1.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
2.
Rhode Island
–
Rhode Island, officially the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Rhode Island is the smallest in area, the eighth least populous, and its official name is also the longest of any state in the Union. Rhode Island is bordered by Connecticut to the west, Massachusetts to the north and east, the state also shares a short maritime border with New York. It boycotted the 1787 convention that drew up the United States Constitution, on May 29,1790, Rhode Island became the 13th and last state to ratify the Constitution. Rhode Islands official nickname is The Ocean State, a reference to the fact that the state has several large bays, Rhode Island covers 1,214 square miles, of which 1,045 square miles are land. Despite its name, most of Rhode Island is located on the mainland of the United States, the official name of the state is State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which is derived from the merger of four settlements. Rhode Island is now commonly called Aquidneck Island, the largest of several islands in Narragansett Bay, Providence Plantation was the name of the colony founded by Roger Williams in the area now known as the city of Providence. This was adjoined by the settlement of Warwick, hence the plural Providence Plantations and it is unclear how Aquidneck Island came to be known as Rhode Island, although there are two popular theories. Explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano noted the presence of an island near the mouth of Narragansett Bay in 1524, subsequent European explorers were unable to precisely identify the island that Verrazzano had named, but the Pilgrims who later colonized the area assumed that it was Aquidneck. A second theory concerns the fact that Adriaen Block passed by Aquidneck during his expeditions in the 1610s, historians have theorized that this reddish appearance resulted from either red autumn foliage or red clay on portions of the shore. The earliest documented use of the name Rhode Island for Aquidneck was in 1637 by Roger Williams, the name was officially applied to the island in 1644 with these words, Aquethneck shall be henceforth called the Isle of Rodes or Rhode-Island. The name Isle of Rodes is used in a document as late as 1646. Dutch maps as early as 1659 call the island Red Island, Williams was a theologian forced out of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Seeking religious and political tolerance, he and others founded Providence Plantation as a proprietary colony. Providence referred to the concept of providence, and plantation was an English term for a colony. State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations is the longest official name of any state in the Union, advocates for excising plantation asserted that the word specifically referred to the British colonial practice of establishing settlements which disenfranchised native people. Advocates for retaining the name argued that plantation was simply an archaic English synonym for colony, the referendum election was held on November 2,2010, and the people voted overwhelmingly to retain the entire original name. It shares a maritime border with New York State between Block Island and Long Island
Rhode Island
–
Verrazzano Monument, Providence, Rhode Island.
Rhode Island
–
Flag
Rhode Island
–
Terrain Map of Rhode Island
Rhode Island
–
Shoreline in Newport, Rhode Island
3.
Narragansett language
–
Narragansett /ˌnærəˈɡænsɪt/ is an extinct Algonquian language formerly spoken in most of what is today Rhode Island by the Narragansett people. It was closely related to the other Algonquian languages of southern New England like Massachusett, the earliest study of the language in English was by Roger Williams, founder of the Rhode Island colony, in his book A Key Into the Language of America. The word Narragansett means, literally, of the Small Point, the point may be located on the Salt Pond in Washington County. Traditionally the tribe spoke the Narragansett language, a member of the Algonquian language family, the language became almost entirely extinct during the Narragansetts centuries of living within the larger English-majority society, through forced assimilation. The tribe has begun language revival efforts, based on books and manuscripts. The Narragansett spoke a Y-dialect, similar enough to the N-dialects of the Massachusett, other Y-dialects include the Shinnecock and Pequot languages spoken historically by tribes on Long Island and in Connecticut, respectively. In the 17th century, Roger Williams, a co-founder of Rhode Island and he documented it in his 1643 work, A Key Into the Language of America. Williams gave the name as Nanhigganeuck. American English has absorbed a number of words from Narragansett and other closely related languages, such as Wampanoag. Such words include quahog, moose, papoose, powwow, squash, in more recent years, Narragansett has served as an incubator for successful businessmen, such as Patrick Reardon, a highly regarded Recruiting Operations Manager for Maxim Healthcare. According to Dr. Frank Waabu OBrien, who has taught the language for the Aquidneck Indian Council, Narragansett people Eastern Algonquian languages The Narragansett Dawn Aubin, George Francis. International Journal of American Linguistics vol, International Journal of American Linguistics 41, 239-40. Pp. 105–114 in Papers of the 7th Algonquian Conference,1975, William Cowan, ed. Ottawa, quelques aspects du système consonantique du narragansett. Pp. 151–155 in Actes du 8e Congrès des Algonquinistes,1976, William Cowan, ed. Ottawa, bragdon, Kathleen J. Native People of Southern New England, 1500-1650. Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, “Francis Brinley’s Briefe Narrative of the Nanhiganset Countrey. Publications of the Rhode Island Historical Society,8, 69‐96, in Papers of the Thirteenth Algonquian Conference. PA *a, *k and *t in Narragansett, International Journal of American Linguistics 35, 28-33. International Journal of American Linguistics 39, 7-13, gatschet, Albert S. “Narragansett Vocabulary Collected in 1879”. International Journal of American Linguistics 39,14
Narragansett language
–
Martha Simon, Last of the Narragansetts, oil painting from 1857 by Albert Bierstadt.
Narragansett language
–
The location of the Narragansett tribe and their neighbors, c. 1600
4.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
5.
Nipmuc
–
The tribe were first encountered by Europeans in 1630, when John Acquittamaug arrived with maize to sell to the starving colonists of Boston, Massachusetts. The colonists introduced pathogens, such as smallpox, to which the Native Americans had no prior exposure and they were also exposed to alcohol for the first time, which led to huge numbers of natives succumbing to the effects of alcoholism. Many of the Nipmuc were interned on Deer Island in Boston Harbor and perished, by the 19th century, the Nipmuc were reduced to wards of the state that were administered by state-appointed commissioners. The passage of the Massachusetts Enfranchisement Act of 1869 effectively detribalised the Nipmuc, Nipmuc communities continued to survive, and the tribe received state recognition in 1979, but efforts at federal recognition have not met with success. The tribe is first mentioned in a 1631 letter by Deputy Governor Thomas Dudley as the Nipnet and this derives from Nippenet and includes variants such as Neipnett, Neepnet, Nepmet, Nibenet, Nopnat and Nipneet. Colonists and the Native Americans themselves used this term extensively after the growth of the Praying towns, daniel Gookin, Superintendent to the Native Americans and assistant of Eliot, was careful to distinguish the Nipmuc, Wabquasset, Quaboag and Nashaway tribes. The tribe uses several acres held in Webster, Massachusetts and across the border in Thompson, Hassanamisco Nipmuc or Grafton Indians Descendants of the Praying town of Hassanamessit which is now located in Grafton, Massachusetts. The Cisco family maintained their four acres from the final Hassamessit land sales, Natick Massachusett or Natick Nipmuc The descendants of the Praying town of Natick, Massachusetts do not retain any of their original lands. The Natick are primarily descended from the Massachusett as well as Nipmuc ancestry, Connecticut Nipmuc Descendants of various Nipmuc that survived or re-located to Connecticut. The Nipmuc of Connecticut, unlike in Massachusetts, are not recognized by their state, Governor Michael Dukakis issued Executive Order #106 which proclaimed that State agencies shall deal directly with. Nipmuc. on matters affecting the Nipmuc Tribe as well as calling for the creation of a state Commission on Indian Affairs. The state also calls for the examination of all remains and to notify the Commission. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts also cited the continuity of the Nipmuc with the tribe and commended tribal efforts to preserve their culture. The state also symbolically repealed the General Court Act of 1675 that banned Native Americans from the City of Boston during King Philips War, the tribe also works closely with the state to undergo various archaeological excavations and preservation campaigns. The Nipmuc, represented by just the Hassanamisco, were added to the Federal Register as Petitioner #69, members of the Chaubunagungamaug joined the efforts. By 11 July 1995, the Nipmuc were placed on active consideration, palaeo-Indians entered the region from the south-west during the retreat of the Wisconsin Glacier sometime around 9000 BC. Evidence includes various tools that have been uncovered at the Bull Run site in Ipswich. These early peoples hunted the tundra environment, probably in search of caribou, there was a great shift to more permanent hunting camps and expansion of tool making abilities
Nipmuc
–
Congressman John Olver meets with a Nipmuc woman during the tribe's bid for federal recognition.
Nipmuc
Nipmuc
–
Examples of Indian baskets at the Danforth Museum in
Framingham, Massachusetts.
Nipmuc
–
Monument to
John Eliot in South
Natick, site of the first
Praying town in Massachusetts.
6.
Niantic (tribe)
–
Due to intrusions of the Pequot, the Niantic were divided into an eastern and western division. The Western Niantic were subject to the Pequot and lived just east of the mouth of the Connecticut River while the Eastern Niantic became very close allies to the Narragansett. The Niantic were an Algonquian speaking people, speaking an Algonquian Y-dialect, similar to their neighbours the Pequot, Montauk, Mohegan, the Nehântics spent their summers fishing and digging the shellfish which were once abundant there and for which the area is famous. They lived on corn, beans, and squash, supplemented by hunting, fishing, as the violence became more widespread it evolved into the Pequot War in 1637. This conflict resulted in almost total destruction of the Western Niantic, whose roughly 100 remaining members merged into the Mohegans, there are members of these tribes who can trace their ancestry back to Nehântick members, especially in the vicinity of Lyme, Connecticut. Some of the Niantic who joined the Mohegan and Pequot fled west, by 1870, the Nehantics were declared extinct by the state and their 300-acre reservation, the Black Point peninsula of East Lyme, was sold. In 1886, their ground was sold and desecrated. As recently as 1988, Nehantic skeletal remains were uncovered by new construction, the East Lyme Public Library has some information, mainly as small booklets that were researched and written by local historians and that reference Mercy Matthews and many other Nehantic Indians. Ninigret, a Niantic sachem List of early settlers of Rhode Island
Niantic (tribe)
–
Niantic tribe
7.
Patuxet tribe
–
The Patuxet were a Native American band of the Wampanoag tribal confederation. They lived primarily in and around modern-day Plymouth, Massachusetts, the Patuxet have been extinct since 1622. The Patuxet were wiped out by a series of plagues that decimated the indigenous peoples of southeastern New England in the decade of the 17th century. When the Pilgrims landed in 1620, all the Patuxet except Squanto had died, the plagues have been attributed variously to smallpox, leptospirosis, and other diseases. Some European expedition captains were known to increase profits by capturing natives to sell as slaves, such was the case when Thomas Hunt kidnapped several Wampanoag in 1614 in order to sell them later in Spain. One of his captives, a Patuxet named Tisquantum, anglicized as Squanto, was purchased by Spanish friars, they freed him, after he gained his freedom, Squanto was able to work his way to England where he lived for several years, working with a shipbuilder. He signed on as an interpreter for a British expedition to Newfoundland, from there Squanto went back to his home, only to discover that, in his absence, epidemics had killed everyone in his village. Squanto succumbed to Indian fever in November 1622, with his death, the Patuxet people passed into history. Squanto was instrumental in the survival of the colony of English settlers at Plymouth, Samoset, a Pemaquid sachem from Maine, introduced himself to the Pilgrims upon their arrival in 1620. Shortly thereafter, he introduced Squanto to the Pilgrims, who had settled at the site of Squantos former village, from that point onward, Squanto devoted himself to helping the Pilgrims. Although Samoset appears to have been important in establishing relations with the Pilgrims. In addition, he served as an intermediary between the Pilgrims and Massasoit, the Grand Sachem of the Wampanoag. As such, he was instrumental in the treaty that the two signed, allowing the settlers to occupy the area around the former Patuxet village. Massasoit honored this treaty until his death in 1661, in the fall of 1621, the Plymouth colonists and Wampanoag shared an autumn harvest feast. This three-day celebration involving the village and about 90 Wampanoag has been celebrated as a symbol of cooperation and interaction between English colonists and Native Americans. The event later inspired 19th century Americans to establish Thanksgiving as a holiday in the United States. The harvest celebration took place at the site of the Patuxet villages. Squantos involvement as an intermediary in negotiating the treaty with Massasoit led to the joint feast between the Pilgrims and Wampanoag
Patuxet tribe
–
Historic area of the Patuxet tribe
8.
Pequot
–
Pequot people are a tribe of Native Americans who inhabited much of what is now Connecticut in the 17th century. They were of the Algonquian language family, originally named Mohegans and they adopted the name Pequot after conquering most of Connecticut, although the Mohegan tribe also continued in the area now known as Norwich, Connecticut. The Pequot War and Mystic massacre reduced the Pequots presence in southern New England, the Mashantucket Pequot Tribe of Connecticut are a federally recognized tribe as of 1983, the descendants of the historic Pequots. The Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation gained federal recognition in June 2002, the Department of the Interior revoked the recognition in 2005, as they also did that year in the case of the Schaghticoke Tribal Nation of Connecticut. These were the first instances since the 1970s that the BIA had terminated federal recognition, Pequot is an Algonquian word, the meaning of which is in dispute among language specialists. Considerable scholarship pertaining to the Pequot claims that the name came from Pequttôog and this relies on speculations of an early twentieth century authority on Algonquian languages. However, Frank Speck had doubts, a leading early 20th century specialist of Pequot-Mohegan and he believed that another term meaning the shallowness of a body of water seemed much more plausible, given their territory along the coast of Long Island Sound. Historians have debated whether the Pequot migrated about 1500 from the upper Hudson River Valley toward what is now central and eastern Connecticut. They occupied the area between the Niantic tribe of the Niantic River of present-day Connecticut and the Wecapaug River. The Pequot numbered some 16,000 persons in the most densely inhabited portion of southern New England. The smallpox epidemic of 1616-19 killed many of the Native inhabitants of the eastern coast of present-day New England, but it failed to reach the Pequot, Niantic, in 1633, the Dutch established a trading post called the House of Good Hope at present-day Hartford. The Dutch seized and executed the principal Pequot sachem Tatobem because of a violation of an agreement, after the Pequot paid the Dutch a large ransom, they returned Tatobems body. In 1633, an epidemic devastated all of the regions Native population, historians estimate that the Pequot suffered the loss of 80% of their population. At the outbreak of the Pequot War, Pequot survivors may have numbered only about 3,000, in 1636, long-standing tensions between the Puritan English of Connecticut and Massachusetts Bay colonies and the Pequot escalated into open warfare. There was much confusion on both sides and, when the tribe killed an Englishman thinking he was Dutch, war was soon upon them, the Mohegan and the Narragansett sided with the English. Perhaps 1,500 Pequot were killed in battles or hunted down, others were captured and distributed as slaves or household servants. A few escaped to be absorbed by the Mohawk or the Niantic on Long Island, eventually, some returned to their traditional lands, where family groups of friendly Pequots had stayed. Of those enslaved, most were awarded to the allied tribes, the Mohegan in particular treated their Pequot captives so severely that colonial officials of Connecticut Colony eventually removed them
Pequot
–
Pequot Museum Exhibit showing Mashantucket Pequot warrior
Pequot
–
Cover of 1663 Bible translated into the Wampanoag language
9.
Algonquian languages
–
The Algonquian languages are a subfamily of Native American languages which includes most of the languages in the Algic language family. The term Algonquin has been suggested to derive from the Maliseet word elakómkwik, a number of Algonquian languages, like many of the Iroquoian languages of the hereditary enemies of the Algonquian peoples, have already become extinct. Speakers of Algonquian languages stretch from the east coast of North America to the Rocky Mountains, the proto-language from which all of the languages of the family descend, Proto-Algonquian, was spoken around 2,500 to 3,000 years ago. There is no consensus about where this language was spoken. This subfamily of around 30 languages is divided into three groups according to geography, Plains, Central, and Eastern Algonquian, only Eastern Algonquian constitutes a true genetic subgroup. The languages are listed below, following the classifications of Goddard, extinct languages are marked with †, and endangered languages are noted as such. For dialects and subdialects, consult the separate articles for each of the three divisions. Shinnecock Eastern Algonquian is a true genetic subgrouping, the Plains Algonquian and the Central Algonquian groups are not genetic groupings but rather areal groupings. However, these groups often do share linguistic features. Paul Proulx has argued that this view is incorrect. However, this scheme has failed to gain acceptance from other specialists in the Algonquian languages. Instead, the commonly accepted subgrouping scheme is that proposed by Ives Goddard, by this scenario, Blackfoot was the first language to branch off, which coincides well with its being the most divergent language of Algonquian. In west-to-east order, the subsequent branchings were, Arapaho-Gros Ventre, Cree-Montagnais, Menominee, and Cheyenne, then the core Great Lakes languages, and finally, Proto-Eastern Algonquian. Goddard also points out there is clear evidence for pre-historical contact between Eastern Algonquian and Cree-Montagnais, as well as between Cheyenne and Arapaho-Gros Ventre. There has long been especially extensive back-and-forth influence between Cree and Ojibwe and they share certain intriguing lexical and phonological innovations. But, this theory has not yet been fully fleshed out and is still considered conjectural, linguistic evidence is scarce and poorly recorded however, and it is unlikely that reliable evidence of a connection can be found. The Algonquian language family is known for its complex polysynthetic morphology, statements that take many words to say in English can be expressed with a single word. Ex, paehtāwāēwesew He is heard by higher powers or kāstāhikoyahk it frightens us and these languages have been extensively studied by Leonard Bloomfield, Ives Goddard, and others
Algonquian languages
–
Pre-contact distribution of Algonquian languages
10.
Native Americans in the United States
–
In the United States, Native Americans are people descended from the Pre-Columbian indigenous population of the land within the countrys modern boundaries. These peoples were composed of distinct tribes, bands, and ethnic groups. Most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, at the time of first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some of the Northeastern and Southwestern cultures in particular were matrilineal, the majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. Assimilation became a consistent policy through American administrations, during the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands and this resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears. As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains and these were complex nomadic cultures based on horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes, in 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress. Contemporary Native Americans have a relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes. The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial, by comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and these early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and they divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, see Archaeology of the Americas. The Clovis culture, a hunting culture, is primarily identified by use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, the Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B. P, other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians
Native Americans in the United States
–
Pushmataha
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States
–
Charles Eastman
Native Americans in the United States
–
Wilma Mankiller
11.
United States Supreme Court
–
The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
United States Supreme Court
–
Chief Justice Marshall
United States Supreme Court
–
Supreme Court of the United States
United States Supreme Court
–
The Roberts Court, October 2010 Back row (left to right):
Sonia Sotomayor,
Stephen G. Breyer,
Samuel A. Alito, and
Elena Kagan. Front row (left to right):
Clarence Thomas,
Antonin Scalia,
Chief Justice John Roberts,
Anthony Kennedy, and
Ruth Bader Ginsburg
United States Supreme Court
–
Roberts, John
John Roberts (
Chief Justice)
12.
Department of the Interior
–
The United States Department of the Interior is the United States federal executive department of the U. S. About 75% of federal land is managed by the department. The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior, the current Secretary is Ryan Zinke. The Inspector General position is vacant, with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General. Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the ministries of other nations. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily, the Department of the Interior has often been humorously called The Department of Everything Else because of its broad range of responsibilities. A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, the idea of a separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by Presidents from James Madison to James Polk. The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the new steam as the responsibilities of federal government grew. Polks Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, became a champion of creating the new department. In 1849, Walker stated in his report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be together in a new Department of the Interior. A bill authorizing its creation of the Department passed the House of Representatives on February 15,1849, the Department was established on March 3,1849, the eve of President Zachary Taylors inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the Department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill, the first Secretary of the Interior was Thomas Ewing. Many of the concerns the Department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other Departments. Other agencies became separate Departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture, however, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain the responsibilities of the Department of the Interior. As of mid-2004, the Department managed 507 million acres of surface land, energy projects on federally managed lands and offshore areas supply about 28% of the nations energy production. Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with Native Americans, the current acting Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin. Several cases have sought accounting of such funds from the departments of Interior, in addition, some Native American nations have sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US
Department of the Interior
–
Main Interior Building 1849 C Street
NW Washington, D.C., U.S. 38°53′37.11″N 77°2′33.33″W / 38.8936417°N 77.0425917°W / 38.8936417; -77.0425917
Department of the Interior
–
Seal of the U.S. Department of the Interior
Department of the Interior
–
The
hierarchy of the U.S. Department of the Interior.
13.
Carcieri v. Salazar
–
The Court ruled that the phrase of tribes now under Federal jurisdiction in the Indian Reorganization Act referred only to those tribes that were federally recognized when the act was passed. It ruled that the government could not take land into trust from the Narragansett or other tribes that were federally recognized and acquired land after 1934. The Narragansett tribe was recorded as having first contact by Europeans in 1524 at Narrangansett Bay, following King Philips War, when the English settlers attacked tribes across southern New England, the tribe absorbed several smaller tribes, such as the Niantic. In 1709 it came under the guardianship of the colony of Rhode Island, from 1880 to 1884, Rhode Island attempted to dissolve the tribe, selling off all but 2 acres of tribal land. The tribe resisted, requesting repeatedly to be dealt with as a tribe and it filed suit against the state in January 1975, accusing the state of mismanagement of its lands. Following this, the applied for federal recognition in 1979. At that time, its land was taken into trust by the government on the tribes behalf. In March 1998, the Bureau of Indian Affairs notified Rhode Island of its intent to take the 31-acre parcel into Federal Trust status, the state appealed this decision to the Interior Board of Indian Appeals, which ruled in favor of the tribe and the BIA. The state filed suit in U. S. District Court, with the governor of the state, Donald Carcieri, named as plaintiff, the District Court ruled in favor of the BIA and the tribe. Rhode Island appealed the District Court decision to the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, a three-judge panel heard the appeal and affirmed the summary judgment of the District Court. The state requested an en banc by the full court. On rehearing, the court affirmed the decision of the District Court. The state appealed to the Supreme Court, Justice Clarence Thomas delivered the opinion of the court, reversing the judgment of the First Circuit. Thomas determined that the authority of the BIA to take Indian land into a trust status hinged on the phrase now under Federal jurisdiction in 25 U. S. C. This holding excluded the Narrangansett tribe from transferring land to the BIA as trust lands, Justice Stephen Breyer issued a concurring opinion, joined by Justice David Souter. He argued that the majority opinion was correct, but due to the history of the bill. Breyer allowed that even if a tribe was not formally recognized in 1934, Justice Souter issued an opinion that concurred in part and dissented in part, joined by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Souter argued that the notion of under federal jurisdiction and being federally recognized were not one and the same, even if that is how the BIA and he would have remanded for a determination of the jurisdictional issue
Carcieri v. Salazar
–
Supreme Court of the United States
14.
Indian Reorganization Act
–
The Indian Reorganization Act of June 18,1934, or the Wheeler-Howard Act, was U. S. federal legislation that dealt with the status of Native Americans. It was the centerpiece of what has often called the Indian New Deal. The major goal was to reverse the traditional goal of assimilation of Indians into American society, the law did not apply to Hawaii, Alaska and Oklahoma was added under another law in 1936. The census counted 332,000 Indians in 1930 and 334,000 in 1940, including those on and off reservations in the 48 states. Total spending on Indians averaged $38 million a year in the late 1920s, dropping to an all time low of $23 million in 1933, and reaching $38 million in 1940. The IRA was the most significant initiative of John Collier, who was President Franklin D. Roosevelts Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs from 1933 to 1945 and he had long studied Indian issues and worked for change since the 1920s, particularly with the American Indian Defense Association. He believed that Indian traditional culture was superior to that of modern America and his proposals were considered highly controversial, as numerous powerful interests had profited from the sale and management of Native lands. Congress revised Colliers proposals and preserved oversight of tribes and reservations by the Bureau of Indian Affairs within the Department of Interior, the self-government provisions would automatically go into effect for a tribe unless a clear majority of the eligible Indians voted it down. When approved, a tribe would adopt a variation of the constitution drafted by BIA lawyers. Of the tribes that voted on the IRA,174 voted yes and 78 rejected it, before allotment, reservation territory was not owned in the usual European-American sense, but was reserved for the benefit of entire Indian tribes. The communal benefits were apportioned to members according to tribal law. Generally, Indians held the land in a communal fashion, non-Indians were not allowed to own land on reservations, a fact which limited the value of the land to the Indians. The process of allotment started with the General Allotment Act of 1887, by 1934, two thirds of Indian land had converted to traditional private ownership. Most of that had sold by Indian allottees, often because they had no means to pay local taxes on the lands. The IRA provided a mechanism for the recovery of land that had been sold—including land that had sold to tribal Indians. They would lose individual property under the law, John Collier was appointed Commissioner of the Indian Bureau in April 1933 by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. He had the support of his boss, Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes. The federal government held land in trust for many tribes, numerous claims cases had been presented to Congress because of failures in the governments management of such lands
Indian Reorganization Act
–
Colonial era
Indian Reorganization Act
–
Indian Reorganization Act
15.
Charlestown, Rhode Island
–
Charlestown is a town in Washington County, Rhode Island, United States. The population was 7,827 at the 2010 census, Charlestown is named after King Charles II, and was incorporated in 1738. The area was part of the town of Westerly. It was in divided and the part north of the Pawcatuck River became the town of Richmond in 1747. Since 1965 from Charlestown some sounding rockets were launched from 41°22′N 71°40′W, the biggest campaign took place on May 30,1965 in order to watch a solar eclipse. The town is bordered by Westerly on the west, Richmond on the north, and Hopkinton on the northwest, in 2011, Charlestown became the first municipality in the United States to pass a ban on any size or type of electricity-generating wind turbines. The sweeping prohibition applies to commercial as well as smaller residential turbines. This temporary measure was in order to draft a new ordinance providing for small turbines, as of the census of 2000, there were 7,859 people,3,178 households, and 2,278 families residing in the town. The population density was 213.3 people per square mile, there were 4,797 housing units at an average density of 130.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 26% White,0. 38% African American,1. 26% Native American,0. 61% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 53% from other races, and 0. 93% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 11% of the population,21. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the family size was 2.88. In the town, the population was out with 21. 8% under the age of 18,6. 3% from 18 to 24,29. 4% from 25 to 44,28. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 41 years, for every 100 females there were 98.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.5 males, the median income for a household in the town was $51,491, and the median income for a family was $56,866. Males had an income of $40,616 versus $29,474 for females. The per capita income for the town was $25,642, about 3. 0% of families and 5. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4. 7% of those under age 18 and 4. 7% of those age 65 or over. Students in Charleston are part of the Chariho Regional School District, the town government is directed by a 5-member town council that is headed by a council president
Charlestown, Rhode Island
–
Charlestown, Rhode Island
Charlestown, Rhode Island
–
Location of Charlestown in Washington County, Rhode Island
Charlestown, Rhode Island
16.
United States Census, 2000
–
This was the twenty-second federal census and was at the time the largest civilly administered peacetime effort in the United States. Approximately 16 percent of households received a form of the 2000 census. Full documentation on the 2000 census, including forms and a procedural history, is available from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Microdata from the 2000 census is available through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series. Aggregate data for small areas, together with electronic boundary files, personally identifiable information will be available in 2072. The U. S. resident population includes the number of people in the 50 states. The Bureau also enumerated the residents of the U. S. territory of Puerto Rico, its population was 3,808,610, the 2000 Census was the first time survey options for multiracial Americans were provided. S. Households had access to computers, 42% have Internet access, regionally, the South and West experienced the bulk of the nations population increase,14,790,890 and 10,411,850, respectively. This meant that the center of U. S. population moved to Phelps County. The Northeast grew by 2,785,149, the Midwest by 4,724,144, the results of the census are used to determine how many congressional districts each state is apportioned. Congress defines the formula, in accordance with Title 2 of the U. S. Code, each member of the House represents a population of about 647,000. The populations of the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico are excluded from the apportionment population because they do not have voting seats in the U. S, since the first census in 1790, the decennial count has been the basis for the United States representative form of government. Article I, Section II specifies that The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, in 1790, each member of the House represented about 34,000 residents. Since then, the House more than quadrupled in size, today, each member represents about 20 times as many constituents. This recommendation was followed by the Secretary of Commerce, after the census was tabulated, Utah challenged the results in two different ways. Utah was extremely close to gaining a fourth seat, falling 857 people short. The margin was later shortened to 80 people, after the government discovered that it overcounted the population of North Carolina by 2,673 residents. Utah claimed that individuals traveling abroad as religious missionaries should be counted as residents, almost half of all Mormon missionaries, more than 11,000 individuals, were from Utah, only 102 came from North Carolina
United States Census, 2000
–
U.S. Census Bureau Seal
17.
Westerly, Rhode Island
–
Westerly is a town on the southwestern shoreline of Washington County, Rhode Island, United States founded in 1669 by John Babcock. It is a beachfront community on the shore of the state. The population was 22,787 at the 2010 census, the town is part of the Norwich–New London, Connecticut New England city and town area. On the western border of Westerly flows the Pawcatuck River, once renowned for its own species of Westerly salmon, the river flows from some fifteen miles inland, emptying into Little Narragansett Bay. It also serves as the boundary between Westerly and Pawcatuck, Connecticut, along the coast of Westerly lie salt ponds which serve as shallow reeflike pools whose outer walls form the long, white beaches for which the town became renowned. From west to east, these ponds are called Maschaug Pond, Winnapaug Pond, the town also has the fresh water lake Chapmans Pond which is undergoing revitalization. A type of known as Westerly granite has long been quarried here. Westerly granite is ideal for statuary and has used in numerous government buildings of several states along the eastern seaboard. The Westerly area was known for its granite and stone-cutting industry, Westerly becomes a large tourist attraction during the summer months, during which the population nearly doubles. From east to west, well-known beaches include Weekapaug Beach, Westerly Town Beach, Misquamicut State Beach, East Beach, and Watch Hill Beach. Westerlys primary industries today are textiles and tourism, but the town was famous for its granite. Westerly was probably named for the settlements location respective to Rhode Islands geography, but there is also a possibility that the town got its name from the English village of Westerleigh, in the county of Gloucestershire. The English village was the home of one of Westerlys founding fathers Elder John Crandall, Elder John settled in Westerly in 1661, and the early history of Westerly contains many references to him and his sons. The lines were built in the 1890s and 1900s and ran until the 1920s, physician, American Revolution general, and Rhode Island Supreme Court justice Dr. Joshua Babcock was born in Westerly, as was Chief Justice and Governor of Rhode Island Samuel Ward. Due to its location, Westerly is vulnerable to tropical storms, Westerly was devastated in 1938,1944, and 1954 by several major hurricanes. In 2012, Superstorm Sandy left beaches along the Westerly shoreline devastated and nearly unrecognizable, Rhode Island Governor Lincoln Chafee stated that Misquamicut was our New Jersey, referring to the amount of damage that was received in the state of New Jersey. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 74.8 square miles. Westerly sits atop a moraine, a series of small hills of debris left behind by receding glaciers in the last Ice Age
Westerly, Rhode Island
–
Dixon House Square in downtown Westerly
Westerly, Rhode Island
–
Westerly Town Beach on Atlantic Ave. in Westerly.
Westerly, Rhode Island
–
Amtrak station in Westerly.
18.
Wampanoag
–
The Wampanoag /ˈwɑːmpənɔːɡ/, also called joto and also rendered Wôpanâak, is a Native American people in North America. They were a loose confederacy made up of several tribes, many Wampanoag people today are enrolled in two federally recognized tribes, the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe and the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head, or four state-recognized tribes in Massachusetts. Their population numbered in the due to the richness of the environment and their cultivation of corn, beans. Three thousand Wampanoag lived on Marthas Vineyard alone, from 1615 to 1619 the Wampanoag suffered an epidemic, long suspected to be smallpox. Early twenty-first century research has suggested that it was leptospirosis, a bacterial infection known as Weils syndrome or 7-day fever. It caused a fatality rate and nearly destroyed the society. Researchers say that the losses from the epidemic were so large that English colonists were more able to found their settlements in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in later years. More than 50 years later, the King Philips War of Indian allies against the English colonists resulted in the deaths of 40 percent of the surviving tribe, most of the male Wampanoag were sold into slavery in Bermuda or the West Indies. Many women and children were enslaved by colonists in New England, while the tribe largely disappeared from historical records from the late 18th century, its people and descendants persisted. The project is working on curriculum and teacher development. Wampanoag means Easterners or literally People of the Dawn, the word Wapanoos was first documented on Adriaen Blocks 1614 map, which was the earliest-known European representation of Wampanoag territory. Other interpretations include Wapenock, Massasoit and exonym Philips Indians, in 1616, John Smith erroneously referred to the entire Wampanoag confederacy as the Pakanoket, one of the tribes. Pokanoket was used in the earliest colonial records and reports, the Pokanoket tribal seat was located near present-day Bristol, Rhode Island. Traditionally Wampanoag people have been semi-sedentary, with seasonal movements between fixed sites in present-day southern New England, the men often traveled far north and south along the Eastern seaboard for seasonal fishing expeditions, and sometimes stayed in those distant locations for weeks and months at a time. The women cultivated varieties of the three sisters as the staples of their diet, supplemented by fish and game caught by the men. Each community had authority over a territory from which the people derived their livelihood through a seasonal round of fishing, planting, harvesting. Because southern New England was thickly populated by peoples, hunting grounds had strictly defined boundaries. The Wampanoag, like many indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands, have a system, in which women controlled property
Wampanoag
–
Block's map of his 1614 voyage, with the first appearance of the term "New Netherland"
Wampanoag
Wampanoag
–
Title page of first known Bible printed in what is now the United States, translated in the Massachusett language by
John Eliot
Wampanoag
–
Seal of Plymouth Colony
19.
Shinnecock Indian Nation
–
The Shinnecock Indian Nation is a federally recognized tribe of historically Algonquian-speaking Native Americans based at the eastern end of Long Island, New York. This tribe is headquartered in Suffolk County, on the southeastern shore, since the mid-19th century, the tribes landbase is the Shinnecock Reservation within the geographic boundaries of the Town of Southampton. They are descended from the historic Pequot and Narragansett peoples of southern New England, the Shinnecock were recognized by the United States government in October 2010 after a more than 30 year effort, which included suing the Department of Interior. The Acting Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Indian Affairs, George T. Skibine issued the final determination of the recognized status on June 13,2010. The first Secretary of the Interior to visit the Shinnecock Indian Reservation was Sally Jewell and she was joined by Kevin K. Washburn, the Assistant Secretary of Indian Affairs. One of the purposes of the visit was to highlight renewable energy initiatives, the Shinnecock Indian Reservation is a self-governing reservation. By 1859, the current borders of 800 acres were established, in 1972 the Shinnecock Native American Cultural Coalition was formed to establish a Native American arts and crafts program. Traditional dancing, beadwork, Native American crafts and music are studied, a group called The Youngblood Singers was formed. Dedicated to learning traditional Algonquian songs, chants, and drum rituals, they travel throughout the Northeast performing at powwows and it involves sharing knowledge of food, clothing, arts, crafts, dance, ceremonies, and language. The reservation has a museum, shellfish hatchery, education center, cultural and community center, playground, the reservation is three miles west of the village of Southampton, New York. In 1903, it had a population of 150, in 2012 the Shinnecock Nation numbered more than 1,400 people, with more than half residing on the reservation. Thunder Island Coffee Roasters is a Shinnecock-owned and operated business located on the reservation, the coffee is roasted by Ben Haile, the owner. His business ships whole bean and ground organically grown coffee throughout the United States, the Shinnecock were among the thirteen Indian bands loosely based on kinship on Long Island, who were named by their geographic locations, but the people were highly decentralized. The most common pattern of life on Long Island prior to the intervention of the Europeans was the autonomous village linked by kinship to its neighbors. They were related to and politically subject to, the Pequot and Narragansett, the Shinnecock are believed to have spoken a dialect of Mohegan-Pequot-Montauk, similar to their neighbors the Montaukett on Long Island. As is the case with many North Eastern tribes after the establishment of reservations and this caused a decline in the number of people who spoke the language, however the tribe is actively engaged in language renewal programs to secure the legacy of the language for future generations. The bands in the part of Long Island were Lenape, such as the Matinecock. Also part of the large Algonquian languages family, these Lenape spoke a Delaware-Munsee dialect and these shell beads have been found at Native American-inhabited sites as far west as the Rocky Mountains, showing their value in trade
Shinnecock Indian Nation
–
A group of Shinnecock people, 1884
Shinnecock Indian Nation
–
Cultural Center and Museum in
Southampton
20.
Roger Williams (theologian)
–
Williams was the 1638 founder of the First Baptist Church in America, also known as the First Baptist Church of Providence. He is best remembered as the originator of the principle of separation of church and his father James Williams was a merchant tailor in Smithfield, his mother was Alice Pemberton. At an early age, Williams had a conversion of which his father disapproved. As a teen, Williams was apprenticed under Sir Edward Coke, under Cokes patronage, Williams was educated at Charterhouse and also at Pembroke College, Cambridge. He seemed to have a gift for languages and early acquired familiarity with Latin, Hebrew, Greek, Dutch, years later, Williams tutored John Milton in Dutch in exchange for refresher lessons in Hebrew. Williams took holy orders in the Church of England in connection with his studies, after graduating from Cambridge, Williams became the chaplain to Puritan gentleman Sir William Masham. Williams married Mary Barnard on December 15,1629 at the Church of High Laver, Essex and they ultimately had six children, all born in America, Mary, Freeborn, Providence, Mercy, Daniel, and Joseph. Williams knew that Puritan leaders planned to migrate to the New World and he did not join the first wave, but he decided before the year ended that he could not remain in England under Archbishop William Lauds rigorous administration. Williams regarded the Church of England as corrupt and false, by the time that he and his wife boarded the Lyon in early December, however, Williams declined the position on grounds that it was an unseparated church. In addition, Williams asserted that civil magistrates must not punish any sort of breach of the first table, and these three principles became central to Williams subsequent career, separatism, freedom of religion, and separation of state and church. As a separatist, Williams considered the Church of England irredeemably corrupt and his search for the true church eventually carried him out of Congregationalism, the Baptists, and any visible church. From 1639 forward, Williams waited for Christ to send a new apostle to reestablish the church, years later in 1802, Thomas Jefferson used the wall of separation phrase in a letter to the Danbury Baptist Association, echoing Roger Williams. Meanwhile, the Salem church was more inclined to Separatism. When the leaders in Boston learned of this, they vigorously protested, as the summer of 1631 ended, Williams moved to Plymouth colony where he was welcomed, and informally assisted the minister there. He regularly preached and, according to Governor Bradford, his teachings were well approved, after a time, Williams decided that the Plymouth church was not sufficiently separated from the Church of England. Furthermore, his contact with Native Americans had caused him to doubt the validity of the colonial charters, Governor Bradford later wrote that Williams fell into some strange opinions which caused some controversy between the church and him. In December 1632, Williams wrote a tract that openly condemned the Kings charters. He even charged that King James had uttered a lie in claiming that he was the first Christian monarch to have discovered the land
Roger Williams (theologian)
–
Roger Williams statue by
Franklin Simmons
Roger Williams (theologian)
–
Roger Williams House (or "
The Witch House ") in
Salem c. 1910
Roger Williams (theologian)
–
Statue of Massasoit in Plymouth, overlooking the site of
Plymouth Rock.
Roger Williams (theologian)
–
Narragansett Indians receiving Roger Williams
21.
A Key Into the Language of America
–
The book is the first study of an Amerindian language in English. Author Roger Williams was a Puritan who was banished from Massachusetts and he believed that the king had no right to grant title to Indian lands without their permission. He interacted extensively with the Narragansett and Wampanoag tribes as a missionary, friend and he extolled many parts of Indian culture as superior to European culture, and he wrote a complementary poem at the end of each chapter within the book. According to J. Williams friend Gregory Dexter printed the book in London, England,16 Narragansett Grammar The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience
A Key Into the Language of America
–
front page to book
22.
Quahog
–
It is one of many unrelated edible bivalves that in the United States are frequently referred to simply as clams, as in the expression clam digging. Older literature sources may use the systematic name Venus mercenaria, this species is in the family Veneridae, the hard clam has many alternative common names. It is also known as the Northern quahog, round clam, in fish markets, there are specialist names for different sizes of this species of clam. The smallest legally harvestable clams are called countnecks, next size up are littlenecks, above that are the cherrystones, and the largest are called quahogs or chowder clams. The most distinctive of these names is quahog, the word comes from the Narragansett word poquauhock, which is similar in Wampanoag and some other Algonquian languages, it is first attested in North American English in 1794. New England tribes made valuable beads called wampum from the shells, especially those colored purple, today people living in coastal New England still use the Indian word for the clam as they have done for hundreds of years. In many areas where aquaculture is important, clam farmers have bred specialized versions of these clams with distinctions needed for them to be distinguished in the marketplace and these are known as the notata strain of quahogs, which occur naturally in low numbers wherever quahogs are found. For example, the species is an important member of the suspension-feeding, Rhode Island is situated right in the middle of quahog country and has supplied a quarter of the U. S. s total annual commercial quahog catch. The quahog is the official shellfish of the U. S. state of Rhode Island, the species has also been introduced and is farmed on the Pacific coast of North America and in Great Britain and continental Europe. It reproduces sexually by females and males shedding gametes into the water, quahog Parasite Unknown is a parasite that affects Mercenaria mercenaria. While little is known about the disease, research is currently under way in several laboratories and it was discovered along the coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts in 1995. Sometimes littlenecks are steamed and dipped in butter, though not as commonly as their soft-shelled clam cousin the steamer, littlenecks are often found in-the-shell in sauces, soups, stews, and clams casino, or substituted for European varieties such as the cockle in southern European seafood dishes. Historically, American Indians used the quahog as a component in wampum, the Narragansetts used the hard clam for food and ornaments. The term red tide refers to an accumulation of a produced by marine algae. Filter-feeding shellfish are affected, such as clams, oysters, the toxin affects the human central nervous system. Eating contaminated shellfish, raw or cooked, can be fatal, some other kinds of algal blooms make the seawater appear red, but red tide blooms do not always discolor the water, nor are they related to tides. Clams bought from a market should be safe, as harvesters are extremely careful about red tides. They close beds that are even remotely threatened and keep them closed for up to three or four weeks after they are clean of any red tide, Clam harvesters who violate the sanitary laws in New York face potential jail terms
Quahog
–
Hard clam or Quahog
Quahog
–
Left valve interior of Mercenaria mercenaria.
Quahog
–
An old quahog shell that has been
bored (producing
Entobia) and encrusted after the death of the clam
Quahog
–
Steamed Clams
23.
Moose
–
The moose or elk, Alces alces, is the largest extant species in the deer family. Moose are distinguished by the broad, flat antlers of the males, Moose typically inhabit boreal forests and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests of the Northern Hemisphere in temperate to subarctic climates. Hunting and other activities have caused a reduction in the size of the mooses range over time. Moose have been reintroduced to some of their former habitats, currently, most moose are found in Canada, Alaska, New England, Fennoscandia, Latvia, Estonia and Russia. Their diet consists of terrestrial and aquatic vegetation. The most common predators are the gray wolf along with bears. Unlike most other species, moose are solitary animals and do not form herds. Although generally slow-moving and sedentary, moose can become aggressive and move quickly if angered or startled and their mating season in the autumn features energetic fights between males competing for a female. Alces alces is called a moose in North American English, and that same word elk in North American English refers to a completely different species of deer, the Cervus canadensis, also called the wapiti. A mature male moose is called a bull, a female a cow. The word elk originated from Proto-Germanic languages, from which Old English evolved, the British English word elk has cognates in other Indo-European languages, for example elg in Danish/Norwegian, älg in Swedish, alnis in Latvian, Elch in German, and łoś in Polish. In the continental-European languages, these forms of the word elk almost always refer to the Alces alces, the word moose first entered English by 1606 and is borrowed from the Algonquian languages, and possibly involved forms from multiple languages mutually reinforcing one another. The term moose is a name of North American origin, the animal is known in British English as the elk. The moose became extinct in Britain during the Bronze Age, long before the Europeans discovery of America, the youngest bones were found in Scotland and are roughly 3900 years old. Dictionaries of the 18th century simply described elk as a deer that was as large as a horse, confusingly, the word elk is used in North America to refer to a different animal, Cervus canadensis, which is also called by the Algonkian indigenous name, wapiti. The British began colonizing America in the 17th century, and found two common species of deer for which they had no names, the wapiti appeared very similar to the red deer of Europe although it was much larger and was not red. The moose was a rather strange-looking deer to the colonists, the wapiti is very similar to the red deer of central and western Europe, although it is distinctly different behaviorally and genetically. Early European explorers in North America, particularly in Virginia where there were no moose, called the wapiti elk because of its size, the moose resembled the German elk, which was less familiar to the British colonists
Moose
–
Moose
Moose
Moose
–
Bull and cow moose
Moose
–
Cow moose
24.
Powwow
–
PowWow is a wireless sensor network mote developed by the Cairn team of IRISA/INRIA. The platform is based on IEEE802.15.4 standard radio transceiver. This board provides dynamic scaling and hardware acceleration to increase the energy efficiency of the network. Supply voltages 0 to 1. 65V Power consumption,2.2 uW,16 uW,1 to 30 mW in sleep, freeze and this protocol consists in cycled rendez-vous initiated by a wake-up beacon from potential receivers. Thanks to this method, nodes are sleeping most of the time, multi-hop routing Geographical routing PowWow uses a simple geographical routing protocol. The software is based on the library of Contiki, which provides a sequential control flow without complex state machines or full multi-threading. PowWow V1 includes the motherboard, the board and the software. A first prototype of the board is currently available but not yet distributed. PowWow is delivered as an open hardware and open source software under the GPL license
Powwow
–
PowWow hardware platform
25.
Squash (fruit)
–
Cucurbita is a genus of herbaceous vines in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae, also known as cucurbits, native to the Andes and Mesoamerica. Five species are grown worldwide for their fruit, variously known as squash, pumpkin, or gourd depending on species, variety, and local parlance. Other kinds of gourd, also called bottle-gourds, are native to Africa and belong to the genus Lagenaria and these other gourds are used as utensils or vessels, and their young fruits are eaten much like those of Cucurbita species. Most Cucurbita species are vines that grow several meters in length and have tendrils. The yellow or orange flowers on a Cucurbita plant are of two types, female and male, the female flowers produce the fruit and the male flowers produce pollen. Many North and Central American species are visited by specialist bee pollinators, the fruits of the genus Cucurbita are good sources of nutrients, such as vitamin A and vitamin C, among other nutrients according to species. The plants also contain phytochemicals, such as cucurbitin, cucurmosin. There is debate about the taxonomy of the genus, as the number of accepted species varies from 13 to 30, the five domesticated species are Cucurbita argyrosperma, C. ficifolia, C. maxima, C. moschata, and C. pepo. All of these can be treated as winter squash because the fruits can be stored for months, however. Cucurbita fruits have played a role in culture for at least 2,000 years. They are often represented in Moche ceramics from Peru, after Christopher Columbuss arrival in the New World, paintings of squashes started to appear in Europe early in the sixteenth century. The fruits have culinary uses including pumpkin pie, biscuits, bread, desserts, puddings, beverages. Pumpkins and other Cucurbita fruits are celebrated in festivals and in flower, Cucurbita species fall into two main groups. The first group are annual or short-lived perennial vines and are mesophytic, the second group are perennials growing in arid zones and so are xerophytic, tolerating dry conditions. Cultivated Cucurbita species were derived from the first group, growing 5 to 15 meters in height or length, the plant stem produces tendrils to help it climb adjacent plants and structures or extend along the ground. Most species do not readily root from the nodes, an exception is C. ficifolia. The vine of the perennial Cucurbita can become semiwoody if left to grow, there is wide variation in size, shape, and color among Cucurbita fruits, and even within a single species. C. ficifolia is an exception, being uniform in appearance
Squash (fruit)
–
Cucurbita
Squash (fruit)
–
C. pepo pumpkins – two bright orange ones in center right, and squashes C. maxima – all others
Squash (fruit)
–
The leaves of
Cucurbita moschata often have white spots near the veins.
Squash (fruit)
–
An assortment of fruits of C. maxima and C. pepo
26.
Succotash
–
Succotash is a food dish consisting primarily of sweet corn with lima beans or other shell beans. Other ingredients may be added including tomatoes, green or sweet red peppers, combining a grain with a legume provides a dish that is high in all essential amino acids. Because of the inexpensive and more readily available ingredients, the dish was popular during the Great Depression in the United States. It was sometimes cooked in a form, often with a light pie crust on top as in a traditional pot pie. Succotash is a dish of many Thanksgiving celebrations in New England as well as in Pennsylvania. In some parts of the American South, any mixture of vegetables prepared with lima beans, corn, American beans, tomatoes, and peppers are New World foods. Sufferin succotash is a used by several Looney Tunes cartoon characters. My supper dish, my wish is a line from the 1990 dance record Groove Is in the Heart recorded by Deee-Lite. Make a wish, make a wish is a line from the 2001 rock album Anthology by Alien Ant Farm. This song was the bands first song written and performed. A Key into the Language of America List of legume dishes List of maize dishes List of regional dishes of the United States Harper Fussell, Betty
Succotash
–
Loose kernels of
sweet corn
Succotash
–
A succotash prepared with kidney beans.
27.
Narragansett Bay
–
Narragansett Bay is a bay and estuary on the north side of Rhode Island Sound covering 147 mi2,120.5 mi2 in Rhode Island. The Bay forms New Englands largest estuary, which functions as a natural harbor. Small parts of it extend into Massachusetts, there are more than 30 islands in the Bay, the three largest ones are Aquidneck Island, Conanicut Island, and Prudence Island. Bodies of water that are part of Narragansett Bay include the Sakonnet River, Mount Hope Bay, the bay opens on Rhode Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean, Block Island lies less than 20 miles southwest of its opening. Narragansett Bay can be seen in NOAA chart 13221 Providence, the Rhode Island state capital and largest city, many of Providences suburbs, including Warwick and Cranston, are also on the bay. The city of Fall River, Massachusetts is located at the confluence of the Taunton River and Mount Hope Bay, the southwest side of the bay include the seaside tourist towns of Narragansett and Wickford. Quonset Point, south of Warwick, gives its name to the Quonset hut, Roger Williams University is located in Bristol, Rhode Island on land overlooking the Bay. Narragansett Bay comprises an area of about 4836 square kilometers, the Blackstone and Taunton provide the highest volume of mean, annual freshwater flow into the watershed. River water inflow has a seasonal variability, with the highest flow in the spring, the bay is a drowned river valley estuary which is composed of three ancient river valleys, the Sakonnet River, the East Passage and the West Passage. The bathymetry varies greatly between the three passages, with the depths of the East, West and Sakonnet River passages being 37 m,10 m and 7.5 m respectively. The present shape of Narragansett Bay is instead the result of the most recent glaciation of New England, under the edges of the Laurentide ice sheet at the Last Glacial Maximum, about 18,000 B. P. Sea level was lowered so much that the shelf was exposed, under its weight of ice. Glaciers flowing through an old sedimentary basin carved channels through the younger sediments. As the ice stalled, then retreated, the region became ice-free by about 14,000 B. P, a complicated sequence of marine ingression and isostatic rebound flooded and emptied the landscape. Then salt water filled the valley, as rising sea levels flooded the area. Tides in the watershed are measured at 6 stations, Providence, Fall River, Quonset Point, Conimicut Light, Prudence Island, tides are measured with pressure-sensing tide gauges. In shallow water, sound waves are used to measure water height by measuring the travel time of the waves. In deeper water, tides are measured with pressure-sensing tide gauges that are placed on the floor to measure water height
Narragansett Bay
–
Narragansett Bay, boxed in red, in relation to
Rhode Island
Narragansett Bay
–
Providence, at the head of the Narragansett Bay
Narragansett Bay
–
Fall River, at the Northeast part of the Bay
Narragansett Bay
–
In the bay, off the coast of Newport, Rhode Island,
Rose island allegedly attributes its name to the rose shape the landmass exhibits during the region's low tides.
28.
Connecticut
–
Connecticut is the southernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Connecticut is also often grouped along with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-State Area and it is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capital city is Hartford, and its most populous city is Bridgeport, the state is named for the Connecticut River, a major U. S. river that approximately bisects the state. The word Connecticut is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for long tidal river, Connecticut is the third smallest state by area, the 29th most populous, and the fourth most densely populated of the 50 United States. It is known as the Constitution State, the Nutmeg State, the Provisions State, and it was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States. Connecticuts center of population is in Cheshire, New Haven County, Connecticuts first European settlers were Dutch. They established a small, short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park, initially, half of Connecticut was a part of the Dutch colony New Netherland, which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers. The first major settlements were established in the 1630s by England, the Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in North America. In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a charter, making Connecticut a crown colony. This colony was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, the Connecticut River, Thames River, and ports along the Long Island Sound have given Connecticut a strong maritime tradition which continues today. The state also has a history of hosting the financial services industry, including insurance companies in Hartford. As of the 2010 Census, Connecticut features the highest per-capita income, Human Development Index, and median household income in the United States. Landmarks and Cities of Connecticut Connecticut is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New York, on the north by Massachusetts, and on the east by Rhode Island. The state capital and third largest city is Hartford, and other cities and towns include Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, Danbury, New Britain, Greenwich. Connecticut is slightly larger than the country of Montenegro, there are 169 incorporated towns in Connecticut. The highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state, the highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet, on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts. At the opposite extreme, many of the towns have areas that are less than 20 feet above sea level. Connecticut has a maritime history and a reputation based on that history—yet the state has no direct oceanfront
Connecticut
–
Bear Mountain, highest peak in Connecticut
Connecticut
–
Flag
Connecticut
–
Lake Mcdonough reservoir as seen from the Tunxis Trail Overlook Spur trail, Barkhamsted
Connecticut
–
New Haven
29.
Massachusetts
–
It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
Massachusetts
–
A portion of the north-central
Pioneer Valley in
Sunderland
Massachusetts
–
Flag
Massachusetts
–
Many coastal areas in Massachusetts provide breeding areas for species such as the
piping plover
Massachusetts
–
The
Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by
William Halsall (1882). The
Pilgrims were a group of
Puritans who founded
Plymouth in 1620.
