1.
Calgary
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Calgary is a city in the Canadian province of Alberta. It is situated at the confluence of the Bow River and the Elbow River in the south of the province, in an area of foothills and prairie, the city anchors the south end of what Statistics Canada defines as the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The city had a population of 1,239,220 in 2016, making it Albertas largest city, also in 2016, Calgary had a metropolitan population of 1,392,609, making it the fourth-largest census metropolitan area in Canada. The Calgary CMA is home to the second-highest number of head offices in Canada among the countrys 800 largest corporations. In 1988, Calgary became the first Canadian city to host the Winter Olympic Games, Calgary was named after Calgary on the Isle of Mull, Scotland. In turn, the name originates from a compound of kald and gart, similar Old Norse words, meaning cold and garden, alternatively, the name might be Gaelic Cala ghearraidh, meaning beach of the meadow, or Gaelic for either clear running water or bay farm. The Calgary area was inhabited by people whose presence has been traced back at least 11,000 years. Before the arrival of Europeans, the area was inhabited by the Blackfoot, Blood, Peigan, in 1787, cartographer David Thompson spent the winter with a band of Peigan encamped along the Bow River. He was a Hudsons Bay Company trader and the first recorded European to visit the area, John Glenn was the first documented European settler in the Calgary area, in 1873. The site became a post of the North-West Mounted Police, the NWMP detachment was assigned in 1875 to protect the western plains from US whisky traders, and to protect the fur trade. Originally named Fort Brisebois, after NWMP officer Éphrem-A, Brisebois, it was renamed Fort Calgary in 1876 by Colonel James Macleod. When the Canadian Pacific Railway reached the area in 1883, over a century later, the Canadian Pacific Railway headquarters moved to Calgary from Montreal in 1996. Calgary was officially incorporated as a town in 1884, and elected its first mayor, in 1894, it was incorporated as The City of Calgary in what was then the North-West Territories. The Calgary Police Service was established in 1885 and assumed municipal, local duties from the NWMP, the Calgary Fire of 1886 occurred on November 7,1886. Fourteen buildings were destroyed with losses estimated at $103,200, although no one was killed or injured, city officials drafted a law requiring all large downtown buildings to be built with Paskapoo sandstone, to prevent this from happening again. After the arrival of the railway, the Dominion Government started leasing grazing land at minimal cost, as a result of this policy, large ranching operations were established in the outlying country near Calgary. Already a transportation and distribution hub, Calgary quickly became the centre of Canadas cattle marketing and meatpacking industries. By the late 19th century, the Hudsons Bay Company expanded into the interior and established posts along rivers that later developed into the cities of Winnipeg, Calgary
2.
Grand prix des lectrices de Elle
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The Grand prix des lectrices de Elle is a French literary prize awarded by readers of the Elle magazine. At its inception in 1969 by Hélène Lazareff, it was awarded solely to novels, from 1977, two categories were recognised - literary fiction and non-fiction. From 2002, crime fiction also came to be awarded, until 1992, eight regional committees designated at the first instance books of the month. A national jury then took over to elect the two major prizewinners in the categories of novels and non-fiction, currently, eight monthly juries of fifteen readers each form the grand jury of 120 readers. 1970, Arlette Grebel, Ce soir, Tania. O. L,1990, Yves Beauchemin, Juliette Pomerleau - Éditions de Fallois. 2001, Éric-Emmanuel Schmitt, LÉvangile selon Pilate - Albin Michel,2002, Isabelle Hausser, La Table des enfants - de Fallois 2003, William Boyd, À livre ouvert - Seuil 2004, Philippe Claudel, Les Âmes grises - Stock. 2005, Philippe Grimbert, Un secret - Grasset 2006, Khaled Hosseini, Les Cerfs-volants de Kaboul - Belfond 2007, Duong Thu Huong,2008, Marie Sizun, La Femme de lAllemand - Arléa. 2009, Claudie Gallay, Les Déferlantes - Éditions Rouergue,2010, Véronique Ovaldé, Ce que je sais de Vera Candida - Éditions de lOlivier. 2011, Kathryn Stockett, La Couleur des sentiments - Éditions Jacqueline Chambon / Actes Sud,2012, Delphine de Vigan, Rien ne soppose à la nuit - JC Lattès. 2013, Robert Goolrick, Arrive un vagabond - Pocket,2014, Laura Kasischke, Esprit dhiver - Éditions Christian Bourgois. 2002, Wladyslaw Szpilman, Le Pianiste - Robert Laffont,2005, Azar Nafisi, Lire Lolita à Téhéran - Plon 2006, Charles Dantzig, Dictionnaire égoïste de la littérature française - Grasset. 2007, Dominique Bona, Camille et Paul, la passion Claudel - Grasset,2008, Wangari Maathai, Celle qui plante les arbres - Héloïse dOrmesson. 2009, Jean-Paul Mari, Sans blessures apparentes - Robert Laffont 2010, Éric Fottorino,2014, Emmanuèle Bernheim, Tout s’est bien passé, Gallimard. 2003, Harlan Coben, Ne le dis à personne - Belfond 2004, Dennis Lehane, Shutter Island - Rivages 2005, Dominique Sylvain, Passage du désir - Viviane Hamy 2006, Mo Hayder,2007, Arnaldur Indriðason, La Femme en vert - Graforþögn. 2008, Marcus Malte, Garden of Love - Zulma,2009, Caryl Férey, Zulu - Gallimard 2010, Jesse Kellerman, Les Visages - Sonatine Éditions. 2011, Lisa Gardner, La Maison dà côté - Sonatine Éditions 2012, Jussi Adler-Olsen,2013, Gillian Flynn, Les Apparences - Sonatine. 2014, Ian Manook, Yeruldelgger - Albin Michel,2015, Mechtild Borrmann, Le Violoniste - Éditions du Masque 2016, Jax Miller, Les Infâmes - Éditions Ombres noires Elle magazine
3.
Tzvetan Todorov
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Tzvetan Todorov was a Bulgarian-French historian, philosopher, structuralist literary critic, sociologist and essayist. He is the author of books and essays, which have had a significant influence in anthropology, sociology, semiotics, literary theory, thought history. Tzvetan Todorov was born on March 1,1939, in Sofia, Bulgaria and he earned an M. A. in philology at the University of Sofia in 1963. He enrolled at the University of Paris to do his doctorat de troisième cycle in 1966, Todorov was appointed to his post as a director of research at the French Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique in 1968. In 1970, he helped to found the journal Poétique, of which he remained one of the managing editors until 1979, with structuralist literary critic Gérard Genette, he edited the Collection Poétique, the series of books on literary theory published by Éditions de Seuil, until 1987. He was a professor at several universities in the US, including Harvard, Yale, Columbia. Todorovs historical interests have focused on crucial issues as the conquest of The Americas. Todorovs greatest contribution to theory was his defining of the Fantastic, the fantastic uncanny. Todorov defines the fantastic as being any event that happens in our world seems to be supernatural. Upon the occurrence of the event, we must decide if the event was an illusion or whether it is real and has taken place. Todorov uses Alvaro from Jacques Cazottes Le Diable amoureux as an example of a fantastic event, Alvaro must decide whether the woman he is in love with is truly a woman or if she is the devil. Upon choosing whether the event was real or imaginary, Todorov says that we enter into the genres of uncanny, in the fantastic uncanny, the event that occurs is actually an illusion of some sort. The laws of reality remain intact and also provide an explanation for the fantastic event. Todorov gives examples of dreams, drugs, illusions of the senses, madness, in the fantastic marvelous, the supernatural event that occurs has actually taken place and therefore the laws of reality have to be changed to explain the event. Only if the reader cannot opt for one or the other possibility is the text purely fantastic. Aside from his work in theory, Todorov has also published studies of philosophy. He wrote Frail Happiness about the writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and he focuses on Rousseaus ideas of attaining human happiness and how we can live in modern times. That opinion is commonplace of popularized accounts of the camps, primo Levi, quoted in Todorov, writes that camp life is a continuous war of everyone against everyone
4.
Order of Canada
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The Order of Canada is a Canadian national order, admission into which is the second highest honour for merit in the system of orders, decorations, and medals of Canada. It comes second only to membership in the Order of Merit, membership is accorded to those who exemplify the orders Latin motto, desiderantes meliorem patriam, meaning they desire a better country, a phrase taken from Hebrews 11,16. Appointees to the order are recommended by a board and formally inducted by the governor general or the sovereign. As of October 2016,6,699 people have been appointed to the Order of Canada, including scientists, musicians, politicians, artists, athletes, business people, and film stars, benefactors, and others. Some have resigned or have been removed from the order, while other appointments have been controversial, appointees are presented with insignia and receive the right to armorial bearings. Pearson, who was assisted with the establishment of the order by John Matheson. Laurent, Hugh MacLennan, David Bauer, Gabrielle Roy, Donald Creighton, Thérèse Casgrain, Wilder Penfield, Arthur Lismer, M. J. Coldwell, Edwin Baker, Alex Colville, and Maurice Richard. From the Order of Canada grew a Canadian honours system, thereby reducing the use of British honours, by the 1980s, Canadas provinces began to develop their own distinct honours and decorations. The Canadian monarch, seen as the fount of honour, is at the apex of the Order of Canada as its Sovereign, followed by the governor general, who serves as the fellowships Chancellor. Thereafter follow three grades, which are, in order of precedence, Companion, Officer, and Member, each incumbent governor general is also installed as the Principal Companion for the duration of his or her time in the viceregal post and continues as an extraordinary Companion thereafter. As of March 2016, there have twenty one honorary appointments. There were originally, in effect, only two ranks to the Order of Canada, Companion and the Medal of Service, there was, however, also a third award, the Medal of Courage, meant to recognize acts of gallantry. This latter decoration fell in rank between the two levels, but was anomalous within the Order of Canada, being a separate award of a different nature rather than a middle grade of the order. Lester Pearsons vision of a structure to the order was thus fulfilled. Companions of the Order of Canada have demonstrated the highest degree of merit to Canada and humanity, up to 15 Companions are appointed annually, with an imposed limit of 165 living Companions at any given time, not including those appointed as extraordinary Companions or in an honorary capacity. As of October 2015, there are 143 living Companions, none being honorary, since 1994, substantive members are the only regular citizens who are empowered to administer the Canadian Oath of Citizenship. As of October 2015, there were 1,123 living Officers, Members of the Order of Canada have made an exceptional contribution to Canada or Canadians at a local or regional level, group, field or activity. As many as 136 Members may be appointed annually, not including extraordinary Members and those inducted on an honorary basis, as of October 2015, there were 2,225 living Members, none being honorary
5.
Novelist
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A novelist is an author or writer of novels, though often novelists also write in other genres of both fiction and non-fiction. Some novelists are professional novelists, thus make a living writing novels and other fiction, Novelists come from a variety of backgrounds and social classes, and frequently this shapes the content of their works. Similarly, some novelists have creative identities derived from their focus on different genres of fiction, such as crime, while many novelists compose fiction to satisfy personal desires, novelists and commentators often ascribe a particular social responsibility or role to novel writers. Many authors use such moral imperatives to justify different approaches to writing, including activism or different approaches to representing reality truthfully. Novelist is a derivative from the term novel describing the writer of novels. However, the OED attributes the primary meaning of a writer of novels as first appearing in the 1633 book East-India Colation by C. The difference between professional and amateur novelists often is the ability to publish. Many people take up writing as a hobby, but the difficulties of completing large scale fictional works of quality prevent the completion of novels. Once authors have completed a novel, they often try to get it published. The publishing industry requires novels to have accessible profitable markets, thus many novelists will self-publish to circumvent the editorial control of publishers, self-publishing has long been an option for writers, with vanity presses printing bound books for a fee paid by the writer. The rise of the Internet and electronic books has made self publishing far less expensive, Novelists apply a number of different methods to writing their novels, relying on a variety of approaches to inspire creativity. Some communities actively encourage amateurs to practice writing novels to develop these unique practices, for example, the internet-based group, National Novel Writing Month, encourages people to write 50, 000-word novels in the month of November, to give novelists practice completing such works. In the 2010 event, over 200,000 people took part – writing a total of over 2.8 billion words, Novelists dont usually publish their first novels until later in life. However, many novelists begin writing at a young age, for example, Iain Banks began writing at eleven, and at sixteen completed his first novel, The Hungarian Lift-Jet, about international arms dealers, in pencil in a larger-than-foolscap log book. However, he was thirty before he published his first novel, the success of this novel enabled Banks to become a full-time novelist. Occasionally, novelists publish as early as their teens, for example, Patrick OBrian published his first novel, Caesar, The Life Story of a Panda-Leopard, at the age of 15, which brought him considerable critical attention. Occasionally, these works will achieve popular success as well, for example, though Christopher Paolinis Eragon, was not a great critical success, but its popularity among readers placed it on the New York Times Childrens Books Best Seller list for 121 weeks. First-time novelists of any age often find themselves unable to get published, because of a number of reasons reflecting the inexperience of the author
6.
Alberta
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Alberta is a western province of Canada. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1,2015, it is Canadas fourth-most populous province and its area is about 660,000 square kilometres. Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1,1905, the premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U. S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to only a single U. S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces. About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary, the largest city in Alberta, Calgary and Edmonton centre Albertas two census metropolitan areas, both of which have populations exceeding one million, while the province has 16 census agglomerations. Tourist destinations in the province include Banff, Canmore, Drumheller, Jasper, Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Victoria, Queen of Canada, and Albert, Prince Consort. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. Alberta, with an area of 661,848 km2, is the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. To the south, the borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the US state of Montana. The province extends 1,223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width, with the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, fishing, there are three large lakes, Lake Claire in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1,538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, the largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, Albertas capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly city in Canada, and serves as a gateway. The region, with its proximity to Canadas largest oil fields, has most of western Canadas oil refinery capacity, Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the served as a means to populate the province in its early years
7.
Wilton, New Hampshire
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Wilton is a town in Hillsborough County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 3,677 at the 2010 census, like many small New England towns it grew up around water-powered textile mills, but is now a rural bedroom community with some manufacturing and service employment. Wilton is home to the High Mowing School, a preparatory school. The town was first part of a township chartered as Salem-Canada in 1735 by Colonial Governor Jonathan Belcher of Massachusetts and it was granted to soldiers from Salem, Massachusetts, who had served in 1690 under Sir William Phips in the war against Canada. Salem-Canada was one of the towns on the states borders intended to provide protection against Indian attack and it would be regranted in 1749 by New Hampshire colonial Governor Benning Wentworth as Number Two, before being incorporated in 1762 as Wilton. It was either named for Wilton, England, or for Sir Joseph Wilton, Sir Wiltons coach design for King George IIIs coronation was later used as a model for the Concord coach. The town of Wilton, Maine, would later be named for Wilton, the Souhegan River originally provided water power for mills. Today, Wilton is a town with orchards, farms. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 25.8 square miles, of which 25.8 square miles is land and 0.08 square miles. Wilton is drained by the Souhegan River, and Stony and Blood brooks, the towns highest point is 1,140 feet above sea level, where the east slope of Fisk Hill touches the towns western border. The town center, defined as a place, has a total area of 1.9 square miles. The population density was 145.3 people per square mile, there were 1,451 housing units at an average density of 56.3 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 57% White,0. 35% Black or African American,0. 13% Native American,0. 51% Asian,0. 45% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 77% of the population. 19. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.65 and the average family size was 3.06. |In the town, the population was out with 26. 9% under the age of 18,6. 3% from 18 to 24,30. 8% from 25 to 44,25. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 37 years, for every 100 females there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.9 males, the median income for a household in the town was $54,276, and the median income for a family was $61,311. Males had an income of $39,830 versus $28,714 for females
8.
New Hampshire
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New Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, New Hampshire is the 5th smallest by land area and the 9th least populous of the 50 United States. Concord is the capital, while Manchester is the largest city in the state and in northern New England, including Vermont. It has no sales tax, nor is personal income taxed at either the state or local level. The New Hampshire primary is the first primary in the U. S. presidential election cycle and its license plates carry the state motto, Live Free or Die. The states nickname, The Granite State, refers to its extensive granite formations, the state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire by Captain John Mason. New Hampshire is part of the New England region and it is bounded by Quebec, Canada, to the north and northwest, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, Massachusetts to the south, and Vermont to the west. New Hampshires major regions are the Great North Woods, the White Mountains, the Lakes Region, the Seacoast, the Merrimack Valley, the Monadnock Region, and the Dartmouth-Lake Sunapee area. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any U. S. coastal state, New Hampshire was home to the rock formation called the Old Man of the Mountain, a face-like profile in Franconia Notch, until the formation disintegrated in May 2003. Major rivers include the 110-mile Merrimack River, which bisects the lower half of the state north–south and ends up in Newburyport and its tributaries include the Contoocook River, Pemigewasset River, and Winnipesaukee River. The 410-mile Connecticut River, which starts at New Hampshires Connecticut Lakes and flows south to Connecticut, only one town – Pittsburg – shares a land border with the state of Vermont. The northwesternmost headwaters of the Connecticut also define the Canada–U. S, the Piscataqua River and its several tributaries form the states only significant ocean port where they flow into the Atlantic at Portsmouth. The Salmon Falls River and the Piscataqua define the southern portion of the border with Maine, the U. S. Supreme Court dismissed the case in 2002, leaving ownership of the island with Maine. New Hampshire still claims sovereignty of the base, however, the largest of New Hampshires lakes is Lake Winnipesaukee, which covers 71 square miles in the east-central part of New Hampshire. Umbagog Lake along the Maine border, approximately 12.3 square miles, is a distant second, Squam Lake is the second largest lake entirely in New Hampshire. New Hampshire has the shortest ocean coastline of any state in the United States, Hampton Beach is a popular local summer destination. It is the state with the highest percentage of area in the country. New Hampshire is in the temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome, much of the state, in particular the White Mountains, is covered by the conifers and northern hardwoods of the New England-Acadian forests
9.
High Mowing School
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High Mowing School is an independent private, co-educational, day and boarding school, located in Wilton, New Hampshire, in the United States. High Mowing is the oldest Waldorf high school in Canada or the United States, both the school and its name are rooted in its hilltop farm location. Inspired by the writings and educational theories of Rudolf Steiner, Mrs. Emmet opened the school in 1942 and it is the first Waldorf high school to have been founded in North America. Since that time, the comfort of the old farm site has welcomed teenagers from around the globe. Students experience the Waldorf curriculum, as live and work in close proximity to their teachers. High Mowing is the only Waldorf high school on the continent to offer a program as well as a day school. The name, High Mowing, has its roots in New Englands colonial past, the practice of cutting or mowing hayfields to feed farm animals was a long-standing tradition there. According to European custom, these hayfields were often called mowings by the early settlers, a high mowing referred to a hilltop field, regarded as a perfect name for a school with high ambitions for its students. It was also believed to be a setting for young adults to grow intellectually, artistically and socially, while living and learning with students from the region. A liberal arts curriculum meant to promote engaged and active learning forms the basis of High Mowings academics, each school day begins, for each grade, with Main Lesson Block – an integrative hour and 45 minute class that runs for between three and four weeks. Subjects for block classes encompass history, literature, drama, science, students create their own Block Book for each class of the work they create during their study of the block material. Approximately one third of blocks are devoted to the sciences and one third to historical subjects, others focus on drama, literature, or math. Block classes are followed by classes, typically four each day. These include English, Mathematics, Natural Sciences, History, World Languages, many of these are required courses for underclassmen and are taken in sequence beginning with the introductory course. Electives are courses freely chosen by students and are common to upperclassmen who have completed core requirements. Examples of electives include Naturalist, Great Novels, French, Spanish, and German, Philosophy, Biology, Physics, Filmmaking and Digital Arts, Eurythmy, Drawing and Painting, Woodwork, and Pottery. Special programs include, naturalist, fine and applied arts, apprenticeship pottery program, farm and garden program, the Waldorf curriculum for each grade is developmentally-based, focusing on the central question that students typically encounter at that age. High Mowing is accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges and it now typically occurs less frequently and is designed to allow students and faculty to reflect on the changing world and our responsibilities to it
10.
Sarah Lawrence College
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Sarah Lawrence College is a private liberal arts college in the United States. It is located in southern Westchester County, New York, in the city of Yonkers,15 miles north of Manhattan, the college is known for low student-to-faculty ratio, and highly individualized course of study. The school models its approach to education after the Oxford/Cambridge system of one-on-one student-faculty tutorials, Sarah Lawrence emphasizes scholarship, particularly in the humanities, performing arts, and writing, and places high value on independent study. Sarah Lawrence College is ranked 59th in the National Liberal Arts Colleges category in 2017 by U. S. News & World Report, Sarah Lawrence was also named the higher education institution with the best classroom experience in all of America by Princeton Review in 2013. Sarah Lawrence College was established by real-estate mogul William Van Duzer Lawrence on the grounds of his estate in Westchester County and was named in honor of his wife, the College was originally intended to provide instruction in the arts and humanities for women. In addition to founding Sarah Lawrence College, William Lawrence played a role in the development of the neighboring community of Bronxville. Harold Taylor, President of Sarah Lawrence College from 1945 to 1959, Taylor, elected president at age 30, maintained a friendship with educational philosopher John Dewey, and worked to employ the Dewey method at Sarah Lawrence. Sarah Lawrence became an institution in 1968. Prior to this transition, there were discussions about relocating the school and merging with Princeton University, at the undergraduate level, Sarah Lawrence offers an alternative to traditional majors. Students pursue a variety of courses in four different curricular distributions, the Creative Arts, history and the social sciences, the humanities. Classes are structured around a system through which students learn in small, highly interactive seminars. Each student is assigned to a faculty advisor, known as a don, to plan a course of study and provide ongoing academic guidance. Most courses, apart from those in the arts, consist of two parts, the seminar, limited to 15 students, and the conference, a meeting with a seminar professor. In these conferences, students develop projects that extend the course material. Sarah Lawrence has no required courses and traditional examinations have largely replaced with research papers. Additionally, grades are recorded only for transcript purposes—narrative evaluations are given in lieu of grades, the College sponsors international programs in Florence, at Wadham College, Oxford, at Reid Hall in Paris, and at the British American Drama Academy in London. Sarah Lawrence is one of the only American colleges operating an international program in Cuba, Sarah Lawrence offers a program for people wishing to seek a B. A. or a Masters and have been out of school for any period of time. Eugene Lang College Exchange Program, In 1996 the college began its program with Eugene Lang College
11.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
12.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
13.
School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences
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The School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences is a French grande école specialised in the social sciences, and a constituent college of PSL Research University. Originally a department of the École Pratique des Hautes Études, an institution created in 1868 with the purpose of training academic researchers, as a higher education institution under the jurisdiction of the French Ministry of Education, the EHESS trains academic researchers and professors specialised in the Social Sciences. It delivers postgraduate degrees such as the Master of research, the Doctorate, some of them are awarded conjointly by institutions such as the École Normale Supérieure, the École Polytechnique, the École pratique des hautes études, and some of the universities of Paris. The scholars in training are free to choose their own curriculum among the large quantity of seminars offered by the school, after WWII, the Rockefeller Foundation invested more funds, in the aims of favorizing non-Marxist sociological studies. Thus, the VIth section was created in 1947, and Lucien Febvre took its head, F. Braudel succeeded in 1956 to L. Febvre and concentrated the various study groups at its well-known emplacement on boulevard Raspail, in part by a financing from the Ford Foundation. Today, the EHESS is one of Frances prestigious Grands établissements and it functions as a research, teaching, and degree-granting institution. It offers advanced students high-level programs intended to lead to research careers, students are admitted on the relevance of their research project and undertake at the EHESS master programs and doctoral studies. The EHESS currently hosts more than 80 research centers and 22 doctoral programs,13 of which in partnership with other French Universities and Grandes écoles, the school is now a constituent college of the federal PSL Research University. Lucien Febvre and Fernand Braudel were members of the École des Annales, however, this school of thought was contested by the growing importance of the social sciences and the beginning of structuralism. They were reproached, along with the structuralists, for ignoring politics, the work of Braudel, Le Roy Ladurie and other historians working under their influence greatly affected the research and official teaching of history in France beginning in the 1960s. The work of Jean-Marie Pesez renewed interest in the issue of methodology in medieval archeology, during the 1970s, EHESS became the center of New History under the influence of Jacques Le Goff and Pierre Nora. Pierre Bourdieu, Luc Boltanski, Alain Touraine, Jean-Claude Passeron have all been associated with EHESS, EHESS has always been a central place for economic debate in Europe. The diversity of viewpoints has been a priority and even liberal, also, there are many relations and exchange programs with top universities in Asia and Middle-East as there are world-renowned research centers on Asian Studies and Islamic Studies in EHESS
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Roland Barthes
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Roland Gérard Barthes was a French literary theorist, philosopher, linguist, critic, and semiotician. Roland Barthes was born on 12 November 1915 in the town of Cherbourg in Normandy and his father, naval officer Louis Barthes, was killed in a battle during World War I in the North Sea before Barthes first birthday. His mother, Henriette Barthes, and his aunt and grandmother raised him in the village of Urt, when Barthes was eleven, his family moved to Paris, though his attachment to his provincial roots would remain strong throughout his life. Barthes showed great promise as a student and spent the period from 1935 to 1939 at the Sorbonne and he was plagued by ill health throughout this period, suffering from tuberculosis, which often had to be treated in the isolation of sanatoria. His repeated physical breakdowns disrupted his career, affecting his studies. They also exempted him from service during World War II. His life from 1939 to 1948 was largely spent obtaining a license in grammar and philology, publishing his first papers, taking part in a medical study and he received a diplôme détudes supérieures from the University of Paris in 1941 for his work in Greek tragedy. In 1948, he returned to academic work, gaining numerous short-term positions at institutes in France, Romania. During this time, he contributed to the leftist Parisian paper Combat, out of which grew his first full-length work, in 1952, Barthes settled at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, where he studied lexicology and sociology. During his seven-year period there, he began to write a series of bi-monthly essays for the magazine Les Lettres Nouvelles. Knowing little English, Barthes taught at Middlebury College in 1957 and befriended the future English translator of much of his work, Richard Howard, that summer in New York City. Barthes spent the early 1960s exploring the fields of semiology and structuralism, chairing various faculty positions around France, many of his works challenged traditional academic views of literary criticism and of renowned figures of literature. By the late 1960s, Barthes had established a reputation for himself and he traveled to the US and Japan, delivering a presentation at Johns Hopkins University. Barthes continued to contribute with Philippe Sollers to the literary magazine Tel Quel. In 1970, Barthes produced what many consider to be his most prodigious work, throughout the 1970s, Barthes continued to develop his literary criticism, he developed new ideals of textuality and novelistic neutrality. In 1971, he served as visiting professor at the University of Geneva, in 1975 he wrote an autobiography titled Roland Barthes and in 1977 he was elected to the chair of Sémiologie Littéraire at the Collège de France. In the same year, his mother, Henriette Barthes, to whom he had been devoted, died, aged 85 and they had lived together for 60 years. The loss of the woman who had raised and cared for him was a blow to Barthes
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Native speaker
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A first language is a language that a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period. If there are multiple L1, the designation first language is used for the L1 spoken the best or the one that is the basis for sociolinguistic identity. In some countries, the native language or mother tongue refers to the language of ones ethnic group rather than ones first language. Children brought up speaking more than one language can have more than one native language, by contrast, a second language is any language that one speaks other than ones first language. Native speakers are considered to be an authority on their language because of their natural acquisition process regarding the language. That is achieved by interaction with the language and speakers of the language. Native speakers will not necessarily be knowledgeable about every rule of the language. Sometimes, the mother tongue or mother language is used for the language that a person learned as a child at home. Children growing up in homes can, according to this definition, have more than one mother tongue or native language. It is quite possible that the first language learned is no longer a dominant language. According to Ivan Illich, the mother tongue was first used by Catholic monks to designate a particular language they used, instead of Latin. That is, the mother the Church introduced this term. J. R. R. Tolkien, in his 1955 lecture English and Welsh, on 17 November 1999, UNESCO designated 21 February as International Mother Language Day. The first language of a child is part of the personal, social and cultural identity, another impact of the first language is that it brings about the reflection and learning of successful social patterns of acting and speaking. It is basically responsible for differentiating the linguistic competence of acting and that has implications on the education of non-native speakers. The topic of native speaker also gives way to discussion about what exactly bilingualism is, one definition is that a person is bilingual by being equally proficient in both languages. A person who grows up speaking English and begins learning Spanish for four years is not necessarily bilingual unless he speaks the two languages with equal fluency, one can have two or more native languages, thus being a native bilingual or indeed multilingual. The order in which languages are learned is not necessarily the order of proficiency
16.
Set Me Free (1999 film)
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Set Me Free is a 1999 French-Canadian film by Léa Pool and starring Karine Vanasse. It tells the story of Hanna, a girl struggling with her sexuality, the film heavily references the French new-wave film Vivre sa vie by Jean-Luc Godard. The film won acclaim and several awards, both for Pool and Vanasse, including being named the years best Canadian feature by the Toronto Film Critics Association. Hanna is living on a farm with her grandparents and mentally handicapped uncle when she gets her first period, the onset of puberty trigger her decision to return to her parents in Montreal. Returning to the city, Hanna resumes her relationships with her mother, her erratic father and her brother. Hannas mother, a designer, has put aside all of her artistic dreams in favour of devoting all her time to supporting Hannas father. Hannas father, distant and erratic, gets a job working for a newspaper, but soon quits, Hanna is fascinated with Anna Karinas character in the Jean-Luc Godard film Vivre sa vie and spends much of her time watching the film and practicing mimicking her cool detachment. She also begins to be aware of her sexuality, developing a crush on a female teacher, Hannas mother attempts suicide, and while she is recovering, Hanna is sent to get a loaf of bread by her father. The baker gropes her, then gives her money, Hanna attempts to set Laura up with Paul, however, it is clear that the inclusion of the boy is a pretense meant to somehow undercut the implications of her attraction to Laura. This culminates in a game of Spin the bottle between the three, Hanna decides to experiment with being a prostitute, like her idol Anna Karina, but at the last moment changes her mind. However, her john refuses to let her out. As the school ends, Hannahs mother returns to her family. Emporte-Moi was well received by critics, and was given a rating of 8/10 by reviewers. Critics generally praised the films tone and the performances, particularly that of Vanasse. Still, some, such as Roger Ebert, criticised the ending for seeming somewhat forced. Emporte-Moi, released in the United States on a single screen, Pool earned Genie nominations for best director and best screenplay, and the film was awarded the Toronto Film Critics Association Award for best Canadian film of 1999. It also received four Jutra awards, for best actress, supporting actress, direction, and art direction, internationally, the film received the Swiss Film Prize and was nominated for the Golden Bear at the 49th Berlin International Film Festival. It was also honoured at international festivals in the United States, Italy, Belgium, Bosnia
17.
Women's Prize for Fiction
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The Baileys Womens Prize for Fiction is one of the United Kingdoms most prestigious literary prizes. It is awarded annually to an author of any nationality for the best original full-length novel written in English. The prize was established to recognise the achievement of female writers. The inspiration for the Baileys Prize was the Booker Prize of 1991, a group of women and men working in the industry – authors, publishers, agents, booksellers, librarians, journalists – therefore met to discuss the issue. Research showed that women’s literary achievements were not acknowledged by the major literary prizes. The winner of the prize receives £30,000, along with a sculpture called the Bessie created by artist Grizel Niven. Typically, a longlist of nominees is announced around March each year, followed by a shortlist in June, the winner is selected by a board of five leading women each year. In support of the 2004 award, the Orange Prize for Fiction published a list of 50 contemporary essential reads, the books were chosen by a sample of 500 people attending the Guardian Hay Festival and represent the audiences must have books by living UK writers. The list is called the Orange Prize for Fictions 50 Essential Reads by Contemporary Authors, the prize was originally sponsored by Orange, a telecommunications company. In May 2012, it was announced Orange would be ending its sponsorship of the prize. There was no sponsor for 2013, sponsorship was by private benefactors, led by Cherie Blair and writers Joanna Trollope. Beginning in 2014, the prize was sponsored by the liquor brand Baileys Irish Cream, in January 2017, Diageo announced that it had regretfully decided to make way for a new sponsor, the 2017 prize to be announced in June, will be the last it supports. In May 2014, Baileys Womens Prize for Fiction launched the campaign to find out which books. Nineteen inspirational women were chosen to launch the campaign and then thousands of people from the public submitted their ideas via Twitter. The 20 winners were announced 29 July 2014, the organizers noted that over half the winning books were published before 1960. To Kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee The Handmaids Tale, Margaret Atwood Jane Eyre, Charlotte Bronte Harry Potter, after the prize was founded, Auberon Waugh nicknamed it the Lemon Prize, while Germaine Greer said there would soon be a prize for writers with red hair. A. S. Byatt, who won the 1990 Man Booker Prize, said it was a sexist prize and she refused to have her work considered for this prize. In 2007, former editor of The Times Simon Jenkins called the prize sexist, in 2008, writer Tim Lott suggested the Orange Prize is sexist and discriminatory, and it should be shunned
18.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
19.
The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
20.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
21.
Open Library
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Open Library is an online project intended to create one web page for every book ever published. It provides access to public domain and out-of-print books, which can be read online. Its book information is collected from the Library of Congress, other libraries, if books are available in digital form, a button labelled Read appears next to its catalog listing. Links to where books can be purchased or borrowed are also provided, tens of thousands of modern books were made available from four and then 150 libraries and publishers for ebook digital lending. Open Library began in 2006 with Aaron Swartz as the engineer and leader of Open Librarys technical team. The project was led by George Oates from April 2009 to December 2011, Oates was responsible for a complete site redesign during her tenure. In 2015, the project was continued by Giovanni Damiola and then Brenton Cheng, the site was redesigned and relaunched in May 2010. The site uses Infobase, its own database framework based on PostgreSQL, the source code to the site is published under the GNU Affero General Public License. The website was relaunched adding ADA compliance and offering over 1 million modern, under certain provisions of United States copyright law, libraries are sometimes able to reproduce copyrighted works in formats accessible to users with disabilities
22.
Romain Rolland
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Rolland was born in Clamecy, Nièvre into a family that had both wealthy townspeople and farmers in its lineage. Writing introspectively in his Voyage intérieur, he himself as a representative of an antique species. He would cast these ancestors in Colas Breugnon, accepted to the École normale supérieure in 1886, he first studied philosophy, but his independence of spirit led him to abandon that so as not to submit to the dominant ideology. When he returned to France in 1895, he received his degree with his thesis Les origines du théâtre lyrique moderne. Histoire de l’opéra en Europe avant Lulli et Scarlatti, for the next two decades, he taught at various lycées in Paris before directing the newly established music school École des Hautes Études Sociales from 1902–11. In 1903 he was appointed to the first chair of history at the Sorbonne. His first book was published in 1902, when he was 36 years old, through his advocacy for a peoples theatre, he made a significant contribution towards the democratization of the theatre. As a humanist, he embraced the work of the philosophers of India, Rolland was strongly influenced by the Vedanta philosophy of India, primarily through the works of Swami Vivekananda. A demanding, yet timid, young man, he did not like teaching and he was not indifferent to youth, Jean-Christophe, Olivier and their friends, the heroes of his novels, are young people. But with real-life persons, youths as well as adults, Rolland maintained only a distant relationship and he was first and foremost a writer. Assured that literature would provide him with a modest income, he resigned from the university in 1912, Romain Rolland was a lifelong pacifist. He was one of the few major French writers to retain his pacifist internationalist values and he protested against the first World War in Au-dessus de la mêlée, Above the Battle. In 1924, his book on Gandhi contributed to the Indian nonviolent leaders reputation, in 1932 Rolland was among the first members of the World Committee Against War and Fascism, organized by Willi Münzenberg. Rolland criticized the control Münzenberg assumed over the committee and was against it being based in Berlin, Rolland moved to Villeneuve, on the shores of Lac Léman to devote himself to writing. His life was interrupted by health problems, and by travels to art exhibitions and his voyage to Moscow, on the invitation of Maxim Gorky, was an opportunity to meet Joseph Stalin, whom he considered the greatest man of his time. Rolland served unofficially as ambassador of French artists to the Soviet Union, however, as a pacifist, he was uncomfortable with Stalins brutal repression of the opposition. During Serges imprisonment, Rolland had agreed to handle the publications of Serges writings in France, in 1937, he came back to live in Vézelay, which, in 1940, was occupied by the Germans. During the occupation, he isolated himself in complete solitude, never stopping his work, in 1940, he finished his memoirs
23.
Marguerite Audoux
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Marguerite Audoux was a French novelist. Marguerite Donquichote, who took her mothers name, Audoux, in 1895, was orphaned by age three, following the death of her mother and abandonment by her father. She and her sister Madeleine initially lived with an aunt but ultimately spent nine years in the orphanage at Bourges, in 1877, Andoux was put to work as a shepherdess and farm worker in the region of Sologne. There, she fell in love with a boy, Henri Dejoulx. Audoux moved to Paris in 1881, desperately poor, she found occasional work as a seamstress and made ends meet with whatever menial labour could be found. She bore a child in 1883, the difficult pregnancy. In Paris, she took custody of her niece, Yvonne, iehl, who also wrote under the pen name Michel Yell, was moved by the young womans impossible situation and accompanied her home, where he met Audoux. Iehl and Audoux would remain involved until 1912. Yell introduced Audoux to the Parisian intelligentsia—a group that included Charles-Louis Philippe, Léon-Paul Fargue, Léon Werth and he also encouraged her to write her memoirs. The memoirs fell into the hands of celebrated author Octave Mirbeau, though success and critical acclaim followed quickly on the heels of the December 1910 publication of Audouxs memoirs, her next book was ten years in the making. After her death in January 1937, the novelist was buried in Saint-Raphaël, Marie-Claire, with a foreword by Octave Mirbeau. English translation by John N. Raphael, with an introduction by Arnold Bennett, London, Chapman & Hall,1911, Audouxs first novel is the most autobiographical of the four. She describes her childhood and adolescence, the first part of the novel tells the story of her mothers death, of her fathers departure, and of the nine years she spent in the orphanage of the convent Hôpital Général de Bourges. It was a period, made brighter however by the guiding presence of Sister Marie-Aimée. The second part of the takes place on the farm in Villevielle where Marie-Claires first employers Master Sylvain. In the third part, Marie-Claire, now a woman, falls in love with Henri Deslois. The young mans mother forbids Marie-Claire to see her son again, Marie-Claire returns to the convent where she sees Sister Marie-Aimée before leaving again for Paris. L’Atelier de Marie-Claire, Grasset, Les Cahiers Rouges,1987, the sewing shop where Marie-Claire found work is described as a big family
24.
Jacques de Lacretelle
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Jacques de Lacretelle was a French novelist. He was elected to the Académie française on 12 November 1936,1920 La vie inquiète de Jean Hermelin 1922 Silbermann 1925 La Bonifas 1925 Mélanges sur lamour et les livres, terminés par un envoi 1926 Trébuchet. Mort de la jalousie 1926 Lettres espagnoles 1926 Quatre études sur Gobineau 1927 Aparté, dix jours à Ermenonville 1927 Aperçus 1927 Rêveries romantiques. Le rêveur parisien 1927 Virginie, ou les manies 1928 Dune colline, Les fiançailles 1934 Les aveux étudiés 1935 Les Hauts Ponts. Années despérance 1935 Les Hauts Ponts, La monnaie de plomb 1936 Lécrivain public 1936 Qui est La Roque. 1938 Morceaux choisis 1939 Croisières en eaux troubles, carnets de voyage 1940 Le Canada entre en guerre. Choses vues 1941 LHeure qui chante 1945 Libérations 1946 Idées dans un chapeau 1946 Le Pour et le Contre 1953 Une visite en été, photos de Jacques Boulas 1959 Les Maîtres et les Amis
