeship also was a producer of food. According to the 1931 Polish census,92. 3% of population stated Polish as their mother tongue, Germans made up 7% and Jews only 0. 5%. Poles lived mainly in the villages, while Germans and Jews preferred cities, population density was the highest in the country at 299 persons per 1 km². On January 1,1937, forested areas made up 27. 9% of the province, rail density was the highest in the country at 18.5 km. per 100 km². In 1931, the rate was the lowest in the country at 1. 5% of population. After the First World War a dispute arouse aboute the future of Upper Silesia and this part of the Silesia region was the least affected by centuries of germanisation. The population was predominately Slavic, especially in rural areas, many of them considered themselves Poles, and some Czechs. The Treaty of Versailles resolved that a plebiscite be conducted so that the population could decide whether Upper Silesia should be assigned to Poland or to Germany. Before the plebiscite took place, two Silesian Uprisings supporting the Polish option broke out, there was a third uprising after the plebiscite, as well. Based on the results of the plebiscite, Upper Silesia was divided between Poland and Germany, the Polish part was incorporated as the Silesian Voivodeship. The voivodeship was one of the best economically developed parts of Poland and it had been granted autonomous status by an Act of the Polish Sejm dated 15 July 1920. This status was secure until the May Coup in 1926, after there were various attempts to limit it in favor of a strong
Autonomous Silesian Voivodeship
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Katowice 's
Silesian Parliament building as it looks today.
Autonomous Silesian Voivodeship
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Coat of arms
18.
Katowice urban area
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The Katowice urban area, also known as the Upper Silesian urban area, is an urban area/conurbation in southern Poland. It is located in the Silesian Voivodeship and in a part of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship. The Katowice urban area is the largest urban area in Poland and its population is about 2.7 million. Also this is part of Upper Silesian metropolitan region, which has a population of about 7 million with among others Kraków metropolitan area, there are given differing population numbers in different sources. 2,505,000 – according to the Demographia, labeled as 12th largest urban area in the European Union. 2,700,000 – according to Metropolis. pl 2,746,000 – according to the description by Tadeusz Markowski. 2,733,000 – according to the description by Paweł Swianiewicz. 2,746,460 – according to the Eurostat, markered as 13th largest urban zone in Europe. 2,886,700 – according to the description by Kazimierz Fiedorowicz. 3,029,000 – according to the European Spatial Planning Observation Network, markered as 13th largest metropolitan area in European Union and also 6th polycentric metropolitan area in EU.3,069,000 – according to the United Nations. 3,239,200 – according to the Ministry of Regional Development of Poland 3,450,141 – according to Eurostat 3,488,000 – according to www. worldatlas. com,3,500,000 – according to PWN Encyclopedia. 3,500,000 – according to the description by Jerzy Parysek. Adjacent cities and statistics, Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union Upper Silesian Industrial Region Upper Silesian Coal Basin
Katowice urban area
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Katowice the largest city in Upper Silesian metropolitan area.
Katowice urban area
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The location of Katowice urban area on maps of Poland
19.
Silesian metropolitan area
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The Upper Silesian metropolitan area is a metropolitan area in southern Poland and northeast Czech Republic, centered on the cities of Katowice and Ostrava in Silesia. Located in the three units, mainly Silesian Voivodeship, small western part of Lesser Poland Voivodeship and small east part of Moravian-Silesian Region. The area lies within the Upper Silesian Coal Basin, Silesian metropolitan area with nearby Kraków metropolitan area and Częstochowa metropolitan area create a great metropolitan area covering 7 million people. Upper Silesian metropolitan area has a population of 5,294,000, according to Polish Scientific Publishers area is 5,400 km², with 4,500 km² in Poland and 900 km² in the Czech Republic. Historically, most of the area was characterized by industry since the age of industrialisation in the late 19th. In addition to coal, Upper Silesia also contains a number of other minable resources, resources of coal to a depth to 1000 meters – about 70 billion tons, the conditions for the extraction – good. Rhine-Ruhr Katowice urban area, part of the Upper Silesian metropolitan area Upper Silesian Industrial Region Silesian Metropolis, a political and economic association of local municipalities
Silesian metropolitan area
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Katowice in
Silesian Voivodeship (Poland), the largest city in Upper Silesian metropolitan area.
Silesian metropolitan area
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Upper Silesian metropolitan area obszar metropolitalny konurbacji górnośląskiej Slezská Metropolitní oblast
Silesian metropolitan area
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Vítkovice (Ostrava) in
Moravian–Silesian Region
20.
Upper Silesia
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Upper Silesia is the southeastern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia. In 1742 the bulk of Upper Silesia was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, after the Second World War it became part of the Republic of Poland, in 1945. Upper Silesia is situated on the upper Oder River, north of the Eastern Sudetes mountain range and the Moravian Gate, within the adjacent Silesian Beskids to the east, the Vistula River rises and turns eastwards, the Biała and Przemsza tributaries mark the eastern border with Lesser Poland. In the north, Upper Silesia borders on Greater Poland, and it is currently split into a larger Polish and the smaller Czech Silesian part, which is located within the Czech regions of Moravia-Silesia and Olomouc. The Polish Upper Silesian territory covers most of the Opole Voivodeship, except for the Lower Silesian counties of Brzeg and Namysłów, divided Cieszyn Silesia as well as former Austrian Silesia are historical parts of Upper Silesia. According to the 9th century Bavarian Geographer, the West Slavic Opolanie tribe had settled on the upper Oder River since the days of the Migration Period, at the time of Prince Svatopluk I, all Silesia was a part of his Great Moravian realm. By 990 the newly installed Piast duke Mieszko I of the Polans had conquered parts of Silesia. Finally in 1137, the Polish prince Bolesław III Wrymouth came to terms with Duke Soběslav I of Bohemia, however, this arrangement fell apart when upon the death of Bolesław III and his testament the fragmentation of Poland began, which decisively enfeebled its central authority. When in 1202 Mieszko Tanglefoot had annexed the Duchy of Opole of his deceased nephew Jarosław, he ruled over all Upper Silesia as Duke of Opole and Racibórz. In the early 13th century the ties of the Silesian Piasts with the neighbouring Holy Roman Empire grew stronger as several dukes married scions of German nobility. The plans to re-unifiy Silesia shattered upon the Mongol invasion of Poland, Upper Silesia further fragmented upon the death of Duke Władysław Opolski in 1281 into the duchies of Bytom, Opole, Racibórz and Cieszyn. About 1269 the Duchy of Opava was established on adjacent Moravian territory, ruled by the Přemyslid duke Nicholas I, as they ruled both duchies in personal union, Opava grew into the Upper Silesian territory. In 1327 the Upper Silesian dukes, like most of their Lower Silesian cousins, had sworn allegiance to King John of Bohemia, by the mid-14th century, the influx of German settlers into Upper Silesia was stopped by the Black Death pandemic. Unlike in Lower Silesia, the Germanization process was halted, still a majority of the population spoke Polish and Silesian as their native language, in the southernmost areas, also Lach dialects were spoken. While Latin, Czech and German language were used as languages in towns and cities. Upper Silesia was hit by the Hussite Wars and in 1469 was conquered by King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, while the Duchies of Oświęcim, upon the death of the Jagiellonian king Louis II in 1526, the Bohemian crown lands were inherited by the Austrian House of Habsburg. In the 16th century, large parts of Silesia had turned Protestant, after the 1620 Battle of White Mountain, the Catholic Emperors of the Habsburg dynasty forcibly re-introduced Catholicism, led by the Jesuits. Lower Silesia and most of Upper Silesia were occupied by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1742 during the First Silesian War, a small part south of the Opava River remained within the Habsburg-ruled Bohemian Crown as the Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia, colloquially called Austrian Silesia
Upper Silesia
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Duchy of Opole–Racibórz under Duke Casimir I (1211-1230)
Upper Silesia
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Coat of arms of Upper Silesia as drawn by
Hugo Gerard Ströhl (1851-1919)
Upper Silesia
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1746 map of Upper Silesia,
Homann heirs, Nuremberg
Upper Silesia
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Opole on the Oder River
21.
German Empire
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The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. After at first attempting to control, causing massive uprisings. This left a republic to manage a devastated and unsatisfied populace, the German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris. German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism and he envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. The war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, the new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871. During the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same
German Empire
German Empire
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Flag
German Empire
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Otto von Bismarck
German Empire
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A postage stamp from the
Carolines
22.
Dreikaisereck
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Three Emperors Corner is a former tripoint at the confluence of the Black and White Przemsza rivers, near the town of Mysłowice in the present-day Silesian Voivodeship of Poland. From 1871 to 1918, it marked the border between the Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary, and the German Empire, the left bank of the White Przemsza now belonged to the Austrian Grand Duchy of Cracow. However, the spot did not become a Three Emperors Corner until the Kingdom of Prussia merged into the newly created German Empire in 1871. It remained as such till the dissolution of all three empires in the aftermath of World War I and the establishment of the Second Polish Republic in 1918. A less famous tripoint of those three powers had already existed near the village of Niemirów following the 1795 Third Partition of Poland, here the Prussian province of New East Prussia and Austrian West Galicia bordered on Russia. The Congress Kingdom of Poland would however lose most of its autonomy after the November Uprising in 1830/31, finally, until the creation of the German Empire in 1871, the spot was known as the Three Countries Corner. From 1871 it assumed its most famous name, the Three Emperors Corner, until World War I, the tripoint was a popular tourist spot, particularly from the German Empire. As reported in newspapers, between 3,000 and 8,000 people visited the spot annually. The tripoint was abolished with the establishment of the Polish voivodeships of Kraków, the German territory also fell to the Polish Silesian Voivodeship upon the Upper Silesian plebiscite in 1921. Currently located in an area, the tripoint is a minor tourist attraction in Poland. Since 2004, it was marked by a plaque, which—slightly incorrectly—referred to the spot as where three territories annexed in the Partitions of Poland met. A new plaque was amended in 2012, between 1774 and 1877, a similar imperial tripoint existed by the city of Novoselytsia on the Prut River, the one between the Austrian, Russian and Ottoman empires. Holy Alliance League of the Three Emperors Old German postcards from Dreikaisereck / On the Bismarck Tower
Dreikaisereck
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Three Emperors' Corner today: Before 1918 the left side of this scene was German, the middle Russian and the right side Austro-Hungarian
Dreikaisereck
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Postcard, c. 1907:
Nicholas II of Russia,
Wilhelm II of Germany,
Franz Joseph I of Austria and Myslowitz Bismarck tower
23.
Austrian Empire
–
The Austrian Empire was an empire in Central Europe created out of the realms of the Habsburgs by proclamation in 1804. It was an empire and one of Europes great powers. Geographically it was the second largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire and it was also the third most populous after Russia and France, as well as the largest and strongest country in the German Confederation. Proclaimed in response to the First French Empire, it overlapped with the Holy Roman Empire until the dissolution in 1806. The Ausgleich of 1867 elevated Hungarys status and it became a separate entity from the Empire entirely, joining with it in the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt, on 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, taking this significant change into consideration, the German Emperor Francis II created the title Emperor of Austria, for himself and his successors. In 1804 the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II, who was ruler of the lands of the Habsburg Monarchy, founded the Empire of Austria. In doing so he created a formal overarching structure for the Habsburg Monarchy, to safeguard his dynastys imperial status he adopted the additional hereditary title of Emperor of Austria. Hungarys affairs remained administered by its own institutions as they had been beforehand, thus under the new arrangements no Imperial institutions were involved in its internal government. The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805, on 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by general Karl Mack von Leiberich was defeated by French armies near the town of Ulm. The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers, Napoleons army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, the French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, the prince-elector Duke of Bavaria proclaimed himself King, finally, on 12 December, the Margrave of Baden was given the title of Grand Duke. In addition, each of these new countries signed a treaty with France, the Treaty of Pressburg between France and Austria, signed in Pressburg on 26 December, enlarged the territory of Napoleons German allies at the expense of defeated Austria. Certain Austrian holdings in Germany were passed to French allies—the King of Bavaria, the King of Württemberg, Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. On 12 July 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and this confederation, under French influence, put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, even Francis recognized the new state of things and proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him
Austrian Empire
–
Metternich in later years
Austrian Empire
–
Flag
Austrian Empire
–
Ethnographic composition of the Austrian Empire.
Austrian Empire
–
'Hauskrone' of Rudolph II, later Imperial Crown of the Austrian Empire
24.
Russian Empire
–
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
Russian Empire
–
Peter the Great officially renamed the Tsardom of Russia the Russian Empire in 1721, and himself its first emperor. He instituted the
sweeping reforms and oversaw the transformation of Russia into a major European power.
Russian Empire
–
Flag
Russian Empire
–
Empress
Catherine the Great, who reigned from 1762 to 1796, continued the empire's expansion and modernization. Considering herself an
enlightened absolutist, she played a key role in the
Russian Enlightenment.
Russian Empire
–
Catherine II Sestroretsk Rouble (1771) is made of solid copper measuring 77 millimetres (3 3 ⁄ 100 in) (diameter), 26 millimetres (1 1 ⁄ 50 in) (thickness), and weighs 1.022 kg (2.25 lb). It is the largest copper coin ever issued.
25.
Kosztowy
–
Kosztowy is a quarter of the city of Mysłowice in the Silesian Voivodship of Poland. The formerly independent municipality is approximately 4 km south the city centre of Mysłowice, in the course of a major re-organisation of municipal borders in Upper Silesia it was incorporated into Mysłowice together with Wesoła and Dziećkowice. It has an area of 5,17 km2 and in 2012 had a population of 3,480, the first mentioning of Kosztowy is in an old document from the 14th century. During that time it belonged to the Duchy of Ratibor, in 1391 Duke Johann II gave the large forests surrounding Kosztowy, Imielin and Gross Chelm to the Bishop of Kraków. Since the bishops were also civil administrators of their areas, Kosztowy did not become part of Silesia until 1742, in 1772 it became part of Prussia and from 1792 it belonged to the newly formed district of Imielin. In 1807 it became part of the Principality of Siewierz governed by the French marshal Jean Lannes, in 1817 it was returned to Prussia. The upper-silesian village of Kosztowy had 718 inhabitants in 1885, from 1818 to 1922 it was part of the Kreis of Pless until it was turned over to Poland in 1922. Near Kosztowy there is a FM- and TV-transmission facility with a 355 metre high guyed mast
Kosztowy
–
Location of Kosztowy within Mysłowice
26.
Krasowy
–
Krasowy is a dzielnica of Mysłowice, Silesian Voivodeship, southern Poland. It was amalgamated with Mysłowice in 1975 and it has an area of 9.78 km2 and in 2012 had a population of 2,811. The settlement was first mentioned on June 24,1295, in the War of the Austrian Succession most of Silesia was conquered by the Kingdom of Prussia, including the village. It was affected by industrial development beginning in the half of the 18th century. After World War I in the Upper Silesia plebiscite 749 out of 819 voters in Krasowy voted in favour of joining Poland, the village became a part of autonomous Silesian Voivodeship in Second Polish Republic. It was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II, after the war it was restored to Poland
Krasowy
–
Cottage from Krasowy in
Upper Silesian Ethnographic Park
27.
Junior High School
–
A middle school is an educational stage, which exists in some countries, and takes place between primary school and high school. The concept, regulation and classification of schools, as well as the ages covered. In Afghanistan, middle school consists of grades 6,7 and 8, besides there is a change in the scenario. In Albania, middle school is included in the education which lasts 9 years. In Algeria, a middle school includes grades 6 through 10, most regions of Australia do not have middle schools, as students go directly from primary school to secondary school. The first middle school established in Australia was The Armidale School, Schools have since followed this trend, such as The Kings School. The Northern Territory has introduced a three tier system featuring Middle Schools for years 7–9 and high school year 10–12, many schools across Queensland have introduced a Middle School tier within their schools. The middle schools cover the grades/years 5 to 8, in Brazil, middle school is a mandatory stage that precedes High School called Ensino Fundamental II consisting of grades 6 to 9, ages 11 to 14. In Canada, the middle school and junior high school are both used, depending on which grades the school caters to. Another common model is grades 5–8, alberta, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Prince Edward Island junior high schools include only grades 7–9, with the first year of high school traditionally being grade 10. In some places students go from school to secondary school. Quebec uses a system that is different from those of the other provinces. The Secondary level has five grades, starting after Elementary Grade 6 and these are called Secondary I to Secondary V. In the Peoples Republic of China, middle school has two stages, junior stage and senior stage, some middle schools have both stages while some have either of them. Other students may avoid the exam, based on their talents, like athletics. In the Czech Republic after completing the elementary school a student may apply for high school. Students have the opportunity to enroll in school from Grade 5 or Grade 7 of elementary school. Thus they can spend five years in school, followed by eight in high school
Junior High School
–
Indian Middle School children in uniform,
Hnahthial,
Mizoram,
India
Junior High School
–
Students of
Nan Hua High School, a secondary school in Singapore, in the school hall
28.
Secondary School
–
A secondary school is both an organization that delivers level 2 junior secondary education or level 3 secondary education phases of the ISCED scale, and the building where this takes place. Level 2 junior secondary education is considered to be the second, Secondary schools typically follow on from primary schools and lead into vocational and tertiary education. Attendance is compulsory in most countries for students between the ages 11 and 16, the systems and terminology remain unique to each country. School building design does not happen in isolation, schools need to accommodate students, staff, storage, mechanical and electrical systems, storage, support staff, ancillary staff and administration. The number of rooms required can be determined from the roll of the school. A general classroom for 30 students needs to be 55m2, or more generously 62m2, a general art room for 30 students needs to be 83m2, but 104 m2 for 3D textile work. A drama studio or a specialist science laboratory for 30 needs to be 90 m2, examples are given on how this can be configured for a 1,200 place secondary. The building providing the education has to fulfil the needs of, The students, the teachers, the support staff, the adminstrators. It has to should meet health requirements, minimal functional requirements- such as classrooms, toilets and showers, electricity, textbooks, Government accountants having read the advice then publish minimum guidelines on schools. These enable environmental modelling and establish building costs. Future plans are audited to ensure that standards are not exceeded. The UK government published this downwardly revised space formula in 2014 and it said the floor area should be 1050m² +6. 3m²/pupil place for 11- to 16-year-olds + 7m²/pupil place for post-16s. The external finishes were to be downgraded to meet a build cost of £1113/m², a secondary school, locally may be called high school, junior high school, senior high school. Sweden, gymnasium Switzerland, gymnasium, secondary school, collège or lycée Taiwan, Junior High School, Senior High School, Vocational High School, Military School, in Nigeria, secondary school starts from JSS1 until SSS3. Most students start at the age of 10 or 11 and finish at 16 or 17, Students are required to sit for the West African Senior Secondary Certificate Examination. To progress to university students must obtain at least a credit in Maths, English, in Somalia, secondary school starts from 9th grade until 12th. Students start it when they are around 14 to 15 years of age, Students are required to study Somali and Arabic, with the option of either English or Italian depending on the type of school. Religion, chemistry, physics, biology, physical education, textile, art, design, when secondary school has been completed, students are sent to national training camp before going to either college, or military training. In South Africa, high school begins at grade 8, Students study for five years, at the end of which they write a Matriculation examination
Secondary School
–
Piarist Secondary School in
Kecskemét,
Hungary
Secondary School
–
Secondary school in
Miri,
Malaysia
29.
Vocational school
–
In the case of secondary education, these schools differ from academic high schools which usually prepare students who aim to pursue tertiary education, rather than enter directly into the workforce. Vocational schools were called technical colleges in Australia, and there were more than 20 schools specializing in vocational educational training, only four technical colleges remain, and these are now referred to as trade colleges. At these colleges, students complete a modified year 12 certificate, in Queensland, students can also undertake VET at private and public high schools instead of studying for their overall position, which is a tertiary entrance score. However these students usually undertake more limited vocational education of one day per week whereas in the colleges the training is longer. Vocational schools are called colleges in Canada. However, a college may also refer to an institution that offers part of a university degree, in Ontario, secondary schools were separated into three streams, technical schools, commercial or business schools, and collegiates. In Ontario, the Ministry of Training, Colleges and Universities have divided postsecondary education into universities, community colleges, in the Province of Quebec, there are some vocational programs offered at institutions called CEGEPs, but these too may function as an introduction to university. Generally, students complete two years at a CEGEP directly out of school, and then complete three years at a university, to earn an undergraduate degree. In Central and Eastern Europe, an education is represented in forms of vocational technical schools often abbreviated as PTU. Vocational school Vocational school or Vocational college is considered a post-secondary education type school, in Ukraine, the term is used mostly for sports schools sometimes interchangeably with the term college. Such college could be an entity or a branch of bigger university. Successful graduates receive a specialist degree and it could be compared to a trade high school. In the 1920-30s, such PTUs were called schools of factory and plant apprenticeship, sometime after 1959, the name PTU was established, however, with the reorganization of the Soviet educational system these vocational schools renamed into lyceums. There were several types of PTUs such as middle city PTU, technicum Technical college is becoming an obsolete term for a college in different parts of Central and Eastern Europe. Technicums provided a level of vocational education. Aside of technicums and PTU there also were vocational schools also provided a middle level of vocational education. In 1920-30s Ukraine, technicums were a vocational institutes, however, Institute Institutes were considered a higher level of education, however, unlike universities, they were more oriented to a particular trade. With the reorganization of the Soviet education system, most institutes have been renamed as technical universities, the Finnish system is divided between vocational and academic paths
Vocational school
–
Korea Animation High School,
Hanam,
South Korea.
Vocational school
–
Ambachtschool
30.
Kindergarten
–
Kindergarten is a preschool educational approach traditionally based on playing, singing, practical activities such as drawing, and social interaction as part of the transition from home to school. The first such institutions were created in the late 18th century in Bavaria, the term was coined by the German Friedrich Fröbel, whose approach globally influenced early-years education. In 1779, Johann Friedrich Oberlin and Louise Scheppler founded in Strasbourg an early establishment for caring for, at about the same time, in 1780, similar infant establishments were established in Bavaria. In 1802, Princess Pauline zur Lippe established a center in Detmold. In 1816, Robert Owen, a philosopher and pedagogue, opened the first British and probably globally the first infants school in New Lanark, Scotland. In conjunction with his venture for cooperative mills Owen wanted the children to be given a moral education so that they would be fit for work. His system was successful in producing obedient children with basic literacy and numeracy, samuel Wilderspin opened his first infant school in London in 1819, and went on to establish hundreds more. He published many works on the subject, and his became the model for infant schools throughout England. Play was an important part of Wilderspins system of education and he is credited with inventing the playground. In 1823, Wilderspin published On the Importance of Educating the Infant Poor and he began working for the Infant School Society the next year, informing others about his views. He also wrote The Infant System, for developing the physical, intellectual, in 1836 she established an institute for the foundation of preschool centers. The idea became popular among the nobility and the class and was copied throughout the Kingdom of Hungary. He renamed his institute Kindergarten on June 28,1840, reflecting his belief that children should be nurtured and nourished like plants in a garden, women trained by Fröbel opened kindergartens throughout Europe and around the world. The first kindergarten in the US was founded in Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856 and was conducted in German, elizabeth Peabody founded the first English-language kindergarten in the US in 1860. The first free kindergarten in the US was founded in 1870 by Conrad Poppenhusen, a German industrialist and philanthropist, the first publicly-financed kindergarten in the US was established in St. Louis in 1873 by Susan Blow. Canadas first private kindergarten was opened by the Wesleyan Methodist Church in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, by the end of the decade, they were common in large Canadian towns and cities. The countrys first public-school kindergartens were established in Berlin, Ontario, in 1885, the Toronto Normal School opened a department for kindergarten teaching. In Afghanistan, children between the age of 3 and 6 attend kindergartens, which though not part of the system are often run by the government
Kindergarten
–
A kindergarten in Japan on Japanese Parents' Day, October 2009.
Kindergarten
–
First day of Iranian new education year, for kindergarten students and elementary school newcomers, in
Nishapur.
Kindergarten
–
Friedrich Fröbel created the name Kindergarten in Germany in 1840.
Kindergarten
–
A kindergarten classroom in Afghanistan.
31.
Primary school
–
A primary school or elementary school is a school in which children receive primary or elementary education from the age of about five to twelve, coming after preschool and before secondary school. In most parts of the world, primary education is the first stage of education, and is normally available without charge. The term grade school is used in the US though this term may refer to both primary education and secondary education. The term primary school is derived from the French école primaire, primary school is the preferred term in the United Kingdom and many Commonwealth Nations, and in most publications of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. Elementary school is preferred in some countries, especially in the United States, in the United States, primary school may refer to a school with grades Kindergarten through second grade or third grade. In these municipalities, the school includes grade three through five or grades four to six
Primary school
–
A primary school in
Český Těšín,
Czech Republic
Primary school
–
A small primary school in
Norfolk,
England
Primary school
–
An elementary school in
Višňové (
Slovakia)
Primary school
–
"Michlal" Elementary school in
Ramat Gan (
Israel)
32.
Baroque
–
The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, and spread to most of Europe. The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impressing visitors by projecting triumph, power, Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance and application that extend beyond a reduction to either a style or period. It is also yields the Italian barocco and modern Spanish barroco, German Barock, Dutch Barok, others derive it from the mnemonic term Baroco, a supposedly laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. The Latin root can be found in bis-roca, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is elaborate, with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries. The word Baroque, like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th, the term Baroque was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. Another hypothesis says that the word comes from precursors of the style, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and he did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has remained in critical favour. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste, William Watson describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese ritual bronzes of the 11th century BC as baroque. The term Baroque may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, the appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of Michelangelo. Even more generalised parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style, see the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace whose construction began in 1752. In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures, less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, Baroque poses depend on contrapposto, the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail, Baroque style featured exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona, the most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez. The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, while the Baroque nature of Rembrandts art is clear, the label is less often used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while continuing to produce the traditional categories
Baroque
–
The Triumph of the Immaculate by
Paolo de Matteis
Baroque
–
The Church of
Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, designed by
Gian Lorenzo Bernini
Baroque
–
Brooch of an African,
Walters Art Museum
Baroque
–
Aeneas Flees Burning Troy,
Federico Barocci, 1598
33.
Jewish cemetery
–
A Jewish cemetery is a cemetery where members of the Jewish faith are buried in keeping with Jewish tradition. Cemeteries are referred to in different ways in Hebrew, including bet kevarot, beit almin or bet olam. The land of the cemetery is considered holy and a consecration ceremony takes place upon its inauguration. According to Jewish tradition, Jewish burial grounds are sacred sites, establishing a cemetery is one of the first priorities for a new Jewish community. A Jewish cemetery is generally purchased and supported with communal funds, showing proper respect for the dead is intrinsic to Jewish law. The connection between the soul and the body after death is an essential aspect of Jewish belief in the eternity of the soul. In larger Jewish communities, cemeteries are sometimes subdivided into sections according to the chevra kadisha that uses and is responsible for that section of the cemeterys care, early Jewish cemeteries were located outside of the city. In the Diaspora, it is traditional to bury the dead with the feet in the direction of Jerusalem, the tombstones usually have inscriptions in Hebrew and the regional language. During the Nazi Germany regime, Jewish cemeteries all over Europe were destroyed and desecrated, the largest Jewish cemeteries of Europe can be found in Budapest, Łódź, Prague, Warsaw, Vienna and Berlin. Other Jewish cemeteries in Europe include the Jewish Cemetery in Khotyn, the mission of the International Jewish Cemetery Project is to document every Jewish burial site in the world. Bereavement in Judaism IAJGS International Jewish Cemetery Project JewishGen Online Worldwide Burial Registry Database of European Jewish Burial Grounds
Jewish cemetery
–
Jewish graves,
Israel
Jewish cemetery
–
Vandalized Jewish
tombstones in
Jerusalem
Jewish cemetery
–
Jewish cemetery at Kasteelwal in
Buren, The Netherlands.
Jewish cemetery
–
Jewish cemetery at Aalsdijk in
Buren, The Netherlands. Located outside of the city walls.
34.
Off Festival
–
OFF Festival is an alternative music festival series held annually since 2006. Until 2009 it was held at Słupna Park in Mysłowice, Poland in August, OFF Festival from 2010 takes place in Katowice in Dolina Trzech Stawow. The organizer and creative director of festival is Artur Rojek, former leader of the bands Myslovitz. In addition to the music, the OFF Festival also support a variety of independent arts and culture events, like exhibitions, workshops and it is also connected with promotion of volunteer programs. The first edition of OFF Festival was held from 18–20 August 2006, about 11,000 people attended the three-day event with 30 bands performed on the 3 stages. OFF Festival 2009 was dedicated to the 70th anniversary of the outbreak of World War II, the guest of honour was Sub Pop boss Jonathan Poneman. The 2010 edition of Off Festival was held from 5th to 8 August in Katowice, Festival was dedicated to the celebration of 200th birthday of Fryderyk Chopin and filled with concerts with the main theme being ‘Inspired by Chopin’. The Radio Dept.1, Abradab, Tesco Value, Warpaint, Xiu Xiu, Glasser, Igor Boxx, Oneohtrix Point Never, Factory Floor, Bielizna plays Taniec Lekkich Goryli, Abradab plays Kaliber 44, L. Tres. It is a series of concerts started in 2008 by OFF Festival
Off Festival
–
OFF FESTIVAL Main Stage
Off Festival
–
Renton Off Festival 2006
Off Festival
–
Dezerter Off Festival 2007
Off Festival
–
Artur Rojek as the art director
35.
Myslovitz
–
Myslovitz is a Polish rock band. Since 2003, EMI Group has been attempting to establish them internationally, the band take their name from their industrial hometown of Mysłowice in Upper Silesia. In 1994 they changed their name to Myslovitz after their hometown of Mysłowice, the bands early phase was characterised by a somewhat debonair punk attitude, as Rojek admits, I started Myslovitz in 1992. I was twenty then and I had no idea how to make good music, surely, I was a big fan of a few British groups but I couldnt play the guitar at all. After several months of rehearsals I decided that I should cover the holes in my musical education by chaos. Even so, they caught the medias attention, winning several important competitions for young musicians. Upon its release in 1995, the album received reviews and was declared Debut of the Year by several music magazines. Some critics compared it to Oasis, who were at the peak of their popularity at that time, in 1996, Myslovitz were joined by a third guitarist and keyboarder, Przemek Myszor, and released the second album Sun Machine on Sony Music Polska. The following year, the third album Z rozmyślań przy śniadaniu was released, displaying a tendency towards a more polished sound, the bands interest in cinema also showed in their contributions to soundtracks. In 1998, they recorded the unconventional track To nie był film for the Polish movie Młode wilki ½, the lyrics referred to a wave of violent crimes committed by juvenile delinquents, which was controversially discussed in Polish mass media in the mid-1990s. The explicit depiction of violence in the lyrics and the video clip caused further controversy. Also in 1998, Myslovitz had their first appearances abroad with shows in Sweden, Germany, the final breakthrough for the band came in 1999]with their fourth album entitled Miłość w czasach popkultury, which went platinum soon and has by now achieved double platinum status in Poland. The single Długość dzwięku samotności became the biggest hit for the band so far, in 2003 Myslovitz continued their cooperation with Stuhr, creating not only the title song for his movie Tomorrows Weather, but also appearing in walk-on roles - as neophyte monks. In 2002, the follow-up to Miłość, entitled Korova Milky Bar appeared, the title being an allusion to Stanley Kubricks classic screen version of Anthony Burgesss A Clockwork Orange. Strikingly, the melancholic elements took over almost completely, with music and lyrics creating an almost depressive overall mood. Nonetheless, the album even more copies than its predecessor had in the same time, with the singles Acidland. Its a place like todays Poland and you know, Poland is a place where very strange things happen to your mind. Its a country full of crisis and everything around you is very sad, very dark, there is an economic crisis here
Myslovitz
–
Myslovitz during concert in MegaClub,
Katowice, Poland 2007.
36.
Albert Norden
–
Albert Norden was a German communist politician. He went into exile during Nazi rule and he returned to Germany after the war, and became an important politician in the German Democratic Republic. A writer of several works, Norden authored the 1965 Braunbuch, albert Norden was born in Silesia, one of the five recorded children born to a liberal rabbi called Joseph Norden and his wife, Emilie Meseritz/Norden. In 1919, he joined the Young Communist League of Germany, the following year, he became a member of the Communist Party of Germany. From 1923 onwards, he held positions in various communist publications. Between 1931–33, he was the editor of Rote Fahne, in 1933 Norden emigrated to France. He also spent time in exile in Denmark and Czechoslovakia, in 1938, he returned to France. Norden was detained in France 1939-1940, in 1941, he was able to emigrate to the United States. During World War II, his father died in the Theresienstadt concentration camp, in exile in Paris and New York he worked with various popular front publications. He wrote some chapters, dealing with the linkages of the German NSDAP. In 1940, he married Herta Fischer, and their son, in October 1946 he returned to Berlin, where he became editor of the weekly Deutschlands Stimme. In 1949, he was assigned as head of the Press Section of the Information Department of Ministerial Council of the German Democratic Republic, in December 1952, he was purged from his position in the Press Department, but obtained a professorship at Humboldt University. In 1954, he director of the National Council of the National Front for a Democratic Germany. He would also become director of the Committee for German Unity, in 1955, he became a member of the Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany. He was elected as one of the secretaries of the Central Committee, in 1958 he became a member of the Politburo of the party. Norden served as head of the Agitation Committee of the Politburo and he was in-charge of the Information & Foreign Department of the Politburo until 1979. In 1958, he became a member of the Volkskammer, in 1960 he became the head of the West Commission. In June 1965 Norden suggested that elections in the German Democratic Republic should be open for alternate candidates
Albert Norden
–
Albert Norden (1963)
Albert Norden
–
Norden, at the 6th SED Party Congress (1963)
Albert Norden
–
Braunbuch
37.
East Germany
–
East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
East Germany
–
GDR leaders: President
Wilhelm Pieck and Prime Minister
Otto Grotewohl, 1949
East Germany
–
Flag (1959–1990)
East Germany
–
SED First Secretary,
Walter Ulbricht, 1950
East Germany
–
Head of State:
Erich Honecker (1971–89)
38.
Twin towns and sister cities
–
In recent times, town twinning has increasingly been used to form strategic international business links between member cities. In the United Kingdom, the twin towns is most commonly used. In mainland Europe, the most commonly used terms are twin towns, partnership towns, partner towns, the European Commission uses the term twinned towns and refers to the process as town twinning. Spain uses the term ciudades hermanadas that means sister cities, Germany, Poland and the Czech Republic use Partnerstadt / Miasto Partnerskie / Partnerské město, which translate as Partner Town or City. France uses Ville Jumelée, and Italy has Gemellaggio and Comune gemellato, in the Netherlands, the term is Stedenband. In Greece, the word αδελφοποίηση has been adopted, in Iceland, the terms vinabæir and vinaborgir are used. In the former Soviet Bloc, twin towns and twin cities are used, the Americas, South Asia, and Australasia use the term sister cities or twin cities. In China, the term is 友好城市, sometimes, other government bodies enter into a twinning relationship, such as the agreement between the provinces of Hainan in China and Jeju-do in South Korea. The Douzelage is a twinning association with one town from each of the member states of the European Union. In recent years, the term city diplomacy has gained increased usage and acceptance, particularly as a strand of paradiplomacy and public diplomacy. It is formally used in the workings of the United Cities and Local Governments, the importance of cities developing their own foreign economic policies on trade, foreign investment, tourism and attracting foreign talent has also been highlighted by the World Economic Forum. The earliest known town twinning in Europe was between Paderborn, Germany, and Le Mans, France, in 836, starting in 1905, Keighley in West Yorkshire, England, had a twinning arrangement with French communities Suresnes and Puteaux. The first recorded modern twinning agreement was between Keighley and Poix-du-Nord in Nord, France, in 1920 following the end of the First World War and this was initially referred to as an adoption of the French town, formal twinning charters were not exchanged until 1986. The practice was continued after the Second World War as a way to promote mutual understanding, for example, Coventry twinned with Stalingrad and later with Dresden as an act of peace and reconciliation, all three cities having been heavily bombed during the war. Similarly, in 1947, Bristol Corporation sent five leading citizens on a mission to Hanover. Reading in 1947 was the first British town to form links with an enemy city – Düsseldorf. Since 9 April 1956 Rome and Paris have been exclusively and reciprocally twinned with other, following the motto, Only Paris is worthy of Rome. Within Europe, town twinning is supported by the European Union, the support scheme was established in 1989
Twin towns and sister cities
–
Twin towns sign in
Oskarshamn,
Sweden
Twin towns and sister cities
–
An example of a 'gemellaggio' (twinning) agreement between
Castellabate, Italy and
Blieskastel, Germany
Twin towns and sister cities
–
Column dedicated to
Paris in
Rome. Since April 9, 1956 Rome and Paris are exclusively and reciprocally twinned with each other, following the motto: "Only Paris is worthy of Rome; only Rome is worthy of Paris."
Twin towns and sister cities
–
The painting of Gagny
39.
Germany
–
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
–
The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
–
Flag
Germany
–
Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
–
Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
40.
Enzkreis
–
Enzkreis is a district in the north-west of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are Karlsruhe, Heilbronn, Ludwigsburg, Böblingen and Calw, the district-free Pforzheim area in the south is nearly completely surrounded by Enz. The district was created in 1973, when the previous district Pforzheim was merged with parts of the neighboring districts Vaihingen, Leonberg, some part of the district Pforzheim was included into the city Pforzheim. The district Pforzheim dates back to 1939, when the Bezirksamt Pforzheim was split into the district, the south of the Enz district covers the northern part of the Black Forest. In the north-west of the district is the Kraichgau, an agricultural area. The main river is the Enz, a tributary of the Neckar, since March 1993 the district has an official partnership with the Italian province Reggio Emilia. Since 1996 the district has a partnership with the Polish city Mysłowice, as two municipalities left the city in a communal reform in 1995, the partnership also includes Imielin and Chelm Slaski. In March 2001 the Enz district together with the city Pforzheim started a friendship with the Hungarian Komitat Györ-Moson-Sopron
Enzkreis
–
Enz
41.
Czech Republic
–
The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, is a nation state in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the northeast. The Czech Republic covers an area of 78,866 square kilometres with mostly temperate continental climate and it is a unitary parliamentary republic, has 10.5 million inhabitants and the capital and largest city is Prague, with over 1.2 million residents. The Czech Republic includes the territories of Bohemia, Moravia. The Czech state was formed in the late 9th century as the Duchy of Bohemia under the Great Moravian Empire, after the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power transferred from Moravia to Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty. In 1002, the duchy was formally recognized as part of the Holy Roman Empire, becoming the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198 and reaching its greatest territorial extent in the 14th century. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the whole Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy alongside the Archduchy of Austria, the Protestant Bohemian Revolt against the Catholic Habsburgs led to the Thirty Years War. After the Battle of the White Mountain, the Habsburgs consolidated their rule, reimposed Roman Catholicism, the Czech part of Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany in World War II, and was liberated in 1945 by the armies of the Soviet Union and the United States. The Czech country lost the majority of its German-speaking inhabitants after they were expelled following the war, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia won the 1946 elections. Following the 1948 coup détat, Czechoslovakia became a one-party communist state under Soviet influence, in 1968, increasing dissatisfaction with the regime culminated in a reform movement known as the Prague Spring, which ended in a Soviet-led invasion. Czechoslovakia remained occupied until the 1989 Velvet Revolution, when the communist regime collapsed, on 6 March 1990, the Czech Socialistic Republic was renamed to the Czech Republic. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully dissolved, with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004, it is a member of the United Nations, the OECD, the OSCE, and it is a developed country with an advanced, high income economy and high living standards. The UNDP ranks the country 14th in inequality-adjusted human development, the Czech Republic also ranks as the 6th most peaceful country, while achieving strong performance in democratic governance. It has the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union, the traditional English name Bohemia derives from Latin Boiohaemum, which means home of the Boii. The current name comes from the endonym Čech, spelled Cžech until the reform in 1842. The name comes from the Slavic tribe and, according to legend, their leader Čech, the etymology of the word Čech can be traced back to the Proto-Slavic root *čel-, meaning member of the people, kinsman, thus making it cognate to the Czech word člověk. The country has traditionally divided into three lands, namely Bohemia in the west, Moravia in the southeast, and Czech Silesia in the northeast. Following the dissolution of Czechoslovakia at the end of 1992, the Czech part of the former nation found itself without a common single-word geographical name in English, the name Czechia /ˈtʃɛkiə/ was recommended by the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Czech Republic
–
Přemysl Ottokar II,
King of Bohemia (1253–1278) and
Duke of Austria (1251–1278)
Czech Republic
–
Flag
Czech Republic
–
The
Crown of Saint Wenceslas is the 4th oldest in Europe
Czech Republic
–
The
Defenestration of Prague sparked the
Thirty Years' War
42.
Central Statistical Office (Poland)
–
The president of GUS reports directly to the Prime Minister of Poland and is considered the equivalent of a Polish government minister. GUS was organized in 1918 by Ludwik Krzywicki, one of the most notable sociologists of his time, inactive during World War II, GUS was reorganized in 1945. The office is divided into separate branches, each responsible for a different set of data. Notable GUS publications include Rocznik Statystyczny, Mały Rocznik Statystyczny, and Wiadomości Statystyczne
Central Statistical Office (Poland)
–
Main building of the Central Statistical Office,
Warsaw
Central Statistical Office (Poland)
–
Krzywicki
43.
Bytom
–
Bytom is a city in Silesia in southern Poland, near Katowice. It lies in the district of the Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union – a metropolis with a population of 2 million. Bytom is located in the Silesian Highlands, on the Bytomka river, the city has belonged to the Silesian Voivodeship since its formation in 1999. Previously it was in Katowice Voivodeship, Bytom is one of the cities within the conurbation of the Katowice urban area as well as within a greater Silesian metropolitan area populated by about 5,294,000 people. The population of the city is 183,251, Bytom is located on the range Bytom-Katowice, in the Upland of Miechowice, which is in turn a central part of the Silesian Upland. The city straddles between north latitudes 50°19′ i 50°26′ and east longitudes 18°47′ i 18°58′, the city itself is not placed exclusively in the Upland of Miechowice, where only the central part of the town stands. The rest of the city reaches as far as the valleys of Drama and Szarlejka to the north, Brynica to the north and east, the bedrock of the Upland of Miechowice consists primarily of sandstones and slates. The rocks are punctuated with abundant natural resources of coal and iron ore from the Carboniferous period. In the north part of the upland, in the Bytom basin lays the broad range of the rocks, from sandstones to limestones, with rich ore, zinc. The upper layer is composed of clay, sand and gravel, one half of the coat of arms of Bytom depicts a miner mining coal, while the other half presents a yellow eagle on the blue field – the symbol of Upper Silesia. Bytom is one of the oldest cities of Upper Silesia, originally recorded as Bitom in 1136 and it received city rights from prince Władysław in 1254 with its first centrally located market square. The city of Bytom benefited economically from its location on a route linking Kraków with Silesia from east to west. The first Roman Catholic Church of the Virgin Mary was built in 1231, in 1259 Bytom was raided by the Mongols. The Duchy of Opole was split and in 1281 Bitom became a duchy, since 1289 under overlordship. Due to German settlers coming to the area, the city was Germanized and it came under control of the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria in 1526, which increased the influence of the German language. The city became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1742 during the Silesian Wars, in the 19th and the first part of the 20th centuries, the city rapidly grew and industrialized. Before 1939, the town, along with Gleiwitz, was at the tip of German Silesia. The Bytom Synagogue was burned down by Nazi German SS and SA troopers during the Kristallnacht on 9–10 November 1938, during World War II, the Beuthen Jewish community was liquidated via the first ever Holocaust transport to be exterminated at Auschwitz-Birkenau
Bytom
–
Holy Trinity Church
Bytom
–
Panorama of the market square in Bytom
Bytom
–
A tram in Bytom
Bytom
–
Silesian Opera
44.
Gliwice
–
Gliwice is a city in Upper Silesia, southern Poland, near Katowice. Gliwice is the west district of the Upper Silesian Metropolitan Union – a metropolis with a population of 2 million, the city is located in the Silesian Highlands, on the Kłodnica river. Situated in the Silesian Voivodeship since its formation in 1999, Gliwice was previously in Katowice Voivodeship. Gliwice is one of the cities of a 2.7 million conurbation known as the Katowice urban area and is within the larger Silesian metropolitan area, the population of the city is 185,196. Founded in the 13th century, Gliwice is one of the oldest settlements in Upper Silesia, despite rapid development during the industrial and socialist eras, the central Old Town fully retained its medieval character and is surrounded by defensive walls dating back to the 15th century. Gliwice is primarily known as a city with developed industries such as coal mining, steel making and production of machinery. It is also an important educational centre, being home to most of the departments of the renowned Silesian University of Technology, in Slavic languages, the root gliw or gliv suggests terrain characterized by loam or wetland. In South Slavic languages, glive or gljive refers to mushrooms, Gliwice was first mentioned as a town in 1276 and was ruled during the Middle Ages by the Silesian Piast dukes. During the reign of Mieszko I Tanglefoot, the town was part of a duchy centered on Opole-Racibórz, according to 14th-century writers, the town seemed defensive in character and was ruled by Siemowit of Bytom. The town became a possession of the Bohemia crown in 1335, because of the vast expenses incurred by the Habsburg Monarchy during their 16th century wars against the Ottoman Empire, Gleiwitz was leased to Friedrich Zettritz for the amount of 14,000 thalers. Although the original lease was for a duration of 18 years, it was renewed in 1580 for 10 years, during the mid 18th century Silesian Wars, Gleiwitz was taken from the Habsburg Monarchy by the Kingdom of Prussia along with the majority of Silesia. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Gleiwitz was administered in the Prussian district of Tost-Gleiwitz within the Province of Silesia in 1816, the city was incorporated with Prussia into the German Empire in 1871 during the unification of Germany. In 1897 Gleiwitz became its own Stadtkreis, or urban district, the first coke-fired blast furnace on the European continent was constructed in Gleiwitz in 1796 under the direction of John Baildon. Gleiwitz began to develop into a city through industrialization during the 19th century. The towns ironworks fostered the growth of other fields in the area. The citys population in 1875 was 14,156, however, during the late 19th century Gleiwitz had,14 distilleries,2 breweries,5 mills,7 brick factories,3 sawmills, a shingle factory,8 chalk factories and 2 glassworks. Other features of the 19th century industrialized Gleiwitz were a gasworks, a factory, a beer bottling company. Economically, Gleiwitz opened several banks, Savings and loan associations, according to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Gleiwitzs population in 1905 was 61,324
Gliwice
–
Left to right: Town Hall, Radio station Gliwice wooden tower, Post Office, General view
Gliwice
–
Gliwice – Wszystkich Świętych Church.
Gliwice
–
Radio station Gliwice wooden tower
Gliwice
–
Main street – Zwycięstwa
45.
Jaworzno
–
Jaworzno is a city in southern Poland, near Katowice. It lies in the Silesian Highlands, on the Przemsza river, Jaworzno belongs to the historic province of Lesser Poland. The city is situated in the Silesian Voivodeship since its formation in 1999, Jaworzno is one of the cities of the 2,7 million conurbation - Katowice urban area and within a greater Silesian metropolitan area populated by about 5,294,000 people. The population of the city is 95,520, the municipality is situated a short distance to the north-east of Junction 41 on the A4 Highway. It lies in the Silesian Highlands, in the region of Lesser Poland. Until 1795, it belonged to Kraków Voivodeship, then, together with Kraków, was seized by the Habsburg Empire in the Partitions of Poland. In 1815 -1846 it belonged to the Free City of Kraków, in 1918 Jaworzno returned to Poland. The name of the city comes from the trees, which in the past were abundant in this area. Jaworzno was placed into the Silesian Voivodeship effective January 1,1999 under the Local Government Reorganization Act, previously, it was attached to the Katowice Voivodeship and before that to the Kraków Voivodeship. Jaworzno lies in the east of the largest metropolis in Poland and is one of the largest in the European Union and this urban expansion bloomed in the 19th century thanks to the rapid development of the mining and metallurgical industries. In the year 2006 Jaworzno and 14 neighboring cities formed the multimunicipal structure and its population is 2 million and its area is 1,304 square kilometres. The climate of the area is continental humid, the annual average temperature is 8 °C. Yearly rainfall averages at 750 mm, the most rainy month being July, the areas characteristic weak winds blow at about 2 m/s from the west. PKM Jaworzno was one of the first public companies in Poland which introduced the magnetic card called Jaworznicka Karta miejska instead of paper tickets. First known mention of Jaworzno comes from the year 1229, and in 1335, Jaworzno remained a small village, located in western Lesser Poland, near much larger and more important town of Chrzanow. Since 1179, the nearby Przemsza river marked the border between Lesser Poland and Silesia and it also remained a state border of Poland until 1922. The area of Jaworzno was originally under the rule of the bishops of Kraków, after Austria seized Silesia at the end of the 17th century, several coal mines were developed near Jaworzno. In the 18th century, deposits of silver, lead, iron, in 1767, first coal mine in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was opened in Szczakowa
Jaworzno
–
Palace in Jaworzno
Jaworzno
–
Jaworzno on the map from before 1914
Jaworzno
–
Sosina artificial lake.
Jaworzno
–
Sports Hall.
Poland
Silesian
Enzkreis in Germany[5]
Sokola Góra in Poland[5]
Frýdek-Místek in the Czech Republic[5]
Media related to Mysłowice at Wikimedia Commons
