1.
Baltimore
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Baltimore is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maryland, and the 29th-most populous city in the country. It was established by the Constitution of Maryland and is not part of any county, thus, it is the largest independent city in the United States, with a population of 621,849 as of 2015. As of 2010, the population of the Baltimore Metropolitan Area was 2.7 million, founded in 1729, Baltimore is the second largest seaport in the Mid-Atlantic. Baltimores Inner Harbor was once the leading port of entry for immigrants to the United States. With hundreds of identified districts, Baltimore has been dubbed a city of neighborhoods, in the War of 1812, Francis Scott Key wrote The Star-Spangled Banner, later the American national anthem, in Baltimore. More than 65,000 properties, or roughly one in three buildings in the city, are listed on the National Register, more than any city in the nation. The city has 289 properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the historical records of the government of Baltimore are located at the Baltimore City Archives. The city is named after Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, of the Irish House of Lords, Baltimore Manor was the name of the estate in County Longford on which the Calvert family lived in Ireland. Baltimore is an anglicization of the Irish name Baile an Tí Mhóir, in 1608, Captain John Smith traveled 210 miles from Jamestown to the uppermost Chesapeake Bay, leading the first European expedition to the Patapsco River. The name Patapsco is derived from pota-psk-ut, which translates to backwater or tide covered with froth in Algonquian dialect, a quarter century after John Smiths voyage, English colonists began to settle in Maryland. The area constituting the modern City of Baltimore and its area was first settled by David Jones in 1661. He claimed the area today as Harbor East on the east bank of the Jones Falls stream. In the early 1600s, the immediate Baltimore vicinity was populated, if at all. The Baltimore area had been inhabited by Native Americans since at least the 10th millennium BC, one Paleo-Indian site and several Archaic period and Woodland period archaeological sites have been identified in Baltimore, including four from the Late Woodland period. During the Late Woodland period, the culture that is called the Potomac Creek complex resided in the area from Baltimore to the Rappahannock River in Virginia. It was located on the Bush River on land that in 1773 became part of Harford County, in 1674, the General Assembly passed An Act for erecting a Court-house and Prison in each County within this Province. The site of the house and jail for Baltimore County was evidently Old Baltimore near the Bush River. In 1683, the General Assembly passed An Act for Advancement of Trade to establish towns, ports, one of the towns established by the act in Baltimore County was on Bush River, on Town Land, near the Court-House
2.
Maryland
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The states largest city is Baltimore, and its capital is Annapolis. Among its occasional nicknames are Old Line State, the Free State, the state is named after Henrietta Maria of France, the wife of Charles I of England. George Calvert was the first Lord of Baltimore and the first English proprietor of the colonial grant. Maryland was the state to ratify the United States Constitution. Maryland is one of the smallest U. S. states in terms of area, as well as one of the most densely populated, Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles and is comparable in overall area with Belgium. It is the 42nd largest and 9th smallest state and is closest in size to the state of Hawaii, the next largest state, its neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland. Maryland possesses a variety of topography within its borders, contributing to its nickname America in Miniature. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted by Washington, D. C. which sits on land that was part of Montgomery and Prince Georges counties and including the town of Georgetown. This land was ceded to the United States Federal Government in 1790 to form the District of Columbia, the Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Close to the town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason–Dixon line to the north, portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, earthquakes in Maryland are infrequent and small due to the states distance from seismic/earthquake zones. The M5.8 Virginia earthquake in 2011 was felt moderately throughout Maryland, buildings in the state are not well-designed for earthquakes and can suffer damage easily. The lack of any glacial history accounts for the scarcity of Marylands natural lakes, laurel Oxbow Lake is an over one-hundred-year-old 55-acre natural lake two miles north of Maryland City and adjacent to Russett. Chews Lake is a natural lake two miles south-southeast of Upper Marlboro. There are numerous lakes, the largest of them being the Deep Creek Lake. Maryland has shale formations containing natural gas, where fracking is theoretically possible, as is typical of states on the East Coast, Marylands plant life is abundant and healthy. Middle Atlantic coastal forests, typical of the southeastern Atlantic coastal plain, grow around Chesapeake Bay, moving west, a mixture of Northeastern coastal forests and Southeastern mixed forests cover the central part of the state
3.
African Americans
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
4.
African-American history
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African-American history is the branch of American history that specifically discusses the African-American or Black American ethnic groups in the United States. Most African Americans are the descendants of Africans forcibly brought to, African Americans have been known by various names throughout American history, including colored and Negro, which are no longer accepted in English. Instead the most usual and accepted terms nowadays are African American and Black, the term person of color usually refers not only to African Americans, but also to other non-white ethnic groups. African-American history is celebrated and highlighted annually in the United States during February, although previously marginalized, African-American history has gained ground in school and university curricula and gained wider scholarly attention since the late 20th century. The great majority of African Americans descend from Africans brought directly from Africa, originally these slaves were captured in African wars and transported via the Atlantic slave trade. The American slaves descended from the ethnic groups from mostly western and central Africa. A smaller minority were from eastern and southeastern Africa, some of the major ethnic groups the enslaved Africans belonged to included the Hausa, Bakongo, Igbo, Mandé, Wolof, Akan, Fon, Yoruba, and Makua. Although these different groups varied in customs, religious theology and language, slaves from specific African ethnic groups were more sought after and more dominant in numbers than others in certain regions of what later became the United States. Studies of contemporary documents reveal seven regions from which Africans were sold or taken during the Atlantic slave trade, the largest source of slaves to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean for the New World was West Africa. Some West Africans were skilled workers and were therefore able to make tools that aided in their agricultural labor. While there were many tribes with their own customs and religions, by the tenth century, Islam had been soaked up by many of the residents. Those villages in West Africa that were enough to be in good conditions for growth and success. They also contributed their success to the slave trade, Origins and Percentages of African Americans imported into British North America and Louisiana Before the Atlantic Slave Trade there were already people of African descent in America. A few countries in Africa would buy, sell, and trade other enslaved Africans, the people of Mali and Benin are known for partaking in the event of selling their prisoners of war and other unwanted people off as slaves. In the account of Olaudah Equiano, he described the process of being transported to the colonies, on the ships, the slaves were separated from their family long before they boarded the ships. Once aboard the ships the captives were then segregated by gender, under the deck, the slaves were cramped and did not have enough space to walk around freely. Male slaves were kept in the ships hold, where they experienced the worst of crowding. Due to the lack of hygiene, malnourishment, and dehydration diseases spread wildly
5.
Timeline of African-American history
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This is a timeline of the history of Africans and their descendants in what is now the United States, from 1565 to the present. 1565 The Spanish colony of St. Augustine in Florida became the first permanent European settlement in what would become the US centuries later, it included an unknown number of African slaves. 1619 The first record of Africans in English colonial America when men were brought to the Jamestown colony who had taken as prizes from a Spanish ship. They were treated as indentured servants, and at least one was recorded as owning land in the colony. 1640 John Punch, an indentured servant, ran away with two white indentured servants, James Gregory and Victor. After the three were captured, Punch was sentenced to serve Virginia planter Hugh Gwyn for life and this made John Punch the first legally documented slave in Virginia. 1654 John Casor, a man who claimed to have completed his term of indenture. The court ruled with his master who said he had an indefinite servitude for life and this was contrary to English common law for English subjects, which held that children took their fathers social status. 1672 Royal African Company is founded in England, allowing slaves to be shipped from Africa to the colonies in North America,1676 Both free and enslaved African Americans fought in Bacons Rebellion along with English colonists. 1712 April 6 – The New York Slave Revolt of 1712,1739 September 9 – In the Stono Rebellion, South Carolina slaves gather at the Stono River to plan an armed march for freedom. 1753 Benjamin Banneker designed and built the first clock in the British American colonies and he also created a series of almanacs. He corresponded with Thomas Jefferson and wrote that blacks were equal to whites. Banneker worked with Pierre LEnfant to survey and design a street and urban plan for Washington, D. C.1760 Jupiter Hammon has a poem printed, 1765–1767 Non-Importation Agreements – The First Continental Congress creates a multi-colony agreement to forbid importation of anything from British merchants. This implicitly includes slaves, and stops the slave trade in Philadelphia, the second similar act explicitly stops the slave trade. 1770 March 5 – Crispus Attucks is killed by British soldiers in the Boston Massacre,1773 Phillis Wheatley has her book Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral published. 1774 The first black Baptist congregations are organized in the South, Silver Bluff Baptist Church in South Carolina,1775 April 14 – The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully held in Bondage holds four meetings. It was re-formed in 1784 as the Pennsylvania Abolition Society, 1776–1783 American Revolution Thousands of enslaved African Americans in the South escape to British lines, as they were promised freedom to fight with the British. In South Carolina,25,000 enslaved African Americans, one-quarter of those held, still others go to Jamaica and the West Indies
6.
Atlantic slave trade
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The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through the 19th centuries. This was crucial to those western European countries which, in the late 17th and 18th centuries, were vying with each other to create overseas empires, the Portuguese were the first to engage in the New World slave trade in the 16th century. In 1526, the Portuguese completed the first transatlantic voyage from Africa to the Americas. The first Africans imported to the English colonies were classified as indentured servants, like coming from England. By the middle of the 17th century, slavery had hardened as a caste, they and their offspring were legally the property of their owners. As property, the people were considered merchandise or units of labour, the major Atlantic slave trading nations, ordered by trade volume, were, the Portuguese, the British, the French, the Spanish, and the Dutch Empire. Several had established outposts on the African coast where they purchased slaves from local African leaders and these slaves were managed by a factor who was established on or near the coast to expedite the shipping of slaves to the New World. Slaves were kept in a factory while awaiting shipment, current estimates are that about 12 million Africans were shipped across the Atlantic, although the number purchased by the traders is considerably higher, as the passage had a high death rate. Near the beginning of the century, various governments acted to ban the trade. In the early twenty-first century, several governments issued apologies for the slave trade. The Atlantic slave trade arose after trade contacts were first made between the continents of the Old World and those of the New World, between 1600 and 1800, approximately 300,000 sailors engaged in the slave trade visited West Africa. In doing so, they came into contact with societies living along the west African coast, historian John Thornton noted, A number of technical and geographical factors combined to make Europeans the most likely people to explore the Atlantic and develop its commerce. That leadership later gave rise to the myth that the Iberians were the leaders of the exploration. Slavery was practiced in parts of Africa, Europe, Asia. There is evidence that people from some African states were exported to other states in Africa, Europe. The African slave trade provided a number of slaves to Europeans. The Atlantic slave trade was not the slave trade from Africa, although it was the largest in volume. As Elikia M’bokolo wrote in Le Monde diplomatique, The African continent was bled of its resources via all possible routes
7.
Slavery in the United States
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Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
8.
Military history of African Americans
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The Military history of African Americans spans from the arrival of the first black slaves during the colonial history of the United States to the present day. African-Americans as slaves and free blacks served on both sides during the war, ray Raphael notes that while thousands did join the Loyalist cause, A far larger number, free as well as slave, tried to further their interests by siding with the patriots. Black soldiers served in militias from the outset, but this was forbidden in the South. Over 100,000 slaves escaped to the British lines, although possibly as few as 1,000 served under arms, despite Dunmores promises, the majority were not given their freedom. Many Black Loyalists descendants now live in Canada and Sierra Leone, many of the Black Loyalists performed military service in the British Army, particularly as part of the only Black regiment of the war the Black Pioneers, and others served non-military roles. In response, and because of shortages, Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. At least 5,000 African-American soldiers fought as Revolutionaries, peter Salem and Salem Poor are the most noted of the African American Patriots during this era, and Colonel Tye was perhaps the most noteworthy Black Loyalist. Black volunteers also served with various of the South Carolina guerrilla units, including that of the Swamp Fox, Francis Marion, half of whose force sometimes consisted of free Blacks. These Black troops made a difference in the fighting in the swamps. At least 12 other black men served with various American Marine units in 1776–1777, more may have been in service but not identified as blacks in the records. However, in 1798 when the United States Marine Corps was officially re-instituted, Secretary of War James McHenry specified in its rules, No Negro, Mulatto or Indian to be enlisted. Marine Commandant William Ward Burrows instructed his recruiters regarding USMC racial policy, You can make use of Blacks and Mulattoes while you recruit, the USMC maintained this policy until 1942. Hannibal Collins, a slave and Oliver Hazard Perrys personal servant, is thought to be the oarsman in William Henry Powells Battle of Lake Erie. Collins earned his freedom as a veteran of the Revolutionary War and he accompanied Perry for the rest of Perrys naval career, and was with him at Perrys death in Trinidad in 1819. No legal restrictions regarding the enlistment of blacks were placed on the Navy because of its shortage of manpower. The law of 1792, which generally prohibited enlistment of blacks in the Army became the United States Armys official policy until 1862, Louisiana permitted the existence of separate black militia units which drew its enlistees from freed blacks. A number of African Americans in the Army during the Mexican–American War were servants of the officers who received government compensation for the services of their servants or slaves, also, soldiers from the Louisiana Battalion of Free Men of Color participated in this war. African Americans also served on a number of vessels during the Mexican–American War, including the USS Treasure
9.
Jim Crow laws
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Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the Southern United States. Enacted after the Reconstruction period, these continued in force until 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America, starting in 1890 with a separate. Facilities for African Americans were consistently inferior and underfunded compared to available to European Americans. This body of law institutionalized a number of economic, educational, the U. S. military was also segregated, as were federal workplaces, initiated in 1913 under President Woodrow Wilson. By requiring candidates to submit photos, his administration practiced racial discrimination in hiring and these Jim Crow laws followed the 1800–1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. The phrase Jim Crow Law can be found as early as 1892 in the title of a New York Times article about voting laws in the South, as a result of Rices fame, Jim Crow by 1838 had become a pejorative expression meaning Negro. When southern legislatures passed laws of racial segregation which were directed against blacks at the end of the 19th century, during the Reconstruction period of 1865–1877, federal laws provided civil rights protections in the U. S. South for freedmen, the African Americans who had formerly been slaves, extensive voter fraud was also used. Gubernatorial elections were close and had been disputed in Louisiana for years, in 1877, a national Democratic Party compromise to gain Southern support in the presidential election resulted in the governments withdrawing the last of the federal troops from the South. White Democrats had regained power in every Southern state. These Southern, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated Jim Crow laws, grandfather clauses temporarily permitted some illiterate whites to vote but gave no relief to most blacks. Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of such measures, in Louisiana, by 1900, black voters were reduced to 5,320 on the rolls, although they comprised the majority of the states population. By 1910, only 730 blacks were registered, less than 0. 5% of eligible black men, in 27 of the states 60 parishes, not a single black voter was registered any longer, in 9 more parishes, only one black voter was. The cumulative effect in North Carolina meant that voters were completely eliminated from voter rolls during the period from 1896–1904. The growth of their middle class was slowed. Alabama had tens of thousands of poor whites disenfranchised and those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state legislatures, like schools, Jim Crow public libraries were underfunded and often stocked with secondhand books and other resources
10.
Great Migration (African American)
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The Great Migration was the movement of 5 million African-Americans out of the rural Southern United States to the urban Northeast, Midwest, and West that occurred between 1915 and 1960. Until 1910, more than 90 percent of the African-American population lived in the American South, in 1900, only one-fifth of African-Americans living in the South were living in urban areas. By 1970, more than 80 percent of African-Americans lived in cities, in sheer numbers it outranks the migration of any other ethnic group—Italians or Irish or Jews or Poles—to. For blacks, the migration meant leaving what had always been their economic and social base in America, some historians differentiate between a first Great Migration, which saw about 1. Since 1965, a migration has gathered strength. Dubbed the New Great Migration, it has seen many African-Americans move to the South, as early as 1975 to 1980, seven southern states were net African-American migration gainers. African-American populations have continued to drop much of the Northeast, especially the state of New York and northern New Jersey. James Gregory calculates decade-by-decade migration volumes in his book, The Southern Diaspora, Black migration picked up from the start of the new century, with 204,000 leaving in the first decade. The pace accelerated with the outbreak of World War I and continued through the 1920s, by 1930, there were 1.3 million former southerners living in other regions. The Great Depression wiped out job opportunities in the industrial belt, especially for African Americans. A second and larger Great Migration began around 1940 as defense industries geared up for World War II. 1.4 million black southerners moved north or west in the 1940s, followed by 1.1 million in the 1950s, by the late 1970s, as deindustrialization and the Rust Belt crisis took hold, the Great Migration came to an end. African-Americans moved from the 14 states of the South, especially Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, based on the total populations in each of the four states, only Georgia showed a net decrease in its African American population in 1950 compared to 1920. Louisiana, Texas, Alabama, and Mississippi showed net increases in their African American populations in 1950 compared to 1920, big cities were the principal destinations of southerners throughout the two phases of the Great Migration. In the first phase, eight major cities attracted two-thirds of the migrants, New York and Chicago, followed in order by Philadelphia, St. Louis, Detroit, Pittsburgh, and Indianapolis. The Second great black migration increased the populations of cities while adding others as destinations. Cities such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, Oakland, Phoenix, Seattle, there were clear migratory patterns that linked particular states and cities in the South to corresponding destinations in the North. Almost half of those who migrated from Mississippi during the first Great Migration, for example, ended up in Chicago, for the most part, these patterns were related to geography, with the closest cities attracting the most migrants
11.
Redlining
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During the heyday of redlining, the areas most frequently discriminated against were black inner city neighborhoods. In the academic literature, redlining falls under the category of credit rationing. Reverse redlining occurs when a lender or insurer targets nonwhite consumers, not to deny them loans or insurance, racial segregation and discrimination against minorities and minority communities pre-existed this policy. The assumptions in redlining resulted in an increase in residential racial segregation. Urban planning historians theorize that the maps were used by private, on the maps, the newest areas—those considered desirable for lending purposes—were outlined in green and known as Type A. These were typically affluent suburbs on the outskirts of cities, Type B neighborhoods, outlined in blue, were considered Still Desirable, whereas older Type C were labeled Declining and outlined in yellow. Type D neighborhoods were outlined in red and were considered the most risky for mortgage support and these neighborhoods tended to be the older districts in the center of cities, often they were also black neighborhoods. Some redlined maps were created by private organizations, such as J. M. Private organizations created maps designed to meet the requirements of the Federal Housing Administrations underwriting manual, the lenders had to consider FHA standards if they wanted to receive FHA insurance for their loans. FHA appraisal manuals instructed banks to clear of areas with inharmonious racial groups. NPA embarked on an effort to build a coalition of urban community organizations to pass a national disclosure regulation or law to require banks to reveal their lending patterns. These actions addressed the issues of neighborhood decline. Neighborhood leaders began to learn that these issues and conditions were symptoms of a disinvestment that was the true and they changed their strategy as more data was gathered. With the help of NPA, a coalition of loosely affiliated community organizations began to form, at the Third Annual Housing Conference held in Chicago in 1974, eight hundred delegates representing 25 states and 35 cities attended. The strategy focused on the Federal Home Loan Bank Board, which oversaw S&Ls in cities all over the country, in Massachusetts, organizers allied with NPA confronted a unique situation. Over 90% of home mortgages were held by state-chartered savings banks, a Jamaica Plain neighborhood organization pushed the disinvestment issue into the statewide gubernatorial race. After Dukakis was elected, his new Banking Commissioner ordered banks to disclose mortgage-lending patterns by zip code, NPA and its affiliates achieved disclosure of lending practices with the passage of The Home Mortgage Disclosure Act of 1975. The required transparency and review of loan practices began to change lending practices, NPA began to work on reinvestment in areas that had been neglected
12.
Second Great Migration (African American)
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In the context of the 20th-century history of the United States, the Second Great Migration was the migration of more than five million African Americans from the South to the North, Midwest and West. It took place from 1941, through World War II, and it was much larger and of a different character than the first Great Migration. Most of these migrants were already urban laborers who came from the cities of the South, in addition, African Americans were still treated with discrimination in parts of the country, and many sought to escape this. Compared to the rural migrants of the period 1910-1930, many African Americans in the South were already living in urban areas and had urban job skills before they relocated. They moved to jobs in the burgeoning industrial cities and especially the jobs in the defense industry during World War II. Workers who were limited to segregated, low-skilled jobs in cities were able to get highly skilled. By the end of the Second Great Migration, African Americans had become an urbanized population. More than 80 percent lived in cities, a greater proportion than among the rest of American society, fifty-three percent remained in the Southern United States, while 40 percent lived in the Northeast and North Central states and 7 percent in the West. While African Americans were often relegated to support roles during World War II, a munitions explosion at Port Chicago, California, across the bay from San Francisco, claimed the lives of over 200 African Americans in 1944. When some of the refused to resume work until conditions were made less hazardous, up to 50 were tried for mutiny. African American southerners were motivated to move based on economic concerns, the economic deprivation suffered by southern African Americans prior to the great migration has been well documented. Plantation agriculture such as sharecropping limited African Americans to gain and work up the “agricultural ladder”, the agricultural ladder was a system in which a workers status determined their position, not how skilled or valuable they were. Because of segregation, African American men were placed in unskilled jobs, African Americans strove to find new opportunities such as finding better ways to earn a living to support their families. Moving to the north was a way to improve their economic fortunes, World War I and new immigration policies forced northern employers to start considering southern African Americans and whites as a cheap labor force to replace the costly European workers. Other social factors such as opportunities, political disenfranchisement. The great migration was a process driven by a large. The lack of opportunity in the South prompted many African Americans to migrate to Western cities in search of jobs in the munitions industry. Once they arrived, they were met with a variety of factors that separated emerging migrant communities from white ones
13.
Black Power movement
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The Black Power movement was a political movement to achieve a form of Black Power and the many philosophies it contains. The movement saw various forms of some violent and some peaceful. The Black Power movement also represented socialist movements, all with the motivation of improving the standing of black people in society. Originated during the Civil Rights Movement, some doubted the philosophy of the movement begging for more radical action, the cornerstone of the movement was the Black Panther Party, a Black Power organization dedicated to socialism and the use of violence to achieve it. The Black Power movement developed in the criticisms of the Civil Rights Movement in the early 1960s, and over time and into the 1970s, after years of violence, many left the movement and the police began arresting violent actors in the movement. The Black Power movement also spilled out into the Caribbean creating the Black Power Revolution, on June 16,1966, in a speech in Greenwood, Mississippi after the assassination attempt on James Meredith by Aubrey James Norvell during the March Against Fear, Stokely Carmichael used the term. By the late 1960s Black Power came to represent the demand for more violent action to counter American white supremacy. Most of these ideas were influenced by Malcolm Xs criticism of Martin Luther King, the 1965 assassination of Malcolm X coupled with the urban uprisings of 1964 and 1965 ignited the Black Power movement. By 1968 Black Power was a movement with a growing force of people who sympathize. New organizations began to form such as the Black Panther Party each supporting Black Power philosophies ranging from socialism to black nationalism, the organization Nation of Islam began developing a black nationalist movement in the 1930s, inspiring later black nationalist groups. The Nation of Islam continues to function to this day, in the early 1960s the Almighty Black P. Stone Nation gang developed into a Black Power group supporting black nationalism. Malcolm X rose rapidly to become the minister and national spokesperson for the Nation of Islam, highly influenced by Malcolm Xs membership, the Nation claimed a membership of 30,000. In April 1964, one later, Malcolm X founded Muslim Mosque Inc. stating. It was they who conspired with Captain Joseph here in New York to pressure me out of the Nation, Malcolm X would later be assassinated in February 1965. They argued instead that blacks needed to power of their own rather than seek accommodations from the power structure in place. The organization continued its militancy later on and established ties with groups such as the Students for a Democratic Society. In late October 1966, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party, in formulating a new politics, they drew on their experiences working with a variety of Black Power organizations. The initial tactic of the Black Panther Party utilized contemporary open-carry gun laws to protect Party members when policing the police and this act was done in order to record incidents of police brutality by distantly following police cars around neighborhoods
14.
New Great Migration
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The New Great Migration is the demographic change from 1965 to the present, which is a reversal of the previous 35-year trend of black migration within the United States. As early as 1975-1980, seven states were net black migration gainers. College graduates and middle-class migrants make up a portion of the new migration. For instance, from 1965–2000, the states of Florida, Georgia, in that same period, California was a net loser of black migration for the first time in three decades. While the migration is still in progress, much data is from this 35-year period, other southern states, including Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, Alabama, and Arkansas, have seen little net growth in the African American population from return migration
15.
Civil Rights Movement
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This article covers the phase of the movement between 1954 and 1968, particularly in the South. The movement was characterized by major campaigns of civil resistance, between 1955 and 1968, acts of nonviolent protest and civil disobedience produced crisis situations and productive dialogues between activists and government authorities. Federal, state, and local governments, businesses, and communities often had to immediately to these situations. The 1950s and 1960s Civil Rights Movement witnessed the passage of several pieces of federal legislation. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 restored and protected voting rights for minorities, the Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 removed racial and national barriers and opened the way for non-white immigrants. The Fair Housing Act of 1968 banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing, African Americans re-entered politics in the South, and across the country young people were inspired to take action. A wave of inner city riots in black communities from 1964 through 1970 undercut support from the white community. Many popular representations of the movement are centered on the leadership and philosophy of Martin Luther King, but, some scholars note that the movement was too diverse to be credited to one person, organization, or strategy. Before the American Civil War, almost four million blacks were enslaved in the South, only men of property could vote. From 1865 to 1877, the United States underwent a turbulent Reconstruction Era trying to free labor. Many whites resisted the changes, leading to insurgent movements such as the Ku Klux Klan, whose members attacked black. In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant, the U. S. Army, however, if the states failed to implement the acts, the laws allowed the Federal Government to get involved. Many Republican governors were afraid of sending black militia troops to fight the clan in fear of war, for more than 60 years, blacks in the South were not able to elect anyone to represent their interests in Congress or local government. Since they could not vote, they could not serve on local juries, during this period, the white-dominated Democratic Party maintained political control of the South. With whites controlling all the seats representing the population of the South. The Republican Party—the party of Lincoln—which had been the party that most blacks belonged to, until 1965, the solid South was a one-party system under the Democrats. Outside a few areas, the Democratic Party nomination was tantamount to election for state, in 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt invited Booker T. Washington to dine at the White House, making him the first African American to attend an official dinner there. The invitation was roundly criticized by politicians and newspapers
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African-American culture
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The distinct identity of African-American culture is rooted in the historical experience of the African-American people, including the Middle Passage. The culture is distinct and enormously influential on American culture as a whole. African-American culture is rooted in West and Central Africa, understanding its identity within the culture of the United States it is, in the anthropological sense, conscious of its origins as largely a blend of West and Central African cultures. Elaborate rituals and ceremonies were a significant part of African Americans ancestral culture, many West African societies traditionally believed that spirits dwelled in their surrounding nature. From this disposition, they treated their environment with mindful care and they also generally believed that a spiritual life source existed after death, and that ancestors in this spiritual realm could then mediate between the supreme creator and the living. Honor and prayer was displayed to these ancient ones, the spirit of those past, West Africans also believed in spiritual possession. In the beginning of the eighteenth century Christianity began to spread across North Africa, the enslaved Africans brought this complex religious dynamic within their culture to America. This fusion of traditional African beliefs with Christianity provided a place for those practicing religion in Africa and America. After emancipation, unique African-American traditions continued to flourish, as distinctive traditions or radical innovations in music, art, literature, religion, cuisine, 20th-century sociologists, such as Gunnar Myrdal, believed that African Americans had lost most cultural ties with Africa. But, anthropological research by Melville Herskovits and others demonstrated that there has been a continuum of African traditions among Africans of the Diaspora. The greatest influence of African cultural practices on European culture is found below the Mason-Dixon line in the American South, Today, African-American culture has become a significant part of American culture and yet, at the same time, remains a distinct cultural body. From the earliest days of American slavery in the 17th century, African cultures, slavery, slave rebellions, and the civil rights movement have shaped African-American religious, familial, political, and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in a myriad of ways, in politics, economics, language, music, hairstyles, fashion, dance, religion, cuisine, in turn, African-American culture has had a pervasive, transformative impact on many elements of mainstream American culture. This process of mutual creative exchange is called creolization, over time, the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubiquitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture, but on world culture as well. Slaveholders limited or prohibited education of enslaved African Americans because they feared it might empower their chattel, in the United States, the legislation that denied slaves formal education likely contributed to their maintaining a strong oral tradition, a common feature of indigenous African cultures. African-based oral traditions became the means of preserving history, mores. This was consistent with the practices of oral history in many African. Many of these elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling
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African-American art
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African-American art is a broad term describing the visual arts of the American black community. From its early origins in slave communities, through the end of the 20th century, many slaves arrived from Africa as skilled artisans, having worked in these or similar media in Africa. Others learned their trades or crafts as apprentices to African or white skilled workers and it was often the practice for slave owners to hire out skilled artisans. With the consent of their masters, some slave artisans also were able to keep wages earned in their time and thereby save enough money to purchase their. G. W. Hobbs, Patrick H. Reason, Joshua Johnson, patronage by some white families allowed for private tutorship in special cases. Many of these sponsoring whites were abolitionists, the artists received more encouragement and were better able to support themselves in cities, of which there were more in the North and border states. Harriet Powers was an African-American folk artist and quilt maker from rural Georgia, United States, now nationally recognized for her quilts, she used traditional appliqué techniques to record local legends, Bible stories, and astronomical events on her quilts. Only two of her late quilts have survived, Bible Quilt 1886 and Bible Quilt 1898 and her quilts are considered among the finest examples of 19th-century Southern quilting. Like Powers, the women of Gees Bend developed a distinctive, bold, and sophisticated quilting style based on traditional American quilts, although widely separated by geography, they have qualities reminiscent of Amish quilts and modern art. The women of Gees Bend passed their skills and aesthetic down through at least six generations to the present, at one time scholars believed slaves sometimes utilized quilt blocks to alert other slaves about escape plans during the time of the Underground Railroad, but most historians do not agree. Quilting remains alive as form of expression in the African-American community. After the Civil War, it became acceptable for African American-created works to be exhibited in museums. These were works mostly in the European romantic and classical traditions of landscapes, edward Mitchell Bannister, Henry Ossawa Tanner and Edmonia Lewis are the most notable of this time. Others include Grafton Tyler Brown, Nelson A. Primus and Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, the goal of widespread recognition across racial boundaries was first eased within Americas big cities, including Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, New York, and New Orleans. Even in these places, however, there were discriminatory limitations, abroad, however, African Americans were much better received. In Europe — especially Paris, France — these artists could express much more freedom in experimentation and education concerning techniques outside traditional western art, freedom of expression was much more prevalent in Paris as well as Munich and Rome to a lesser extent. The Harlem Renaissance was one of the most notable movements in African-American art, certain freedoms and ideas that were already widespread in many parts of the world at the time had begun to spread into the artistic communities United States during the 1920s. The establishment of the Harmon Foundation by art patron William E. Harmon in 1922 sponsored many artists through its Harmon Award, as it did with many such endeavors, the 1929 Great Depression largely ended funding for the arts for a time
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Black mecca
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Atlanta has frequently been referred to as a black mecca since the 1970s. A2002 article in the same magazine reconfirmed Atlanta as the new black mecca, in 2009 the Associated Press characterized Atlantas status as a black mecca by black political power in its City Hall. It also noted Atlantas annual Atlanta Black Pride festival, an earlier 2004 article in the Atlanta Journal-Constitution also documented Atlanta as a hub or mecca for black gays. Atlantas status as a mecca for blacks is sometimes questioned, or the concept of a mecca refuted altogether, in 1997 the Chicago Tribune published an article titled Atlantas image as a black mecca losing luster. The loss in luster was because of a reality that too many blacks werent coming close to financial success, Harlem in New York City was referred to as a black mecca during the 1920s and 1930s. Much of the material appears in his 1925 anthology The New Negro, in 1965, author Seth Scheiner published the book Negro Mecca, A History of the Negro in New York City, 1865-1920. The 2001 book Harlemworld documented that the concept of Harlem as a black mecca at that time was present among many residents - a concept that was history-laden or even quasi-mythical. In 2011, online magazine Clutch named Washington, D. C, louis, Memphis, Durham, Philadelphia, Houston, Los Angeles and New Orleans, as well as New York, Baltimore and Chicago
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Juneteenth
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Celebrated on June 19, the word is a combination of June and nineteenth. Juneteenth is recognized as a holiday or special day of observance in most states. The holiday is observed primarily in local celebrations, celebrations may include parades, rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, or Miss Juneteenth contests. During the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on September 22,1862 and it declared all slaves to be freed in the Confederate States of America in rebellion and not in Union hands. More isolated geographically, Texas was not a battleground, and thus its slaves were not affected by the Emancipation Proclamation unless they escaped. Although most slaves lived in areas, more than 1000 resided in both Galveston and Houston by 1860, with several hundred in other large towns. By 1865, there were an estimated 250,000 slaves in Texas, as news of end of the war moved slowly, it did not reach Texas until May 1865, and the Army of the Trans-Mississippi did not surrender until June 2. On June 18,1865, Union General Gordon Granger arrived at Galveston Island with 2,000 federal troops to occupy Texas on behalf of the federal government. On June 19, standing on the balcony of Galvestons Ashton Villa,3, announcing the total emancipation of slaves, The people of Texas are informed that, in accordance with a proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free. The freedmen are advised to remain quietly at their present homes and they are informed that they will not be allowed to collect at military posts and that they will not be supported in idleness either there or elsewhere. Former slaves in Galveston rejoiced in the streets after the announcement, but, the following year, freedmen organized the first of what became annual celebrations of Juneteenth in Texas. Washington Park, and Emancipation Park in Austin, although the date is sometimes referred to as the traditional end of slavery in Texas it was given legal status in a series of Texas Supreme Court decisions between 1868 and 1874. In the early 20th century, economic and political forces led to a decline in Juneteenth celebrations, from 1890 to 1908, Texas and all former Confederate states passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised blacks, excluding them from the political process. White-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws imposing second-class status, the Great Depression forced many blacks off farms and into the cities to find work. In these urban environments, African Americans had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate, as historian Isabel Wilkerson writes, The people from Texas took Juneteenth Day to Los Angeles, Oakland, Seattle, and other places they went. By the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement focused the attention of African-American youth on the struggle for racial equality, but, many linked these struggles to the historical struggles of their ancestors. Since the 1980s and 1990s, the holiday has more widely celebrated among African-American communities. In 1994 a group of community leaders gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans, Juneteenth informal observance have spread to many other states, including Portland, Maine, in part carried by Texans
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Kwanzaa
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Kwanzaa is a week-long celebration held in the United States and in other nations of the Western African diaspora in the Americas. The celebration honors African heritage in African-American culture, and is observed from December 26 to January 1, culminating in a feast and it was created by Maulana Karenga and was first celebrated in 1966–67. Maulana Karenga created Kwanzaa in 1966, as the first specifically African-American holiday, according to Karenga, the name Kwanzaa derives from the Swahili phrase matunda ya kwanza, meaning first fruits of the harvest, although a more conventional translation would simply be first fruits. The cultural revolution gives identity, purpose and direction, during the early years of Kwanzaa, Karenga said that it was meant to be an oppositional alternative to Christmas. Many African Americans who celebrate Kwanzaa do so in addition to observing Christmas and these seven principles comprise *Kawaida, a Swahili word meaning common. Each of the seven days of Kwanzaa is dedicated to one of the principles, as follows, Umoja, To strive for and to maintain unity in the family, community, nation. Kujichagulia, To define and name ourselves, as well as to create, ujima, To build and maintain our community together and make our brothers and sisters problems our problems and to solve them together. Ujamaa, To build and maintain our own stores, shops, nia, To make our collective vocation the building and developing of our community in order to restore our people to their traditional greatness. Kuumba, To do always as much as we can, in the way we can, in order to leave our community more beautiful and beneficial than we inherited it. Imani, To believe with all our hearts in our people, our parents, our teachers, our leaders, corn is the primary symbol for both decoration and celebratory dining. It is customary to include children in Kwanzaa ceremonies and to give respect, libations are shared, generally with a common chalice, Kikombe cha Umoja, passed around to all celebrants. The holiday greeting is Joyous Kwanzaa, the greeting for each day of Kwanzaa is Habari Gani. which is Swahili for How are you. Today, many African American families celebrate Kwanzaa along with Christmas, frequently, both Christmas trees and kinaras, the traditional candle holder symbolic of African American roots, share space in Kwanzaa-celebrating households. For people who celebrate both holidays, Kwanzaa is an opportunity to incorporate elements of their ethnic heritage into holiday observances. Cultural exhibitions include the Spirit of Kwanzaa, a celebration held at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts featuring interpretive dance, African dance, song. The holiday has spread to Canada, and is celebrated by Black Canadians in a similar fashion as in the United States. In 2004, BIG Research conducted a survey in the United States for the National Retail Foundation. If generalized to the US population as a whole, this would imply that around 4.7 million people planned to celebrate Kwanzaa in that year, in a 2006 speech, Maulana Karenga asserted that 28 million people celebrate Kwanzaa
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African-American literature
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African-American literature is the body of literature produced in the United States by writers of African descent. It begins with the works of such late 18th-century writers as Phillis Wheatley, before the high point of slave narratives, African-American literature was dominated by autobiographical spiritual narratives. African-American literature reached early high points with slave narratives of the 19th century, the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s was a time of flowering of literature and the arts. Writers of African-American literature have been recognized by the highest awards, among the themes and issues explored in this literature are the role of African Americans within the larger American society, African-American culture, racism, slavery, and social equality. African-American writing has tended to incorporate oral forms, such as spirituals, sermons, gospel music, blues, as African Americans place in American society has changed over the centuries, so has the focus of African-American literature. There was a distinction between the literature of freed slaves and the literature of free blacks who had been born in the North. Free blacks had to express their oppression in a different narrative form, free blacks in the North often spoke out against slavery and racial injustices using the spiritual narrative. The spiritual addressed many of the themes of slave narratives. At the turn of the 20th century, non-fiction works by such as W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington debated how to confront racist attitudes in the United States, during the Civil Rights Movement, authors such as Richard Wright and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation and black nationalism. In broad terms, African-American literature can be defined as writings by people of African descent living in the United States, African-American literature has generally focused on the role of African Americans within the larger American society and what it means to be an American. As Princeton University professor Albert J. Raboteau has said, all African-American study speaks to the meaning of the African-American presence in this nation. This presence has always been a test case of the claims to freedom, democracy, equality. African-American literature presents the African-American experience from an African-American point of view, in the early Republic, African-American literature represented a way for free blacks to negotiate their new identity in an individualized republic. They often tried to exercise their political and social autonomy in the face of resistance from the white public, thus, an early theme of African-American literature was, like other American writings, what it meant to be a citizen in post-Revolutionary America. African-American literature has both influenced by the great African diasporic heritage and shaped it in many countries. African-American oral culture is rich in poetry, including spirituals, gospel music, blues and this oral poetry also appears in the African-American tradition of Christian sermons, which make use of deliberate repetition, cadence, and alliteration. African-American literature—especially written poetry, but also prose—has a strong tradition of incorporating all of these forms of oral poetry and these characteristics do not occur in all works by African-American writers
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List of museums focused on African Americans
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This is a list of museums in the United States whose primary focus is on African American culture and history. Such museums are known as African American museums. According to scholar Raymond Doswell, an African-American museum is an established for the preservation of African-derived culture. Museums have a mission of collecting and preserving material on history, African-American museums share these goals with archives, genealogy groups, historical societies, and research libraries. Being open to the public and having regular hours sets museums apart from historical sites or other facilities that may call themselves museums, the first African-American museum was the College Museum in Hampton, Virginia, established in 1868. Prior to 1950, there were about 30 museums devoted primarily to African-American culture and these were located primarily at historically black colleges and universities or at libraries that had significant African-American culture and history collections. Important collections were developed at Bennett College in Greensboro, North Carolina, Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, Howard University in Washington, D. C. Lincoln University in Chester County, Pennsylvania, Morgan State University in Baltimore, Maryland, Talladega College in Talladega, Alabama, additionally, local historical societies, history clubs, and reading groups in African-American communities also collected and displayed African-American cultural artifacts. Throughout the 1960s, the energy of the American Civil Rights Movement led to numerous local African-American museums being founded, between 1868 and 1991, there were about 150 African-American museums established in 37 states. As of 2010, the largest African-American museum in the United States was the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History in Detroit and it will be exceeded in size by the Smithsonian Institutions National Museum of African American History and Culture when completed in 2016. African-American Heritage Sites Artworks commemorating African Americans in Washington, D. C, list of streets named after Martin Luther King, Jr. Association of African American Museums Jim Crow History programs map and details of museums in the U. S. devoted to African American history
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African-American music
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African-American music is an umbrella term covering a diverse range of musics and musical genres largely developed by African Americans. Their origins are in forms that arose out of the historical condition of slavery that characterized the lives of African Americans prior to the American Civil War. The exceptions are hip hop, house and techno, which were formed in the late 20th century from earlier forms of African-American music such as funk and soul. Following the Civil War, black Americans, through employment as musicians playing European music in military bands and these musical forms had a wide-ranging influence on the development of music within the United States and around the world during the 20th century. The earliest jazz and blues recordings were made in the 1920s, African-American musicians developed related styles such as Rhythm and Blues in the 1940s. In the 1960s, soul performers had a influence on white US. In the mid-1960s, black musicians developed funk and they were many of the figures in late 1960s and 1970s genre of jazz-rock fusion. In the 1970s and 1980s, black artists developed hip hop, in the 2000s, hip hop attained significant mainstream popularity. Modern day music is influenced by previous and present African-American music genres. Many of the musical forms that define African-American music have historical precedents. Conversion, however, did not result in slaves adopting the traditions associated with the practice of Christianity, instead they reinterpreted them in a way that had meaning to them as Africans in America. They often sang the spirituals in groups as they worked the plantation fields, Folk spirituals, unlike much white gospel, were often spirited, slaves added dancing and other forms of bodily movements to the singing. Folk spirituals were spontaneously created and performed in a repetitive, improvised style, the most common song structures are the call-and-response and repetitive choruses. The call-and-response is an exchange between the soloist and the other singers. The soloist usually improvises a line to which the other singers respond, song interpretation incorporates the interjections of moans, cries, hollers etc. and changing vocal timbres. Singing is also accompanied by clapping and foot-stomping. Suggested listening, Spirituals The influence of African Americans on mainstream American music began in the 19th century, the banjo, of African origin, became a popular instrument, and its African-derived rhythms were incorporated into popular songs by Stephen Foster and other songwriters. In the 1830s, the Second Great Awakening led to a rise in Christian revivals and pietism, drawing on traditional work songs, enslaved African Americans originated and began performing a wide variety of Spirituals and other Christian music
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African-American neighborhood
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African-American neighborhoods or black neighborhoods are types of ethnic enclaves found in many cities in the United States. Generally, an African American neighborhood is one where the majority of the people who live there are African American, some of the earliest African-American neighborhoods were in New York City along with early communities located in Virginia. In 1830, there were 14,000 free Negroes living in New York City, the formation of black neighborhoods are closely linked to the history of segregation in the United States, either through formal laws or as a product of social norms. Despite the formal laws and segregation, black neighborhoods have played an important role in the development of African-American culture, the Great Migration was the movement of more than one million African Americans out of rural Southern United States from 1914 to 1940. Most African Americans who participated in the moved to large industrial cities such as New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Washington. Baltimore, Minneapolis, Seattle, Detroit, Boston, Milwaukee, St. Louis, Oakland, Los Angeles, hence, the Migration played an important role in the formation and expansion of African-American neighborhoods in these cities. Populations increased very rapidly with the addition of African-American migrants and new European immigrants, newer groups competed even for the oldest and most rundown houses because the poorly constructed houses were what they could afford. African Americans competed for work and housing with first or second generation immigrants in many major cities, ethnic groups created territories which they defended against change. More established populations with more capital moved away to newer housing that was being developed on the outskirts of the cities, the migrants also discovered that the open discrimination of the South was only more subtly manifested in the North. In 1917, the Supreme Court declared municipal resident segregation ordinances unconstitutional, in response, some white groups resorted to the restrictive covenant, a formal deed restriction binding property owners in a given neighborhood not to sell to blacks. Whites who broke these agreements could be sued by damaged neighbors, not until 1948 did the Supreme Court strike down restrictive covenants. The National Housing Act of 1934 contributed to limiting the availability of loans to urban areas, in cities such as Chicago the influx of African-American migrants and other immigrants resulted in racial violence, which flared in several cities during 1919. This significant event and the subsequent struggle of African-American migrants to adapt to Northern cities was the subject of James Lawrences Migration Series and this series, exhibited in 1941, was responsible for bringing Lawrence to the public eye as one of the most important African-American artists of the time. From 1940-1970, another five people left the South for Northern and Western cities. Violence was the outcome of some of the pressure of this migration, the most common use of the term refers to mortgage discrimination. Data on house prices and attitudes toward integration suggest that in the mid-20th century and this meant that ethnic minorities could secure mortgage loans only in certain areas, and it resulted in a large increase in the residential racial segregation and urban decay in the United States. Urban renewal, the redevelopment of areas within cities, including white flight, has also been a factor in the growth patterns of African-American neighborhoods. The process began a phase in the late 1940s and continues in some places to the present day
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Religion in Black America
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Religion in Black America refers to the religious and spiritual practices of blacks and people of African descent in the United States. Historians generally agree that the life of Black Americans forms the foundation of their community life. Before 1775 there was scattered evidence of organized religion among blacks in the American colonies, the Methodist and Baptist churches became much more active in the 1780s, and growth was quite rapid for the next 150 years until they covered a majority of the people. After Emancipation in 1863, Freedmen organized their own churches, chiefly Baptist, other Protestant denominations, and Catholics, played smaller roles. By 1900 the Pentecostal and Holiness movements were important, and later the Jehovah Witnesses, the Nation of Islam added a Muslim factor in the 20th century. Powerful pastors often played prominent roles in politics, as typified by Martin Luther King Jr. the leader of the Civil Rights Movement, the population is mostly Christian, with 83% of black Americans identifying as Christian, including 45% who identify as baptist. Catholics account for 5% of the population, about 12% of African American people do not have a religion and identify as atheist or agnostic, slightly lower than the figure for the whole of the USA. In the 1770s, no more than 1% of the blacks in the United States were connected to organized churches, the numbers grew rapidly after 1789. The Anglican Church had made an effort to proselytize, especially in Virginia, and spread information about Christianity. Some slaves brought traditional practices, especially regarding magic, with them from Africa, no organized African religious practices are known to have taken place in the Thirteen Colonies, but there was a surreptitious or underground practice of magic. In the mid-20th century scholars debated whether there were distinctive African elements embedded in black American religious practices, as in music, scholars no longer look for such cultural transfers regarding religion. Black religious music is distinct from traditional European religious music, it dances and ring shouts. Many white clergy within evangelical Protestantism actively promoted the idea that all Christians were equal in the sight of God, slaves were welcome at the Baptist services and a few Baptist congregations contained as many as 25% slaves. Central to the growth of community among blacks was the Black church, starting around 1800 with the African Methodist Episcopal Church, African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church and other churches, the Black church grew to be the focal point of the Black community. The Black church- was both an expression of community and unique African-American spirituality, and a reaction to discrimination, the church also served as neighborhood centers where free black people could celebrate their African heritage without intrusion by white detractors. The church also the center of education, since the church was part of the community and wanted to provide education, they educated the freed and enslaved Blacks. Seeking autonomy, some blacks like Richard Allen founded separate Black denominations, the Second Great Awakening has been called the central and defining event in the development of Afro-Christianity. Free blacks also established Black churches in the South before 1860, after the Great Awakening, many blacks joined the Baptist Church, which allowed for their participation, including roles as elders and preachers
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Black church
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The term black church or African-American church refers to Protestant churches that currently or historically have ministered to predominantly black congregations in the United States. Most of the first black congregations and churches formed before 1800 were founded by free blacks – for example, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Petersburg, Virginia, and Savannah, Georgia. The oldest black Baptist church in Kentucky, and third oldest in the United States, was founded about 1790 by the slave Peter Durrett. After slavery was abolished, segregationist attitudes in both the North and the South discouraged and even prevented African Americans from worshiping in the churches as whites. Freed blacks most often established congregations and church facilities separate from their white neighbors, as a result, black churches have fostered strong community organizations and provided spiritual and political leadership, especially during the civil rights movement. Evangelical Baptist and Methodist preachers traveled throughout the South in the Great Awakening of the late 18th century and they appealed directly to slaves, and a few thousand slaves converted. Blacks found opportunities to have roles in new congregations, especially in the Baptist Church. As they listened to readings, slaves developed their own interpretations of the Scriptures and found inspiration in stories of deliverance, such as the Exodus out of Egypt. Nat Turner, a slave and Baptist preacher, was inspired to armed rebellion, in an uprising that killed about 50 white men, women, and children in Virginia. Both free blacks and the numerous slaves participated in the earliest black Baptist congregations founded near Petersburg, Virginia, Savannah, Georgia and Lexington, Kentucky. The slaves Peter Durrett and his wife founded the First African Church in Lexington, the churchs trustees purchased its first property in 1815. The congregation numbered about 290 by the time of Durretts death in 1823, following slave revolts in the early 19th century, including Nat Turners Rebellion in 1831, Virginia passed a law requiring black congregations to meet only in the presence of a white minister. Other states similarly restricted exclusively black churches, or the assembly of blacks in large groups unsupervised by whites, nevertheless, the black Baptist congregations in the cities grew rapidly and their members numbered several hundred each before the Civil War. While mostly led by blacks, most of their members were slaves. With the time, many incorporated Wesleyan Methodist hymns, gospel songs, the underground churches provided psychological refuge from the white world. The spirituals gave the members a secret way to communicate and, in some cases. Slaves also learned about Christianity by attending services led by a preacher or supervised by a white person. Slaveholders often held meetings at their plantations
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Nation of Islam
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The Nation of Islam, abbreviated as NOI, is an African American political and religious movement, founded in Detroit, Michigan, United States, by Wallace D. Fard Muhammad on July 4,1930. Its stated goals are to improve the spiritual, mental, social, critics have described the organization as being black supremacist and antisemitic. The Southern Poverty Law Center tracks the NOI as a hate group and its official newspaper is The Final Call. In 2007, the membership was estimated to be between 20,000 and 50,000. The Nation has long been an advocate of African-American businesses. There were a number of splits and splinter groups during Elijah Muhammads leadership, in 1977, Louis Farrakhan rejected Warith Deen Mohammeds leadership and re-established the Nation of Islam on the original model. He took over the Nation of Islams headquarters Temple, Mosque Maryam in Chicago, since 2010, under Farrakhan, members have been strongly encouraged to study Dianetics, and the Nation claims it has trained 1055 auditors. The NOI was founded in Detroit on July 4,1930, by Wallace Fard Muhammad, the NOI teaches that W. Fard Muhammad was both the Messiah of Judaism and the Mahdi of Islam. Fard chose his assistant minister, Elijah Muhammad, in 1931 to succeed him as head of the movement, Fard trained Muhammad night and day for 3½ years before he took over NOI in 1934. Muhammad and the movement were widely rejected during his 44 years as the NOI leader, Muhammad established a newspaper, The Final Call to Islam, and attempted to create schools founded upon Muslim teachings. Muslim parents agreed with the foundation of new schools. Muslim teachers were charged with contributing to the delinquency of minors, Muhammad left for Chicago in September of that year. He was soon joined by W. D. Fard Muhammad, in 1942, during World War II, Elijah Muhammad was charged and convicted of violating the Selective Service Act and jailed. Many other Nation of Islam members were charged for the same thing, upon his release in 1946, Elijah Muhammad slowly built up the membership of his movement through recruitment in the postwar decades. His program called for the establishment of a nation for black Americans. During this time, the Nation of Islam attracted Malcolm Little, while in prison in Boston for burglary from 1946 to 1952, Little joined the Nation of Islam. He was influenced by his brother, Reginald, who had become a member in Detroit, Little quit smoking, gambling and eating pork, in keeping with the Nations practices and dietary restrictions. He spent long hours reading books in the prison library and he sharpened his oratory skills by participating in debating classes
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Afrocentrism
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Afrocentrism is a cultural ideology or worldview mostly limited to the United States that focuses on the history of black Africans. It is a response to global attitudes about African people and their historical contributions, Afrocentricity deals primarily with self-determination and African agency and is a Pan-African ideology in culture, philosophy, and history. S. Civil Rights Movement and in the development of African-American Studies programs in universities, in strict terms Afrocentrism, as a distinct academic ideology, reached its peak in the 1980s and 1990s. Today it is associated with Molefi Asante. Critics of Afrocentricity accuse it of being pseudohistory, reactive, the term Afrocentrism dates to 1962. The adjective Afrocentric appears in a proposal for an entry in Encyclopedia Africana. The abstract noun Afrocentricity dates to the 1970s, and was popularized by Molefi Asantes Afrocentricity and they increasingly took more active public roles despite severe racial discrimination and segregation. American and African intellectuals looked to the African past for a re-evaluation of what its civilizations had achieved, the combination of the European centuries gives us about four to five hundred years of solid European domination of intellectual concepts and philosophical ideas. Africa and Asia were subsumed under various headings of the European hierarchy, according to U. S. professor Victor Oguejiofor Okafor, concepts of Afrocentricity lie at the core of disciplines such as African American studies. A major theme of the work is the denial by Western academia of the African. Philosophy originated in Africa and the first philosophers in the world were Africans, Afrocentricity constitutes a new way of examining data, and a novel orientation to data, it carries with it assumptions about the current state of the African world. His aim is to lay out a plan for the recovery of African place, respectability, accountability. Afrocentricity can stand its ground among any ideology or religion, Marxism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism and your Afrocentricity will emerge in the presence of these other ideologies because it is from you. Afrocentrism is the ideology that can liberate African people. A commitment to finding the subject-place of Africans in any social, political, economic, or religious phenomenon with implications for questions of sex, gender, a defence of African cultural elements as historically valid in the context of art, music, and literature. A celebration of centeredness and agency and a commitment to lexical refinement that eliminates pejoratives about Africans or other people, a powerful imperative from historical sources to revise the collective text of African people. Some also assert that the definition of Afrocentricity has never sat still long enough to be properly described, Afrocentric education is education designed to empower peoples of the African diaspora. A central premise behind it is that many Africans have been subjugated by limiting their awareness of themselves, to control a peoples culture is to control their tools of self-determination in relationship to others
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Black Power
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Black Power is a political slogan and a name for various associated ideologies aimed at achieving self-determination for people of African descent. It is used by African Americans in the United States, the earliest known usage of the term is found in a 1954 book by Richard Wright entitled Black Power. New York politician Adam Clayton Powell Jr. used the term on May 29,1966 during an address at Howard University, the only way we gonna stop them white men from whuppin us is to take over. What we gonna start sayin now is Black Power, Stokely Carmichael saw the concept of Black Power as a means of solidarity between individuals within the movement. It was a replacement of the Freedom Now, slogan of Carmichaels contemporary, the non-violent leader Martin Luther King. With his use of the term, Carmichael felt this movement was not just a movement for racial desegregation and he said, Black Power means black people coming together to form a political force and either electing representatives or forcing their representatives to speak their needs. Black Power adherents believed in Black autonomy, with a variety of such as black nationalism, black self-determination. Such positions caused friction with leaders of the mainstream Civil Rights Movement, however, many groups and individuals - including Rosa Parks, Robert F. Williams, Maya Angelou, Gloria Richardson, and Fay Bellamy Powell - participated in both civil rights and black power activism. A growing number of scholars conceive of the rights and black power movements as one interconnected Black Freedom Movement. Numerous Black Power advocates were in favor of black self determination due to the belief that people must lead. Stokely Carmichael is such an advocate and states that, only black people can convey the revolutionary idea--and it is a revolutionary idea--that black people are able to do things themselves, however, this is not to say that Black Power advocates promoted racial segregation. Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton write that there is a definite and they felt that whites could serve the movement by educating other white people. Not all Black Power advocates were in favor of black separatism, while Stokely Carmichael and SNCC were in favor of separatism for a time in the late 1960s, organizations such as the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense were not. Bobby Seale, Chairman and Co-Founder of the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, was outspoken about this issue and his stance was that the oppression of black people was more a result of economic exploitation than anything innately racist. In his book Seize the Time, he states that In our view it is a struggle between the massive proletarian working class and the small, minority ruling class. Working-class people of all colors must unite against the exploitative, oppressive ruling class, so let me emphasize again—we believe our fight is a class struggle and not a race struggle. Internationalist offshoots of black power include African Internationalism, pan-Africanism, black nationalism, douglass predicted, The days of Black Power are numbered. But with the swiftness of an arrow, it rushes to the tomb, while crushing its millions, it is also crushing itself
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Black Panther Party
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In 1969, community social programs became a core activity of party members. The party enrolled the largest number of members and made the greatest impact in the Oakland-San Francisco Bay Area, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. The program was accused of assassinating Black Panther members. Black Panther Party membership reached a peak in 1970, with offices in 68 cities and thousands of members, after being vilified by the mainstream press, public support for the party waned, and the group became more isolated. In-fighting among Party leadership, caused largely by the FBIs COINTELPRO operation, by 1972 most Panther activity centered on the national headquarters and a school in Oakland, where the party continued to influence local politics. Though under constant police surveillance, the Chicago chapter remained active, the Seattle chapter lasted longer than most, with a breakfast program and medical clinics that continued even after the chapter disbanded in 1977. Party contractions continued throughout the 1970s, and by 1980 the Black Panther Party had just 27 members, the history of the Black Panther Party is controversial. Other commentators have described the Party as more criminal than political, the sweeping migration of black families out of the South during World War II transformed Oakland and cities throughout the West and the North. But not much changed in the cities of the North and West, Police departments were almost all white. In 1966, only 16 of Oaklands 661 police officers were African American, insurgent civil rights practices proved incapable of redressing these conditions, and the organizations that had led much of the nonviolent civil disobedience such as SNCC and CORE went into decline. Young black people in Oakland and other cities developed a rich ferment of study groups and political organizations, in late October 1966, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party. In formulating a new politics, they drew on their experiences working with a variety of Black Power organizations, Newton and Seale first met in 1962 when they were both students at Merritt College. They joined Donald Warden’s Afro-American Association, where they read widely, debated, dissatisfied with the failure of these organizations to directly challenge police brutality and appeal to the brothers on the block, Huey and Bobby sought to take matters into their own hands. After the police killed Matthew Johnson, a young black man in San Francisco. He had an epiphany that would distinguish the Black Panther Party from the multitude of organizations seeking to build Black Power. Newton saw the explosive rebellious anger of the ghetto as a force, inspired by Robert F. Williams armed resistance to the KKK, Newton studied California gun law until he knew it better than many police officers. Like the Community Alert Patrol in Los Angeles after the Watts Rebellion, but with a crucial difference, his patrols would carry loaded guns. According to Bobby Seale, they would sell the books, make the money, buy the guns, well protect a mother, protect a brother, and protect the community from the racist cops
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Pan-Africanism
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Pan-Africanism is a worldwide intellectual movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all people of African descent. It is based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, the ideology asserts that the fate of all African peoples and countries are intertwined. At its core Pan-Africanism is a belief that African peoples, both on the continent and in the diaspora, share not merely a common history, but a common destiny. The African Union Commission has its seat in Addis Ababa and the Pan-African Parliament has its seat in Johannesburg, Pan-Africanism stresses the need for collective self-reliance. Pan-Africanism exists as a governmental and grassroots objective, du Bois, and others in the diaspora. Solidarity will enable self-reliance, allowing the potential to independently provide for its people to be fulfilled. Crucially, an alliance would empower African people globally. that would unsettle social and political structures. in the Americas. United, African nations will have the economic, political and social clout to act and compete on the stage as do other large entities, such as the European Union. Pan-Africans or Pan-Africanists—often champion socialist principles and tend to be opposed to external political, critics accuse the ideology of homogenizing the experience of people of African descent. They also point to the difficulties of reconciling current divisions within countries on the continent, as a philosophy, Pan-Africanism represents the aggregation of the historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, and philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to the present. Another important political form of a religious Pan-Africanist worldview appeared in the form of Ethiopianism, in London, the Sons of Africa was a political group addressed by Quobna Ottobah Cugoano in the 1791 edition of his book Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery. The group addressed meetings and organised letter-writing campaigns, published campaigning material and they wrote to figures such as Granville Sharp, William Pitt and other members of the white abolition movement, as well as King George III and the Prince of Wales, the future George IV. Modern Pan-Africanism began around the start of the 20th century, the African Association, later renamed the Pan-African Association, was established around 1897 by Henry Sylvester-Williams, who organized the First Pan-African Conference in London in 1900. With the independence of Ghana in March 1957, Kwame Nkrumah was elected as the first Prime Minister, Nkrumah emerged as a major advocate for the unity of Independent Africa. The Ghanaian President embodied a political activist approach to pan-Africanism as he championed the “quest for regional integration of the whole of the African continent”, Nkrumah’s pan-African principles, intended for a union between the Independent African states, upon a recognition their commonality, suppression under imperialism. The Conference invited delegates of political movements and major political leaders, with the exception of South Africa, all Independent States of the Continent attended, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Liberia, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia and Sudan. The Conference signified a monumental event in the movement, as it revealed a political and social union between the those considered Arabic states and the black African regions. Further, the Conference espoused a common African Nationalist identity, among the States, of unity, frantz Fanon, journalist, freedom fighter and a member of the Algerian, FLN Party attended the conference as a delegate for Algeria
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Southern Christian Leadership Conference
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The Southern Christian Leadership Conference is an African-American civil rights organization. SCLC, which is associated with its first president, Martin Luther King Jr, had a large role in the American Civil Rights Movement. Prior to this, Rustin, in New York City, conceived the idea of initiating such an effort and first sought C. K. Steele to make the call and take the lead role. Steele declined, but told Rustin he would be glad to work right beside him if he sought King in Montgomery and their goal was to form an organization to coordinate and support nonviolent direct action as a method of desegregating bus systems across the South. In addition to King, Rustin, Baker, and Steele, Fred Shuttlesworth of Birmingham, Joseph Lowery of Mobile, on February 15, a follow-up meeting was held in New Orleans. Out of these two meetings came a new organization with King as its president, a small office was established in the Prince Hall Masonic Temple Building on Auburn Avenue in Atlanta with Ella Baker as SCLCs first—and for a long time only—staff member. The organization also drew inspiration from the crusades of evangelist Billy Graham, during its early years, SCLC struggled to gain footholds in black churches and communities across the South. Social activism in favor of racial equality faced fierce repression from police, White Citizens Council, SCLCs advocacy of boycotts and other forms of nonviolent protest was controversial among both whites and blacks. Many black community believed that segregation should be challenged in the courts and that direct action excited white resistance, hostility. Many of these leaders were uneasy at involving ordinary blacks in mass activity such as boycotts. SCLCs belief that churches should be involved in activism against social ills was also deeply controversial. Many ministers and religious leaders—both black and white—thought that the role of the church was to focus on the needs of the congregation. To some of them, the activity of King and SCLC amounted to dangerous radicalism which they strongly opposed. Under the auspices of the Highlander Folk School the program was expanded across the South, the Johns Island Citizenship School was housed at The Progressive Club, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007. Eventually, close to 69,000 teachers, most of them volunteers and many with little formal education. In 1961 and 1962, SCLC joined SNCC in the Albany Movement and it is generally considered the organizations first major nonviolent campaign. At the time, it was considered by many to be unsuccessful, despite large demonstrations and many arrests, few changes were won, and the protests drew little national attention. Yet, despite the lack of immediate gains, much of the success of the subsequent Birmingham Campaign can be attributed to lessons learned in Albany, by contrast, the 1963 SCLC campaign in Birmingham, Alabama, was an unqualified success
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Congress of Racial Equality
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The Congress of Racial Equality is an African-American civil rights organization in the United States that played a pivotal role for African Americans in the Civil Rights Movement. Founded in 1942, CORE was one of the Big Four civil rights organizations, along with the SCLC, the SNCC, and the NAACP. Its stated mission is to bring about equality for all regardless of race, creed, sex, age, disability. COREs national chairman was Roy Innis, CORE was founded in Chicago in March 1942. Among the founding members were James L. Farmer, Jr. George Houser, James R. Robinson, Samuel E. Riley, Bernice Fisher, Homer Jack, and Joe Guinn. Of the 50 original members 28 were men and 22 were women, roughly one-third of them were black, bayard Rustin, while not a father of the organization, was, as Farmer and Houser later said, an uncle to CORE and supported it greatly. The group had evolved out of the pacifist Fellowship of Reconciliation, the groups inspiration was Mahatma Gandhis teachings of non-violence resistance. Gandhi had, in turn, been influenced by the writings of Henry David Thoreau, the American author, poet, in the South, COREs nonviolent direct action campaigns opposed Jim Crow segregation and job discrimination, and fought for voting rights. Outside the South, CORE focused on discrimination in employment and housing, by 1961 CORE had 53 chapters throughout the United States. By 1963, most of the urban centers of the Northeast, Midwest, Mid-Atlantic and West Coast had one or more CORE chapters. In the South, CORE had active chapters and projects in Louisiana, Mississippi, Florida, South Carolina, and Kentucky. The members of group were arrested and jailed several times, but they received a great deal of publicity. By the early 1960s, Farmer, who had taken a hiatus from leading the group, returned as its secretary and sought to repeat the 1947 journey, coining a new name for it. On May 4,1961, participants journeyed to the deep South, the riders were met with severe violence. In Anniston, Alabama, one of the buses was fire-bombed, white mobs also attacked Freedom Riders in Birmingham and Montgomery. The violence garnered national attention, sparking a summer of similar rides by CORE, SNCC and other Civil Rights organizations, in 1960, the Chicago chapter of CORE began to challenge racial segregation in the Chicago Public Schools. By the late 1950s, the Board of Educations maintenance of the school policy resulted in a pattern of racial segregation in the CPS. Many segregated schools were overcrowded, and in order to ease overcrowding, double-shifts meant that students in affected schools attended less than a full day of class
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Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee
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The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee was one of the most important organizations of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. It emerged from a student meeting organized by Ella Baker held at Shaw University in April 1960. SNCC grew into an organization with many supporters in the North who helped raise funds to support SNCCs work in the South. Many unpaid volunteers also worked with SNCC on projects in Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Arkansas, SNCCs major contribution was in its field work, organizing voter registration drives all over the South, especially in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. A final SNCC legacy is the destruction of the psychological shackles which had kept black southerners in physical and mental peonage and it demonstrated that ordinary women and men, young and old, could perform extraordinary tasks. In the later 1960s, led by leaders such as Stokely Carmichael, SNCC focused on black power. It passed out of existence in the 1970s, founded in 1960 and inspired by the Greensboro and Nashville sit-ins, independent student-led groups began direct-action protests against segregation in dozens of southern communities. SNCC focused on mobilizing local communities, a policy in which African American communities would push for change, the most common action of these groups was organizing sit-ins at racially segregated lunch counters to protest the pervasiveness of Jim Crow and other forms of racism. The sit-ins were a point in using the courts and jail to exert moral. In addition to sitting in at lunch counters, the groups organized and carried out protests at segregated White public libraries, public parks, public swimming pools. At that time, all those facilities financed by taxes were closed to blacks, the white response was often to close the facility, rather than integrate it. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, as an organization, began with an $800, out of this conference the SNCC was formed. Ella Baker, who organized the Shaw conference, was the SCLC director at the time she helped form SNCC, but SNCC was not a branch of SCLC. Instead of being tied to SCLC or the NAACP as a youth division. Ms. Baker later lost her job with SCLC, which she had helped found, barry served as chairman for one year. The second chairman was Charles F. McDew, who served as the chairman from 1961 to 1963, Rap Brown were chairmen in the late 1960s. SNCCs executive secretary, James Forman, played a role in running the organization. In the years followed, SNCC members were referred to as shock troops of the revolution
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