1.
Analgesic
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An analgesic or painkiller is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia, relief from pain. Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems and they are distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily affect, and in some instances completely eliminate, sensation. Analgesics include paracetamol, the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as the salicylates, when choosing analgesics, the severity and response to other medication determines the choice of agent, the World Health Organization pain ladder specifies mild analgesics as its first step. Topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs provided pain relief in common such as muscle sprains. Since the side effects are also lesser, topical preparations could be preferred over oral medications in these conditions, each different type of analgesic has its own associated side effects. Drugs for pain are typically classified by chemical structure and they may also be classified in other ways. Sometimes they are classified by use for classes of medical condition. Other times they are sorted by the needs of populations who would use them. They might be listed by availability in an area, perhaps to prevent recommending a drug which is illegal in one place even if it is easily available elsewhere. Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen or APAP, is a used to treat pain. It is typically used for mild to moderate pain, in combination with opioid pain medication, paracetamol is used for more severe pain such as cancer pain and after surgery. It is typically used either by mouth or rectally but is also available intravenously, effects last between two and four hours. Paracetamol is classified as a mild analgesic, paracetamol is generally safe at recommended doses. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, are a class that groups together drugs that provide analgesic and antipyretic effects. The most prominent members of group of drugs, aspirin. These drugs have been derived from NSAIDs, the cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibited by NSAIDs was discovered to have at least 2 different versions, COX1 and COX2. Research suggested most of the effects of NSAIDs to be mediated by blocking the COX1 enzyme. Thus, the COX2 inhibitors were developed to inhibit only the COX2 enzyme and these drugs are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular
2.
Heroin
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Heroin, also known as diamorphine among other names, is an opiate typically used as a recreational drug for its euphoric effects. Medically it is used to relieve pain and as a form of opioid replacement therapy alongside counseling. Heroin is typically injected, usually into a vein, however, onset of effects is usually rapid and lasts for a few hours. Common side effects include respiratory depression and about a quarter of those who use heroin become physically dependent, other side effects can include abscesses, infected heart valves, blood borne infections, constipation, and pneumonia. After a history of use, withdrawal symptoms can begin within hours of last use. When given by injection into a vein, heroin has two to three times the effect as a dose of morphine. It typically comes as a white or brown powder, treatment of heroin addiction often includes behavioral therapy and medications. Medications used may include methadone or naltrexone, a heroin overdose may be treated with naloxone. An estimated 17 million people as of 2015 use opiates such as heroin, the total number of opiate users has increased from 1998 to 2007 after which it has remained more or less stable. In the United States about 1.6 percent of people have used heroin at some point in time, when people die from overdosing on a drug, the drug is usually an opioid. Heroin was first made by C. R. Alder Wright in 1874 from morphine, internationally, heroin is controlled under Schedules I and IV of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. It is generally illegal to make, possess, or sell heroin without a license, in 2015 Afghanistan produced about 66% of the worlds opium. Often heroin, which is sold, is mixed with other substances such as sugar or strychnine. The original trade name of heroin is typically used in non-medical settings and it is used as a recreational drug for the euphoria it induces. Anthropologist Michael Agar once described heroin as the perfect whatever drug, tolerance develops quickly, and increased doses are needed in order to achieve the same effects. Its popularity with recreational users, compared to morphine, reportedly stems from its perceived different effects. In particular, users report an intense rush, an acute transcendent state of euphoria, while other opioids of recreational use produce only morphine, heroin also leaves 6-MAM, also a psycho-active metabolite. Equipotent injected doses had comparable action courses, with no difference in subjects self-rated feelings of euphoria, ambition, nervousness, relaxation, drowsiness, short-term addiction studies by the same researchers demonstrated that tolerance developed at a similar rate to both heroin and morphine
3.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
4.
Psychoactive drug
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A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, or psychotropic is a chemical substance that changes brain function and results in alterations in perception, mood, or consciousness. These substances may be used recreationally, to alter ones consciousness, or, as entheogens, for ritual, spiritual, or shamanic purposes. Some categories of drugs, which have medical therapeutic value, are prescribed by medical doctors. There are also some psychoactive substances used in the detoxification and rehabilitation programs for drug users. Psychoactive substances often bring about changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find rewarding. In addition, sustained use of some substances may produce a physical dependence or psychological dependence syndrome associated with somatic or psychological-emotional withdrawal states respectively, Drug rehabilitation aims to break this cycle of dependency, through a combination of psychotherapy, support groups, maintenance and even other psychoactive substances. However, the reverse is true in some cases, that certain experiences on drugs may be so unfriendly. This is especially true of certain deliriants, powerful dissociatives, and classic psychedelics, in part because of this potential for substance misuse, addiction, or dependence, the ethics of drug use is debated. Restrictions on drug production and sales in an attempt to drug abuse are very common among national and sub-national governments worldwide. Ethical concerns have also raised about over-use of these drugs clinically. Psychoactive drug use can be traced to prehistory, there is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years. The chewing of coca leaves, for example, dates back over 8,000 years ago in Peruvian society, medicinal use is one important facet of psychoactive drug usage. However, some have postulated that the urge to alter ones consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger or sexual desire. Supporters of this belief contend that the history of use and even childrens desire for spinning, swinging. It is, however, necessary to precisely what is meant by the use of drugs. We do not mean the purely physical craving, but there are not many drugs which have the power of stilling such craving. This relationship is not limited to humans, a number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming catnip. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use, animals and psychoactive plants appear to have co-evolved, possibly explaining why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system
5.
Opiate
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Opiate is a term classically used in pharmacology to mean a drug derived from opium. Opioid, a modern term, is used to designate all substances. Opiates are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the poppy plant Papaver somniferum. The psychoactive compounds found in the plant include morphine, codeine. All opioids, like opiates, are considered drugs of abuse potential and are listed on various Substance-Control Schedules under the Uniform Controlled Substances Act of the United States. In 2013 between 13 and 20 million people used opiates recreationally, opiates belong to the large biosynthetic group of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids, and are so named because they are naturally occurring alkaloids found in the opium poppy. The major psychoactive opiates are morphine, codeine, and thebaine, papaverine, noscapine, and approximately 24 other alkaloids are also present in opium but have little to no effect on the human central nervous system, and as such are not considered to be opiates. Dihydrocodeine, oxymorphol, oxycodone, oxymorphone, metopon and possibly other derivatives of morphine and/or hydromorphone also are found in trace amounts in opium, despite morphine being the most medically significant opiate, larger quantities of codeine are consumed medically, most of it synthesized from morphine. Codeine has greater and more predictable oral bioavailability, making it easier to titrate the dose, codeine also has less abuse potential than morphine, and because it is milder, larger doses of codeine are required. Opiate withdrawal syndrome effects are associated with the abrupt cessation or reduction of prolonged opiate usage, while the full synthesis of opioids from naphthoquinone or other simple organic starting materials is possible, they are tedious and uneconomical processes. Therefore, most of the opiate-type analgesics in use today are either extracted from Papaver somniferum or synthesized from those opiates, in 2015 researches reported successful biosynthesis of thebaine and hydrocodone using genetically modified yeast. Once scaled for use the process would cut production time from a year to several days. Heroin is one of several semi-synthetic opioids derived from the morphine, although sometimes not considered opiates, as they are not directly derived from natural opium, they are commonly referred to as opiates. Heroin is a prodrug, it is metabolized by the liver into morphine after administration. One of the metabolites of heroin, 6-monoacetylmorphine, is also a morphine prodrug. Nicomorphine, dipropanoylmorphine, desomorphine, methyldesorphine, acetylpropionylmorphine, dibenzoylmorphine, diacetyldihydromorphine, opiate comparison World Health Organization guidelines for the availability and accessibility of controlled substances
6.
Opioid
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Opioids are substances that act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects. Opioids are most often used medically to relieve pain, and by people addicted to opioids, opioids include opiates, an older term that refers to such drugs derived from opium, including morphine itself. Other opioids are semi-synthetic and synthetic drugs such as hydrocodone, oxycodone and fentanyl, antagonist drugs such as naloxone, the terms opiate and narcotic are sometimes encountered as synonyms for opioid. Opiate is properly limited to the alkaloids found in the resin of the opium poppy although some include semi-synthetic derivatives. In some jurisdictions all controlled drugs are classified as narcotics. The term can have pejorative connotations and its use is discouraged where that is the case. Primarily used for relief, including anesthesia they are also used to suppress cough, suppress diarrhea, treat addiction, reverse opioid overdose. Extremely strong opioids are approved only for use such as immobilizing large mammals. Opioids act by binding to receptors, which are found principally in the central and peripheral nervous system. These receptors mediate both the psychoactive and the effects of opioids. The side effects of opioids may include itchiness, sedation, nausea, respiratory depression, constipation, Tolerance and dependence will develop with continuous use, requiring increasing doses and leading to a withdrawal syndrome upon abrupt discontinuation. The euphoria attracts recreational use, and frequent, escalating recreational use of opioids typically results in addiction, accidental overdose or concurrent use with other depressant drugs commonly results in death from respiratory depression. Because of opioid drugs reputation for addiction and fatal overdose, most are controlled substances, illicit production, smuggling, and addiction to opioids prompted treaties, laws and policing which have realized limited success. In 2013 between 28 and 38 million people used opioids illicitly, in 2011 an estimated 4 million people in the United States used opioids recreationally or were dependent on them. Current increased rates of use and addiction are attributed to over-prescription of opioid medications. Conversely, fears about over-prescribing, exaggerated side effects and addiction from opioids are similarly blamed for under-treatment of pain, the term opioid originated in the 1950s. It combines opium + -oid meaning opiate-like, by the late 1960s, research found that opiate effects are mediated by activation of specific molecular receptors in the nervous system, which were termed opioid receptors. The definition of opioid was later refined to refer to substances that have activities that are mediated by the activation of opioid receptors
7.
Morphine
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Morphine is a pain medication of the opiate type which is found naturally in a number of plants and animals. It acts directly on the nervous system to decrease the feeling of pain. It can be taken for both pain and chronic pain. Morphine is frequently used for pain from myocardial infarction and during labour and it can be given by mouth, by injection into a muscle, by injecting under the skin, intravenously, into the space around the spinal cord, or rectally. Maximum effect is around 20 min when given intravenously and 60 min when given by mouth while duration of effect is three and seven hours. Potentially serious side effects include a decreased respiratory effort and low blood pressure, morphine has a high potential for addiction and abuse. If the dose is reduced after long-term use, withdrawal may occur, common side effects include drowsiness, vomiting, and constipation. Caution is advised when used during pregnancy or breast feeding, as morphine will affect the baby, morphine was first isolated between 1803 and 1805 by Friedrich Sertürner. This is generally believed to be the first isolation of an ingredient from a plant. Merck began marketing it commercially in 1827, morphine was more widely used after the invention of the hypodermic syringe in 1853–1855. Sertürner originally named the substance morphium after the Greek god of dreams, the primary source of morphine is isolation from poppy straw of the opium poppy. In 2013, an estimated 523,000 kilograms of morphine were produced, about 45,000 kilograms were used directly for pain, an increase over the last twenty years of four times. Most use for this purpose was in the developed world, about 70% of morphine is used to make other opioids such as hydromorphone, oxycodone and heroin. It is a Schedule II drug in the United States, Class A in the United Kingdom and it is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. Morphine is sold under trade names. Morphine is used primarily to treat both acute and chronic severe pain and it is also used for pain due to myocardial infarction and for labor pains. Its duration of analgesia is about three to seven hours, however, concerns exist that morphine may increase mortality in the setting of non ST elevation myocardial infarction. Morphine has also traditionally used in the treatment of acute pulmonary edema
8.
Cocaine
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Cocaine, also known as coke, is a strong stimulant mostly used as a recreational drug. It is commonly snorted, inhaled, or injected into the veins, mental effects may include loss of contact with reality, an intense feeling of happiness, or agitation. Physical symptoms may include a fast heart rate, sweating, high doses can result in very high blood pressure or body temperature. Effects begin within seconds to minutes of use and last between five and ninety minutes, Cocaine has a small number of accepted medical uses such as numbing and decreasing bleeding during nasal surgery. Cocaine is addictive due to its effect on the pathway in the brain. After a short period of use, there is a risk that dependence will occur. Its use also increases the risk of stroke, myocardial infarction, lung problems in those who smoke it, blood infections, Cocaine sold on the street is commonly mixed with local anesthetics, cornstarch, quinine, or sugar which can result in additional toxicity. Following repeated doses a person may have decreased ability to feel pleasure, Cocaine acts by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. This results in concentrations of these three neurotransmitters in the brain. It can easily cross the barrier and may lead to the breakdown of the barrier. Cocaine is made from the leaves of the plant which are mostly grown in South America. In 2013,419 kilograms were produced legally and it is estimated that the illegal market for cocaine is 100 to 500 billion USD each year. With further processing crack cocaine can be produced from cocaine, after cannabis, cocaine is the most frequently used illegal drug globally. Between 14 and 21 million people use the drug each year, use is highest in North America followed by Europe and South America. Between one and three percent of people in the world have used cocaine at some point in their life. In 2013 cocaine use resulted in 4,300 deaths. The leaves of the plant have been used by Peruvians since ancient times. Cocaine was first isolated from the leaves in 1860, since 1961 the international Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs has required countries to make recreational use of cocaine a crime
9.
Amphetamine
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Amphetamine is a potent central nervous system stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, narcolepsy, and obesity. Amphetamine was discovered in 1887 and exists as two enantiomers, levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine, amphetamine properly refers to a specific chemical, the racemic free base, which is equal parts of the two enantiomers, levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine, in their pure amine forms. The term is used informally to refer to any combination of the enantiomers. Historically, it has used to treat nasal congestion and depression. Amphetamine is also used as a performance enhancer and cognitive enhancer. The first amphetamine pharmaceutical was Benzedrine, a brand which was used to treat a variety of conditions, currently, pharmaceutical amphetamine is prescribed as racemic amphetamine, Adderall, dextroamphetamine, or the inactive prodrug lisdexamfetamine. At therapeutic doses, amphetamine causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria, change in desire for sex, increased wakefulness and it induces physical effects such as decreased reaction time, fatigue resistance, and increased muscle strength. Larger doses of amphetamine may impair cognitive function and induce rapid muscle breakdown, drug addiction is a serious risk with large recreational doses but is unlikely to arise from typical long-term medical use at therapeutic doses. Very high doses can result in psychosis which rarely occurs at therapeutic doses even during long-term use, recreational doses are generally much larger than prescribed therapeutic doses and carry a far greater risk of serious side effects. Amphetamine belongs to the phenethylamine class and it is also the parent compound of its own structural class, the substituted amphetamines, which includes prominent substances such as bupropion, cathinone, MDMA, and methamphetamine. Phenethylamine is the parent compound of amphetamine, while N-methylphenethylamine is an isomer of amphetamine that differs only in the placement of the methyl group. Amphetamine is used to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, narcolepsy, and obesity. Reviews of clinical stimulant research have established the safety and effectiveness of long-term continuous amphetamine use for the treatment of ADHD, randomized controlled trials of continuous stimulant therapy for the treatment of ADHD spanning two years have demonstrated treatment effectiveness and safety. Psychostimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamine are effective in treating ADHD because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems, approximately 80% of those who use these stimulants see improvements in ADHD symptoms. A systematic review from 2014 found that low doses of amphetamine also improve memory consolidation, therapeutic doses of amphetamine also enhance cortical network efficiency, an effect which mediates improvements in working memory in all individuals. Amphetamine and other ADHD stimulants also improve task saliency and increase arousal, stimulants such as amphetamine can improve performance on difficult and boring tasks and are used by some students as a study and test-taking aid. However, high doses that are above the therapeutic range can interfere with working memory. Amphetamine improves endurance and reaction time primarily through reuptake inhibition and effluxion of dopamine in the nervous system
10.
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs
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Earlier treaties had only controlled opium, coca, and derivatives such as morphine, heroin and cocaine. The Single Convention, adopted in 1961, consolidated those treaties and broadened their scope to include cannabis, the Commission on Narcotic Drugs and the World Health Organization were empowered to add, remove, and transfer drugs among the treatys four schedules of controlled substances. The International Narcotics Control Board was put in charge of administering controls on production, international trade. As of February 2015, the Single Convention has 185 state parties. The Holy See plus all member states of the United Nations are state parties, with the exception of Chad, East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Kiribati, Nauru, Samoa, South Sudan, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. Since the Single Convention is not self-executing, Parties must pass laws to carry out its provisions, the Single Convention has been used as the basis for the standardization of national drug-control laws. In particular, the United States Controlled Substances Act of 1970, both Acts include analogous schemes of drug Scheduling, along with similar procedures for adding, removing, and transferring drugs among the Schedules. The Controlled Substances Act follows the Single Conventions lead in granting a public health authority a central role in drug-scheduling decisions and it also includes a provision mandating that federal authorities control all drugs of abuse in accordance with the strictness required by the Single Convention. The League of Nations adopted several drug control treaties prior to World War II, specifying uniform controls on addictive drugs such as cocaine and opium, and its derivatives. That year, the UN Economic and Social Council convened a conference of 73 nations for the adoption of a single convention on narcotic drugs. That meeting was known as the United Nations Conference on Narcotic Drugs and they were open to socio-cultural drug use, having lived with it for centuries. They favored weak controls because existing restrictions on production and export had directly affected large segments of their domestic population and they supported national control efforts based on local conditions and were wary of strong international control bodies under the UN. They also sought development aid to compensate for losses caused by strict controls and they favored strong supranational control bodies as long as they continued to exercise de facto control over such bodies. Strict control group, These were essentially non-producing and non-manufacturing states with no direct stake in the drug trade. The key members were France, Sweden, Brazil, and the Republic of China, most of the states in this group were culturally opposed to drug use and suffered from abuse problems. They favored restricting drug use to medical and scientific purposes and were willing to sacrifice a degree of sovereignty to ensure the effectiveness of supranational control bodies. They were forced to moderate their demands in order to secure the widest possible agreement, weak control group, This group was led by the Soviet Union and often included its allies in Europe, Asia and Africa. They considered drug control a purely internal issue and adamantly opposed any intrusion on national sovereignty, with little interest in the drug trade and minimal domestic abuse problems, they refused to give any supranational body excessive power, especially over internal decision-making
11.
Ecgonine
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Ecgonine is a tropane alkaloid found naturally in coca leaves. Structurally, ecgonine is a derivative with a nitrogen bridge. It is obtained by hydrolysis of cocaine with acids or alkalis, and crystallizes with one molecule of water and it is levorotary, and on warming with alkalis gives iso-ecgonine, which is dextrorotary. It is a base, and has the properties of an acid
12.
Chirality (chemistry)
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Chirality /kaɪˈrælɪti/ is a geometric property of some molecules and ions. A chiral molecule/ion is non-superposable on its mirror image, the presence of an asymmetric carbon center is one of several structural features that induce chirality in organic and inorganic molecules. The term chirality is derived from the Greek word for hand, the mirror images of a chiral molecule/ion are called enantiomers or optical isomers. Individual enantiomers are often designated as either right- or left-handed, Chirality is an essential consideration when discussing the stereochemistry in organic and inorganic chemistry. The concept is of practical importance because most biomolecules and pharmaceuticals are chiral. Chirality is based on molecular symmetry elements, specifically, a chiral compound can contain no improper axis of rotation, which includes planes of symmetry and inversion center. Chiral molecules are always dissymmetric but not always asymmetric, in general, chiral molecules have point chirality at a single stereogenic atom, which has four different substituents. The two enantiomers of such compounds are said to have different absolute configurations at this center, the stereogenic atom is usually carbon, as in many biological molecules. However chirality can exist in any atom, including metals, phosphorus, Chiral nitrogen is equally possible, although the effects of nitrogen inversion can make many of these compounds impossible to isolate. While the presence of a stereogenic atom describes the great majority of cases, for instance it is not necessary for the chiral substance to have a stereogenic atom. Examples include 1-bromo-1-chloro-1-fluoroadamantane, methylethylphenyltetrahedrane, certain calixarenes and fullerenes, which have inherent chirality, the C2-symmetric species 1, 1-bi-2-naphthol,1, 3-dichloro-allene have axial chirality. -cyclooctene and many ferrocenes have planar chirality, when the optical rotation for an enantiomer is too low for practical measurement, the species is said to exhibit cryptochirality. Even isotopic differences must be considered when examining chirality, illustrative is the derivative of benzyl alcohol PhCHDOH is chiral. The S enantiomer has D = +0. 715°, many biologically active molecules are chiral, including the naturally occurring amino acids and sugars. In biological systems, most of these compounds are of the chirality, most amino acids are levorotatory. Typical naturally occurring proteins, made of L amino acids, are known as left-handed proteins, d-amino acids are very rare in nature and have only been found in small peptides attached to bacteria cell walls. The origin of this homochirality in biology is the subject of much debate, however, there is some suggestion that early amino acids could have formed in comet dust. Enzymes, which are chiral, often distinguish between the two enantiomers of a chiral substrate, one could imagine an enzyme as having a glove-like cavity that binds a substrate
13.
Controlled Substances Act
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The Controlled Substances Act is the statute establishing federal U. S. drug policy under which the manufacture, importation, possession, use and distribution of certain substances is regulated. It was passed by the 91st United States Congress as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, the Act also served as the national implementing legislation for the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. The legislation created five Schedules, with varying qualifications for a substance to be included in each, classification decisions are required to be made on criteria including potential for abuse, currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and international treaties. The nation first outlawed addictive drugs in the early 1900s and the International Opium Convention helped lead international agreements regulating trade, the Food and Drugs Act of 1906 was the beginning of over 200 laws concerning public health and consumer protections. Others were the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, in 1969, President Richard Nixon announced that the Attorney General, John N. Shafer—to study cannabis abuse in the United States. It implies an overwhelming indictment of the behavior which we believe is not appropriate, the actual and potential harm of use of the drug is not great enough to justify intrusion by the criminal law into private behavior, a step which our society takes only with the greatest reluctance. According to David T. Courtwright, the Act was part of a reform package designed to rationalize. It eliminated mandatory minimum sentences and provided support for drug treatment, king notes that the rehabilitation clauses were added as a compromise to Senator Jim Hughes, who favored a moderate approach. The bill, as introduced by Senator Everett Dirksen, ran to 91 pages, since its enactment in 1970, the Act has been amended several times, The Medical Device Amendments of 1976. The Psychotropic Substances Act of 1978 added provisions implementing the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, the Controlled Substances Penalties Amendments Act of 1984. The Ryan Haight Online Pharmacy Consumer Protection Act of 2008 The Electronic Prescriptions for Controlled Substances 2010, the Controlled Substances Act consists of 2 subchapters. Subchapter II describes the laws for exportation and importation of controlled substances, again specifying fines, the Drug Enforcement Administration was established in 1973, combining the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs and Customs drug agents. When a petition is received by the DEA, the agency begins its own investigation of the drug and this request is sent to the Assistant Secretary of Health of HHS. Under certain circumstances, the Government may temporarily schedule a drug without following the normal procedure, an example is when international treaties require control of a substance. In addition,21 U. S. C. §811 allows the Attorney General to temporarily place a substance in Schedule I to avoid an imminent hazard to the public safety, in any case, once these proceedings are complete, the temporary order is automatically vacated. Unlike ordinary scheduling proceedings, such orders are not subject to judicial review. The CSA also creates a system of distribution for those authorized to handle controlled substances. The cornerstone of this system is the registration of all those authorized by the DEA to handle controlled substances
14.
Galen
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Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus, often Anglicized as Galen and better known as Galen of Pergamon, was a prominent Greek physician, surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire. The son of Aelius Nicon, an architect with scholarly interests, Galen received a comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician. Galens understanding of anatomy and medicine was influenced by the then-current theory of humorism. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for more than 1,300 years, Medical students continued to study Galens writings until well into the 19th century. Galen saw himself as both a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise entitled That the Best Physician is Also a Philosopher. Many of his works have been preserved and/or translated from the original Greek, although many were destroyed, although there is some debate over the date of his death, he was no younger than seventy when he died. In medieval Europe, Galens writings on anatomy became the mainstay of the medieval university curriculum. Some of Galens ideas were incorrect, he did not dissect a human body, Galens original Greek texts gained renewed prominence during the early modern period. In the 1530s, Belgian anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius took on a project to many of Galens Greek texts into Latin. Vesaliuss most famous work, De humani corporis fabrica, was influenced by Galenic writing. Galens name Γαληνός, Galēnos comes from the adjective γαληνός, calm, Galen describes his early life in On the affections of the mind. Galen describes his father as an amiable, just, good. His studies also took in each of the philosophical systems of the time. His father had planned a career for Galen in philosophy or politics and took care to expose him to literary. However, Galen states that in around AD145 his father had a dream in which the god Asclepius appeared and commanded Nicon to send his son to study medicine, there he came under the influence of men like Aeschrion of Pergamon, Stratonicus and Satyrus. Asclepiea functioned as spas or sanitoria to which the sick would come to seek the ministrations of the priesthood, romans frequented the temple at Pergamon in search of medical relief from illness and disease. It was also the haunt of notable people such as Claudius Charax the historian, Aelius Aristides the orator, Polemo the sophist, in 148, when he was 19, his father died, leaving him independently wealthy. In 157, aged 28, he returned to Pergamon as physician to the gladiators of the High Priest of Asia, one of the most influential and wealthy men in Asia
15.
Feeling
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Feeling is the nominalization of the verb to feel. The word was first used in the English language to describe the sensation of touch through either experience or perception. The word is used to describe experiences other than the physical sensation of touch, such as a feeling of warmth. In Latin, sentire meant to feel, hear or smell, in psychology, the word is usually reserved for the conscious subjective experience of emotion. Phenomenology and heterophenomenology are philosophical approaches that provide some basis for knowledge of feelings, many schools of psychotherapy depend on the therapist achieving some kind of understanding of the clients feelings, for which methodologies exist. Feelings are also known as a state of consciousness, such as that resulting from emotions, people buy products in hopes that the product will make them feel a certain way, either happy, excited or beautiful. Some people buy beauty products in hopes of achieving a state of happiness or a sense of self beauty, past events are used in our lives to form schemas in our minds, and based on those past experiences, we expect our lives to follow a certain script. A social psychologist, Daniel Gilbert, conducted a study on the influence of feelings on events alongside other researchers, the results showed that when the participants predicted a positive feeling for an event, the higher the chances that they wanted to relive the event. Predicted feelings were either short-lived or did not correlate to what the participant expected, individuals in society predict that something will give them a certain desired outcome or feeling. Indulging in what one might have thought wouldve made them happy or excited might only cause a temporary thrill, events and experiences are done and relived to satisfy ones feelings. Gilbert and Wilson conducted a study to show how pleased a person would if they purchased flowers for themselves for no specific reason. People who had no experience of purchasing flowers for themselves and those who had experienced buying flowers for themselves were tested, arlie Russell Hochschild, a sociologist, depicted two accounts of emotion. The organismic emotion is the outburst of emotions and feelings, in organismic emotion, emotions/feelings are instantly expressed. Social and other factors do not influence how the emotion is perceived, in interactive emotion, emotions and feelings are controlled. The individual is constantly considering how to react or what to suppress, in interactive emotion, unlike in organismic emotion, the individual is aware of their decision on how they feel and how they show it. Erving Goffman, a sociologist and writer, compared how actors withheld their emotions to the everyday individual, like actors, individuals can control how the emotions are expressed, but they cannot control their inner emotions or feelings. Inner feelings can only be suppressed in order to achieve the expression one wants people to see on the outside, Goffman explains that emotions and emotional experience are an ongoing thing that an individual is consciously and actively working through. Individuals want to conform to society with their inner and outer feelings, anger, happiness, joy, stress, and excitement are some of the feelings that can be experienced in life
16.
Hippocrates
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Hippocrates of Kos, also known as Hippocrates II, was a Greek physician of the Age of Pericles, and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the Father of Modern Medicine in recognition of his contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine. Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the paragon of the ancient physician, historians agree that Hippocrates was born around the year 460 BC on the Greek island of Kos, other biographical information, however, is likely to be untrue. Soranus of Ephesus, a 2nd-century Greek gynecologist, was Hippocrates first biographer and is the source of most personal information about him, later biographies are in the Suda of the 10th century AD, and in the works of John Tzetzes, which date from the 12th century AD. Hippocrates is mentioned in passing in the writings of two contemporaries, Plato, in Protagoras and Phaedrus, and, Aristotles Politics, which date from the 4th century BC. Soranus wrote that Hippocrates father was Heraclides, a physician, and his mother was Praxitela, the two sons of Hippocrates, Thessalus and Draco, and his son-in-law, Polybus, were his students. According to Galen, a physician, Polybus was Hippocrates true successor, while Thessalus. Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather, Hippocrates was probably trained at the asklepieion of Kos, and took lessons from the Thracian physician Herodicus of Selymbria. Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his life, traveling at least as far as Thessaly, Thrace, several different accounts of his death exist. He died, probably in Larissa, at the age of 83,85 or 90, Hippocrates is credited with being the first person to believe that diseases were caused naturally, not because of superstition and gods. Hippocrates was credited by the disciples of Pythagoras of allying philosophy, indeed there is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. However, Hippocrates did work with many convictions that were based on what is now known to be incorrect anatomy and physiology, ancient Greek schools of medicine were split on how to deal with disease. The Knidian school of medicine focused on diagnosis, Medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human anatomy and physiology because of the Greek taboo forbidding the dissection of humans. The Knidian school consequently failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms, the Hippocratic school or Koan school achieved greater success by applying general diagnoses and passive treatments. Its focus was on patient care and prognosis, not diagnosis and it could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great development in clinical practice. Hippocratic medicine and its philosophy are far removed from that of modern medicine, now, the physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized treatment, both of which were espoused by the Knidian school. S. Houdart called the Hippocratic treatment a meditation upon death, after a crisis, a relapse might follow, and then another deciding crisis. According to this doctrine, crises tend to occur on critical days, if a crisis occurred on a day far from a critical day, a relapse might be expected
17.
Mandrake
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The plants from which the root is obtained are also called mandrakes. Mediterranean mandrakes are perennial plants with ovate leaves arranged in a rosette, a thick upright root, often branched. They have been placed in different species by different authors and they are very variable perennial herbaceous plants with long thick roots and almost no stem. The leaves are borne in a rosette, and are very variable in size and shape. They are usually elliptical in shape or wider towards the end. They have long used in magic rituals, today also in contemporary pagan traditions such as Wicca. All species of Mandragora contain highly biologically active alkaloids, tropane alkaloids in particular, the alkaloids make the plant, in particular the root and leaves, poisonous, via anticholinergic, hallucinogenic, and hypnotic effects. Anticholinergic properties can lead to asphyxiation, ingesting mandrake root is likely to have other adverse effects such as vomiting and diarrhea. The alkaloid concentration varies between plant samples, hyperactivity and hallucinations also occurred in the majority of patients. The root is hallucinogenic and narcotic, in sufficient quantities, it induces a state of unconsciousness and was used as an anaesthetic for surgery in ancient times. In the past, juice from the grated root was applied externally to relieve rheumatic pains. It was also used internally to treat melancholy, convulsions, when taken internally in large doses, however, it is said to excite delirium and madness. In the past, mandrake was often made into amulets which were believed to bring fortune, cure sterility. In one superstition, people who pull up this root will be condemned to hell, Therefore, in the past, people have tied the roots to the bodies of animals and then used these animals to pull the roots from the soil. Two references to דודאים —literally meaning love plant—occur in the Jewish scriptures, the Septuagint translates דודאים as μανδραγόρας, and the Vulgate follows the Septuagint. A number of translations into different languages follow Septuagint and use mandrake as the plant as the proper meaning in both the Book of Genesis 30, 14–16 and Song of Songs 7,13. Others follow the example of the Luther Bible and provide a literal translation. In Genesis 30,14, Reuben, the eldest son of Jacob and Leah, Rachel, Jacobs infertile second wife and Leahs sister, is desirous of the דודאים and barters with Leah for them
18.
Poppy tea
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Poppy tea is any herbal tea infusion brewed from poppy straw or seeds of several species of poppy. The species most commonly used for purpose is Papaver somniferum. In the live flower, opium is released when the surface of the bulb, for the purpose of the tea, dried pods are more commonly used than the pods of the live flower. The walls of the pods contain opiate alkaloids, primarily consisting of morphine. The tea is consumed for its effect, and in small amounts for analgesic, anti-diarrheal. Use of such preparations originated in parts of Central and Eastern Europe, the Levant and Near East, small amounts can be used for pain and diarrhoea in animals and kennel cough, most birds are small enough to simply feed them poppy seeds for digestive problems. This tea is depicted both in Asian literature and Western literature, and is depicted as being available in opium dens, in the Netherlands, all parts of Papaver somniferum after harvesting are illegal by law, as they are List I drugs of the Opium Law. Because of use for decorative purposes, the trade in, trade in, or possession of dried Papaver somniferum with the intention of drug use can be prosecuted. The dried seed pod of Papaver somniferum is easily obtainable as it is available for decorative use. Many varieties, strains, and cultivars of Papaver somniferum are in existence, in the United States it is legal to purchase poppy seeds but all other parts of the plant are considered a schedule II controlled substance under the federal Controlled Substance Act of 1970. The import and sale of poppy seeds is legal in Canada. Canadian authorities have noted the presence of dode or doda in the South Asian community, crackdowns on this traditional preparation in the late 2000s led to a number of arrests in Canada. Poppy tea contains two groups of alkaloids, phenanthrenes and benzylisoquinolines, of these, morphine is the most prevalent comprising 8%-14% of the total. Its effects derive from the fact that it binds to and activates mu opioid receptors in the brain, spinal cord, stomach, when ingested, thebaine causes nausea, vomiting, and myoclonus. Thebaine is an important precursor for manufacture of pharmaceuticals, and is concentrated in the roots of Papaver somniferum than elsewhere. Other species of poppies, numbering in the hundreds, do not contain morphine or codeine in useful amounts, side effects increase with dosage and include drowsiness, mild stomach ache, lethargy, urinary retention, bradypnea, constipation, and nausea. Nausea can be attributed to the presence of noscapine and is common in first-time or inexperienced users. At high doses, the effects are dangerous and can cause death through respiratory arrest or inhalation of vomit
19.
Opium
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Opium is the dried latex obtained from the opium poppy. The latex also contains the closely related opiates codeine and thebaine, the word meconium historically referred to related, weaker preparations made from other parts of the opium poppy or different species of poppies. The production of opium has not changed since ancient times, through selective breeding of the Papaver somniferum plant, the content of the phenanthrene alkaloids morphine, codeine, and to a lesser extent thebaine has been greatly increased. For the illegal trade, the morphine is extracted from the opium. It is then converted to heroin which is two to four times as potent, and increases the value by two to four times, the reduced weight and bulk make it easier to smuggle. Evidence from ancient Greece indicate that opium was consumed in several ways, including inhalation of vapors, suppositories, medical poultices, Opium is mentioned in the most important medical texts of the ancient world, including the Ebers Papyrus and the writings of Dioscorides, Galen, and Avicenna. Widespread medical use of unprocessed opium continued through the American Civil War before giving way to morphine and its successors, Opium has been actively collected since prehistoric times. Though western scholars typically estimate this to be around 1500 BCE, Indian scholars maintain that the verses and the history contained in them have been orally transmitted thousands of years before. A common name for males in Afghanistan is Redey, which in Pashto means poppy and this term may be derived from the Sanskrit words rddhi and hrdya, which mean magical, a type of medicinal plant, and heart-pleasing, respectively. The upper Asian belt of Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India, numerous finds of P. somniferum or P. setigerum from Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have also been reported. The first known cultivation of poppies was in Mesopotamia, approximately 3400 BCE, by Sumerians, who called the plant hul gil. Tablets found at Nippur, a Sumerian spiritual center south of Baghdad, described the collection of juice in the morning. Opium production continued under the Babylonians and Egyptians, Opium was used with poison hemlock to put people quickly and painlessly to death, but it was also used in medicine. The Ebers Papyrus, c. 1500 BCE, describes a way to stop a child using grains of the poppy plant strained to a pulp. Spongia somnifera, sponges soaked in opium, were used during surgery, the Egyptians cultivated opium thebaicum in famous poppy fields around 1300 BCE. Opium was traded from Egypt by the Phoenicians and Minoans to destinations around the Mediterranean Sea, including Greece, Carthage, and Europe. By 1100 BCE, opium was cultivated on Cyprus, where surgical-quality knives were used to score the poppy pods, and opium was cultivated, traded, Opium was also mentioned after the Persian conquest of Assyria and Babylonian lands in the 6th century BCE. From the earliest finds, opium has appeared to have ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power
20.
Narcotics Anonymous
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Narcotics Anonymous describes itself as a nonprofit fellowship or society of men and women for whom drugs had become a major problem. Narcotics Anonymous uses a traditional 12-step model that has expanded and developed for people with varied substance abuse issues and is the second-largest 12-step organization. As of May 2016 there were more than 67,000 NA meetings in 139 countries, the third tradition of NA states that the only requirement for membership is a desire to stop using. NA says its meetings are where members can meet regularly to help each other stay clean, all facts and quotes presented in The Narcotics Anonymous program section, unless otherwise sourced, come from the Narcotics Anonymous Membership in NA is free, and there are no dues or fees. The foundation of the Narcotics Anonymous program is the Twelve Steps, Narcotics Anonymous uses a slight variation of wording in both the Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions, when compared to other Twelve Step groups. According to the Basic Text, Narcotics Anonymous has no opinion on issues, including those of politics, science or medicine. The fellowship does not promote itself, but rather attracts new members through public information, individuals can also be compelled to attend by courts or rehab programs. According to the philosophy of the NA program, most addicts did not realize they had a problem with drugs until they had none left, even if other people pointed out they may have a drug problem they were convinced otherwise. But once an addict on his or her own tries to stop and realizes they cannot, addicts lived to use and used to live. NA helps show them a different way of life and helps them fight their disease, NA describes addiction as a progressive disease with no known cure, which affects every area of an addicts life, physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual. NA suggests that the disease of addiction can be arrested, the steps never mention drugs or drug use, rather they refer only to addiction, to indicate that addicts have a disease of which drug use is one symptom. Other symptoms include obsession, compulsion, denial, and self-centeredness, regular meetings, hosted by NA groups, are the basic unit of the NA fellowship. Meetings are held in a variety of such as church meeting rooms, libraries, hospitals, community centers, parks. Members who attend the meeting on a regular basis to establish a recovery network. Group members are able to participate in the business. There are two types of meetings, open and closed. Anyone is welcome to attend a meeting, while closed meetings are limited to addicts. Meeting formats vary, but often include time devoted to the reading aloud of NA literature regarding the issues involved in living life clean which is written by, many meetings are conducted by the chairperson who chooses the speakers
21.
Prohibition of drugs
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While some drugs are illegal to possess, many governments regulate the manufacture, distribution, marketing, sale and use of certain drugs, for instance through a prescription system. For example, amphetamines may be legal to possess if a doctor has prescribed them, otherwise, only certain drugs are banned with a blanket prohibition against all possession or use. The most widely banned substances include psychoactive drugs, although blanket prohibition also extends to some steroids, many governments do not criminalize the possession of a limited quantity of certain drugs for personal use, while still prohibiting their sale or manufacture, or possession in large quantities. Some laws set a specific volume of a drug, above which is considered ipso jure to be evidence of trafficking or sale of the drug. Some Islamic countries prohibit the use of alcohol, many governments levy a sin tax on alcohol and tobacco products, and restrict alcohol and tobacco from being sold or gifted to a minor. Other common restrictions include bans on outdoor drinking and indoor smoking, in the early 20th Century, many countries had alcohol prohibition. These include The United States, Finland, Norway, Canada, Iceland, the cultivation, use, and trade of psychoactive and other drugs has occurred since ancient times. Concurrently, authorities have often restricted drug possession and trade for a variety of political, in the 20th century, the United States led a major renewed surge in drug prohibition called the War on Drugs. Todays War on Drugs is particularly motivated by the desire to prevent drug use, the prohibition on alcohol under Islamic Sharia law, which is usually attributed to passages in the Quran, dates back to the 7th century. Although Islamic law is interpreted as prohibiting all intoxicants, the ancient practice of hashish smoking has continued throughout the history of Islam. A major campaign against hashish-eating Sufis was conducted in Egypt in the 11th and 12th centuries resulting among other things in the burning of fields of cannabis. In the 14th century, the Islamic scholar Az-Zarkashi spoke of the permissibility of its use for medical purposes if it is established that it is beneficial. In the Ottoman Empire, Murad IV attempted to prohibit coffee drinking to Muslims as haraam, arguing that it was an intoxicant, the early association between coffeehouses and seditious political activities in England, led to the banning of such establishments in the mid-17th century. A number of Asian rulers had similarly enacted early prohibitions, many of which were later overturned by Western colonial powers during the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1360, for example, King Ramathibodi I, of Ayutthaya Kingdom, prohibited opium consumption, the prohibition lasted nearly 500 years until 1851, when King Rama IV allowed Chinese migrants to consume opium. While the Konbaung Dynasty prohibited all intoxicants and stimulants during the reign of King Bodawpaya, as the British colonized parts of Burma from 1852 they overturned local prohibitions and established opium monopolies selling Indian produced opium. In late Qing Imperial China, opium imported by the British East India Company was consumed by all classes in Southern China. Between 1821 and 1837, imports of the drug increased fivefold, the drain of silver to India and widespread social problems that resulted from this consumption prompted the Chinese government to attempt to end the trade
22.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
23.
Recreational drug use
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Recreational drug use is the use of a psychoactive drug to alter ones mental state in a way that modifies emotions, perceptions, and feelings for recreational purposes. When a substance enters the body, it brings on an intoxicating effect. Generally, people use drugs that fall into three categories, depressants, stimulants, and psychedelic drugs. In popular usage, it is considered to be a tolerated social behaviour rather than a serious medical condition such as self-medication. The substances classified as controlled and illegal drugs vary by country, in 2009 it was estimated that about 3% to 6% of people aged 15 to 65 had used illegal drugs at least once. International and domestic law enforcement agencies are perpetually occupied with interdiction efforts against illegal use, manufacture. Many researchers have explored the etiology of recreational drug use, there has not been agreement around any one single cause. Instead, experts tend to apply the biopsychosocial model, any number of these factors are likely to influence an individual’s drug use as they are not mutually exclusive. Regardless of genetics, mental health or traumatic experiences, social factors play a role in exposure to and availability of certain types of drugs. According to addiction researcher Martin A. Plant, many go through a period of self-redefinition before initiating recreational drug use. They tend to view using drugs as part of a lifestyle that involves belonging to a subculture that they associate with heightened status. Plant says, “From the users point of there are many positive reasons to become part of the milieu of drug taking. The reasons for drug use appear to have as much to do with needs for friendship, pleasure, becoming a drug taker, to many people, is a positive affirmation rather than a negative experience. ”Anthropological research has suggested that humansmay have evolved to counter-exploit plant neurotoxins. The ability to use chemicals to serve the function of endogenous neurotransmitters may have improved survival rates. A typically restrictive prehistoric diet may have emphasised the apparent benefit of consuming psychoactive drugs, severity and type of risks that come with recreational drug use vary widely with the drug in question and the amount being used. There are many factors in the environment and within the user interact with each drug differently. Overall, some studies suggest that alcohol is one of the most dangerous of all drugs, only heroin, crack cocaine. Researcher David Nutt stated that studies showing benefits for moderate alcohol consumption lacked control for the variable of what the subjects were drinking
24.
Depressant
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A depressant, or central depressant, is a drug that lowers neurotransmission levels, which is to depress or reduce arousal or stimulation, in various areas of the brain. Depressants are also referred to as downers as they lower the level of arousal when taken. Stimulants or uppers increase mental and/or physical function, hence the opposite drug class of depressants is stimulants, Depressants are widely used throughout the world as prescription medicines and as illicit substances. Alcohol is a very prominent depressant, alcohol can be and is more likely to be a large problem between teenagers and young adults. Other examples are chemicals that modify the electrical signaling inside the body, the most prominent of these being bromides and channel blockers. Ethanol is the oldest recreational drug still used by humans, ethanol can cause alcohol intoxication when consumed. Alcoholic beverages are divided into three classes for taxation and regulation of production, beers, wines, and spirits. They are legally consumed in most countries around the world, more than 100 countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption. The most common way to measure intoxication for legal or medical purposes is through blood alcohol content. It is usually expressed as a percentage of alcohol in the blood in units of mass of alcohol per volume of blood, or mass of alcohol per mass of blood, depending on the country. For instance, in North America a blood alcohol content of 0.10 means that there are 0.10 g of alcohol for every dL of blood, barbiturates are effective in relieving the conditions that they are designed to address. They are also used for unapproved purposes, physically addictive. When, in the late 1950s, many thought that the social cost of barbiturates was beginning to outweigh the medical benefits, most people still using barbiturates today do so in the prevention of seizures or in mild form for relief from the symptoms of migraines. A benzodiazepine is a drug whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring. These properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety, insomnia, agitation, seizures, muscle spasms, alcohol withdrawal, benzodiazepines are categorized as either short-, intermediate-, or long-acting. Short- and intermediate-acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia, in general, benzodiazepines are safe and effective in the short term, although cognitive impairments and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition occasionally occur. A minority react reverse and contrary to what would normally be expected, for example, a state of panic may worsen considerably following intake of a benzodiazepine. Due to adverse effects associated with the use of benzodiazepines, withdrawal from benzodiazepines, in general
25.
Barbiturate
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A barbiturate is a drug that acts as a central nervous system depressant, and can therefore produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to total anesthesia. They are also effective as anxiolytics, hypnotics, and anticonvulsants and these effects, however, are somewhat weak, and may react with a patients other medications or sedatives. This fact precludes barbiturates from being used in surgery or in the presence of other analgesics, in mice, barbiturates are hyperalgesic, increasing the sensitivity to pain. Barbiturates have addiction potential, both physical and psychological, Barbiturates are derivatives of barbituric acid. However, barbiturates are still used as anticonvulsants, as para-operative sedatives, Barbiturates in high doses are used for physician-assisted suicide, and in combination with a muscle relaxant for euthanasia and for capital punishment by lethal injection. Barbiturates are frequently employed as euthanizing agents in veterinary medicine. Thiopental is a barbiturate that is marketed under the name sodium pentothal. When dissolved in water, sodium amytal can be swallowed, or it can be administered by intravenous injection, the memory-impairing effects and cognitive impairments induced by the drug are thought to reduce a subjects ability to invent and remember lies. There are special risks to consider for older adults, women who are pregnant, when a person ages, the body becomes less able to rid itself of barbiturates. As a result, people over the age of sixty-five are at risk of experiencing the harmful effects of barbiturates, including drug dependence. When barbiturates are taken during pregnancy, the passes through the mothers gastric juice to her fetus. After the baby is born, it may experience withdrawal symptoms and have trouble breathing, in addition, nursing mothers who take barbiturates may transmit the drug to their babies through breast milk. A rare adverse reaction to barbiturates is Stevens-Johnson syndrome, which affects the mucous membranes. With regular use, tolerance to the effects of barbiturates develops, similar to benzodiazepines the longer acting barbiturates produce a less severe withdrawal syndrome than short acting and ultra short acting barbiturates. Withdrawal symptoms are dose-dependent with heavier users being affected worse than lower-dose addicts, mental cravings for barbiturates can last for months or years in some cases and counselling/support groups are highly encouraged by addiction specialists. The lethal dosage of barbiturates varies greatly with tolerance and from one individual to another, tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects tends to correlate more with tolerance to physiological effects, however, meaning that they are still a viable option for long-term epilepsy treatment. Barbiturates in overdose with other CNS depressants are even more due to additive CNS. The longest-acting barbiturates have half-lives of a day or more, Barbiturates induce a number of hepatic CYP enzymes, leading to exaggerated effects from many prodrugs and decreased effects from drugs which are metabolized by these enzymes to inactive metabolites
26.
Benzodiazepine
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Benzodiazepines, sometimes called benzos, are a class of psychoactive drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring. In 1977 benzodiazepines were globally the most prescribed medications, Benzodiazepines enhance the effect of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid at the GABAA receptor, resulting in sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties. High doses of many shorter-acting benzodiazepines may also cause anterograde amnesia and these properties make benzodiazepines useful in treating anxiety, insomnia, agitation, seizures, muscle spasms, alcohol withdrawal and as a premedication for medical or dental procedures. Benzodiazepines are categorized as either short-, intermediate-, or long-acting, short- and intermediate-acting benzodiazepines are preferred for the treatment of insomnia, longer-acting benzodiazepines are recommended for the treatment of anxiety. Benzodiazepines are generally viewed as safe and effective for use, although cognitive impairment. A minority of people can have paradoxical reactions such as worsened agitation or panic, long-term use is controversial because of concerns about adverse psychological and physical effects, decreasing effectiveness, and physical dependence and withdrawal. As a result of adverse effects associated with the use of benzodiazepines, withdrawal from benzodiazepines, in general. There is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy, Benzodiazepines can be taken in overdoses and can cause dangerous deep unconsciousness. However, they are less toxic than their predecessors, the barbiturates, when combined with other central nervous system depressants such as ethanol and opioids, the potential for toxicity and fatal overdose increases. Benzodiazepines are commonly misused and taken in combination with other drugs of abuse, most are administered orally, however, they can also be given intravenously, intramuscularly, or rectally. In general, benzodiazepines are well-tolerated and are safe and effective drugs in the term for a wide range of conditions. Tolerance can develop to their effects and there is also a risk of dependence and these factors, combined with other possible secondary effects after prolonged use such as psychomotor, cognitive, or memory impairments, limit their long-term applicability. The effects of use or misuse include the tendency to cause or worsen cognitive deficits, depression. The College of Physicians and Surgeons of British Columbia recommends discontinuing the usage of benzodiazepines in those on opioids, because of their effectiveness, tolerability, and rapid onset of anxiolytic action, benzodiazepines are frequently used for the treatment of anxiety associated with panic disorder. However, there is disagreement among expert bodies regarding the use of benzodiazepines for panic disorder. APA states that there is insufficient evidence to recommend any of the established panic disorder treatments over another, one advantage of benzodiazepines is that they alleviate the anxiety symptoms much faster than antidepressants, and therefore may be preferred in patients for whom rapid symptom control is critical. However, this advantage is offset by the possibility of developing benzodiazepine dependence, APA does not recommend benzodiazepines for persons with depressive symptoms or a recent history of substance abuse. Although major concerns about benzodiazepine tolerance and withdrawal have been raised, for many such patients stable doses of benzodiazepines retain their efficacy over several years
27.
Carbamate
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A carbamate is an organic compound derived from carbamic acid. A carbamate group, carbamate ester, and carbamic acids are functional groups that are inter-related structurally, carbamate esters are also called urethanes. Carbamic acids are derived from amines, R2NH + CO2 → R2NCO2H Carbamic acid is about as acidic as acetic acid, n-terminal amino groups of valine residues in the α- and β-chains of deoxyhemoglobin exist as carbamates. They help to stabilise the protein, when it becomes deoxyhemoglobin and this stabilizing effect should not be confused with the Bohr effect. The ε-amino groups of the residues in urease and phosphotriesterase also feature carbamate. The carbamate derived from aminoimidazole is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of inosine, carbamoyl phosphate is generated from carboxyphosphate rather than CO2. Perhaps the most important carbamate is the one involved in the capture of CO2 by plants since this process is necessary for their growth, the enzyme ribulose 1, 5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase fixes a molecule of carbon dioxide as phosphoglycerate in the Calvin cycle. At the active site of the enzyme, a Mg2+ ion is bound to glutamate and aspartate residues as well as a lysine carbamate. The carbamate is formed when an uncharged lysine side chain near the ion reacts with a carbon dioxide molecule from the air, which renders it charged. The so-called carbamate insecticides feature the carbamate ester functional group, included in this group are aldicarb, carbofuran, carbaryl, ethienocarb, fenobucarb, oxamyl, and methomyl. These insecticides kill insects by reversibly inactivating the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, the organophosphate pesticides also inhibit this enzyme, although irreversibly, and cause a more severe form of cholinergic poisoning. Fenoxycarb has a group but acts as a juvenile hormone mimic. The insect repellent icaridin is a substituted carbamate, polyurethanes contain multiple carbamate groups as part of their structure. The urethane in the name refers to these carbamate groups. In contrast, the commonly called urethane, ethyl carbamate, is neither a component of polyurethanes. Urethanes are usually formed by reaction of an alcohol with an isocyanate, commonly, urethanes made by a non-isocyanate route are called carbamates. Polyurethane polymers have a range of properties and are commercially available as foams, elastomers. Typically, polyurethane polymers are made by combining diisocyanates, e. g. Urethane was once produced commercially in the United States as an antineoplastic agent and it was found to be toxic and largely ineffective
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Alcohol (drug)
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Ethanol, also called alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and drinking alcohol, is the principal type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor. Its chemical formula is C 2H 6O, which can be written also as CH 3-CH 2-OH or C 2H 5-OH, ethanol is mostly produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts, or by petrochemical processes. It is a psychoactive drug, causing a characteristic intoxication. It is widely used as a solvent, as fuel, and as a feedstock for synthesis of other chemicals, the eth- prefix and the qualifier ethyl in ethyl alcohol originally come from the name ethyl assigned in 1834 to the group C 2H 5- by Justus Liebig. He coined the word from the German name Aether of the compound C 2H 5-O-C 2H5, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ and the Greek word ύλη. The name ethanol was coined as a result of a resolution that was adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature that was held in April 1892 in Geneva, Switzerland. The term alcohol now refers to a class of substances in chemistry nomenclature. The Oxford English Dictionary claims that it is a loan from Arabic al-kuḥl, a powdered ore of antimony used since aniquity as a cosmetic. The use of alcohol for ethanol is modern, first recorded 1753, the systematic use in chemistry dates to 1850. Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels as an antiseptic, ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids and is effective against most bacteria and fungi, and many viruses. However, ethanol is ineffective against bacterial spores, ethanol may be administered as an antidote to methanol and ethylene glycol poisoning. Ethanol, often in high concentrations, is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications, as a central nervous system depressant, ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed psychoactive drugs. The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content, small doses of ethanol, in general, produce euphoria and relaxation, people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. Ethanol is commonly consumed as a drug, especially while socializing. The largest single use of ethanol is as a fuel and fuel additive. Brazil in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. Hydrous ethanol can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline fueled cars sold in the country, Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugar cane and noted for high carbon sequestration
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Alcoholic drink
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Long-term use can lead to alcohol abuse, physical dependence, and alcoholism. Drinking alcohol plays an important social role in many cultures, most countries have laws regulating their production, sale, and consumption, some countries ban such activities entirely. However, alcoholic drinks are legal in most parts of the world, the global alcoholic drink industry exceeded $1 trillion in 2014. Alcohol is one of the most widely used drugs in the world. For instance, in 2015, among Americans, 89% of adults had consumed alcohol at point, 70% had drunk it in the last year. Alcoholic drinks are divided into three classes—beers, wines, and spirits—and typically contain between 3% and 40% alcohol by volume. Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggest that intentionally fermented drinks existed at least as early as the Neolithic period, wine is a fermented beverage produced from grapes. Wine involves a longer process than beer and also a long aging process. Sparkling wine can be made by means of a secondary fermentation, fruit wines are made from fruits other than grapes, such as plums, cherries, or apples. Sake is an example of rice wine. Beer is a beverage fermented from grain mash and it is made from barley or a blend of several grains. If the fermented mash is distilled, then the drink is a spirit, beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage in the world. Cider or cyder is an alcoholic drink made from any fruit juice, apple juice, peaches. Cider alcohol content varies from 1. 2% ABV to 8. 5% or more in traditional English ciders, in some regions, cider may be called apple wine. Mead is a drink created by fermenting honey with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains. The alcoholic content of mead may range from about 8% ABV to more than 20%, the defining characteristic of mead is that the majority of the drinks fermentable sugar is derived from honey. A distilled drink or liquor is a drink produced by distilling ethanol produced by means of fermenting grain, fruit. Unsweetened, distilled, alcoholic drinks that have a content of at least 20% ABV are called spirits
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Beer
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Beer is the worlds oldest and most widely consumed alcoholic drink, it is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea. Most beer is flavoured with hops, which add bitterness and act as a natural preservative, the fermentation process causes a natural carbonation effect, although this is often removed during processing, and replaced with forced carbonation. Beer is sold in bottles and cans, it may also be available on draught, particularly in pubs, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from brewpubs to regional breweries. The strength of beer is usually around 4% to 6% alcohol by volume, archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilisations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of Uruk were paid by their employers in beer, the earliest known chemical evidence of barley beer dates to circa 3500–3100 BC from the site of Godin Tepe in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran. The Ebla tablets, discovered in 1974 in Ebla, Syria, a fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike sake, mould was not used to saccharify the rice, almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a liquid could be obtained from a source of starch. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies, Beer was spread through Europe by Germanic and Celtic tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today, alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as narcotic herbs. What they did not contain was hops, as that was an addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot. Beer produced before the Industrial Revolution continued to be made and sold on a scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from artisanal manufacture to industrial manufacture, the development of hydrometers and thermometers changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. Today, the industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies. As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres, the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, the process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, a company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a brewing company. Beer made on a scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as homebrewing regardless of where it is made. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in developed countries, however, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby
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Wine
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Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes. These grapes are generally Vitis vinifera, or a hybrid with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris, grapes are fermented without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol, different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. These variations result from the interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the terroir. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine and these typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. There are also made from fermenting other fruits or cereals. Wines made from other than grapes include rice wine and various fruit wines such as those made from plums or cherries. Some well known examples are hard cider from apples, perry from pears, pomegranate wine, Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest known traces of wine from Georgia in Eurasia where 8000-year-old wine jars were found and in Iran with 7, the earliest known winery is the 6, 100-year-old Areni-1 winery Armenia. Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace, throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects, which are evident after the normal serving size of five ounces. Wine has long played an important role in religion, the earliest chemically attested grape wine was discovered at Hajji Firuz in the northwestern Zagros Mountains dating back to 5400 BC. The earliest evidence of a fermented drink was found in Georgia, where wine residue inside ceramic jars dates from 6000 BC. The earliest evidence of a production facility is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia and is at least 6100 years old, presumably. A2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China in the years of the seventh millennium BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acid, however, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot be ruled out. The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward from a base of city-states along the Lebanese, Syrian, the wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of wine was still intact. As the first great traders in wine, the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin
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Gamma-Hydroxybutyric acid
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γ-Hydroxybutyric acid, also known as 4-hydroxybutanoic acid, is a naturally occurring neurotransmitter and a psychoactive drug. It is a precursor to GABA, glutamate, and glycine in certain brain areas, GHB has been used in a medical setting as a general anesthetic and as a treatment for cataplexy, narcolepsy, and alcoholism. It is also used illegally as an intoxicant, to try to increase athletic performance and it is commonly used in the form of a salt, such as sodium γ-hydroxybutyrate or potassium γ-hydroxybutyrate. GHB is also produced as a result of fermentation, and is found in quantities in some beers and wines, beef. Succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency is a disease that causes GHB to accumulate in the blood, the only common medical use for GHB today are in the treatment of narcolepsy and more rarely alcoholism. It is sometimes used off-label for the treatment of fibromyalgia, GHB is the active ingredient in the prescription medication sodium oxybate. Sodium oxybate is approved by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of cataplexy associated with narcolepsy and it has many street names, including G, Liquid G, Liquid X, Liquid E, Georgia Home Boy, Juice, Mils, and Fantasy. Its effects have been described anecdotally as comparable with ethanol and MDMA use, such as euphoria, disinhibition, enhanced libido, at higher doses, GHB may induce nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, agitation, visual disturbances, depressed breathing, amnesia, unconsciousness, and death. When death is associated with GHB, it is sometimes in conjunction with other drugs, the effects of GHB can last from 1.5 to 4 hours, or even longer if large doses have been consumed. Consuming GHB with alcohol is dangerous as it can lead to respiratory arrest and vomiting in combination with unrouseable sleep, in general, the doses used recreationally are between 0.5 g and 3 g. When used as a drug, GHB may be found as the sodium or potassium salt. The sodium salt of GHB has a salty taste, other salt forms such as calcium GHB and magnesium GHB have also been reported, but the sodium salt is by far the most common. Some chemicals convert to GHB in the stomach and blood stream, there may be additional toxicity concerns with these precursors. 1, 4-B and GBL are normally found as pure liquids, though they may be mixed with other more harmful solvents when intended for industrial use, e. g. as paint stripper or varnish thinner. While available as a prescription for rare and severe forms of sleep such as narcolepsy in some other countries, notably most of Europe. However, on 17 July 2002, GHB was approved for treatment of cataplexy, GHB is often taken because users find that it enhances their experiences of being in a club, party, or rave, small doses of GHB can act as a stimulant and aphrodisiac. GHB is sometimes referred to as liquid ecstasy, lollipops, liquid X or liquid E due to its tendency to produce euphoria and sociability, despite these nicknames, GHB and MDMA have entirely separate chemical and pharmacological modes of action. Some athletes also use GHB, as GHB has been shown to elevate human growth hormone in vivo, one study found that it doubled growth hormone secretion in normal young males
