1.
Chola dynasty
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The Chola dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE left by Ashoka, as one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century CE. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more, the Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian sea power. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka, Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded cities of Srivijaya of Malaysia and Indonesia, the Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan Dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall. The Cholas left a lasting legacy and their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship and they pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. The Chola school of art spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture, the Cholas are also known as the Choda. There is very little available in regarding their origin. Its antiquity is evident from the mentions in ancient Tamil literature, Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage. Mentions in the early Sangam literature indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE, Cholas were mentioned in Ashokan Edicts of 3rd Century BCE as one of the neighboring countries existing in the South. A commonly held view is that Chola is, like Chera and Pandya, the annotator Parimelazhagar said, The charity of people with ancient lineage are forever generous in spite of their reduced means. Other names in use for the Cholas are Killi, Valavan and Sembiyan. Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil meaning dig or cleave and this word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with valam – fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country, in Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country. There is very little evidence available of the Cholas prior to the 7th century. Historic records exist thereafter, including inscriptions on temples, the main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period
2.
Shiva
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Shiva is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme God within Shaivism, one of the three most influential denominations in contemporary Hinduism, Shiva is the transformer within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu. In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects, in the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power of each and he is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. At the highest level, Shiva is regarded as formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman, Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives a life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with wife Parvati. In his fierce aspects, he is depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the god of yoga, meditation. Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of Lingam. Shiva is a deity, revered widely by Hindus, in India, Nepal. The Sanskrit word Śiva means, states Monier Williams, auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, the roots of Śiva in folk etymology is śī which means in whom all things lie, pervasiveness and va which means embodiment of grace. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv-, which means to injure or to kill, interprets the name to connote one who can kill the forces of darkness. The Sanskrit word śaiva means relating to the god Shiva, and it is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning red, noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun, the Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings, The Pure One, and the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti. Shiva is known by names such Viswanathan, Mahadeva, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra, Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha. The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva, Maheśvara, Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama, the version appearing in Book 13 of the Mahabharata provides one such list
3.
Los Angeles County Museum of Art
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The Los Angeles County Museum of Art is an art museum located on Wilshire Boulevard in the Miracle Mile vicinity of Los Angeles. LACMA is on Museum Row, adjacent to the La Brea Tar Pits, LACMA is the largest art museum in the western United States. It attracts nearly a million visitors annually and it holds more than 150,000 works spanning the history of art from ancient times to the present. In addition to art exhibits, the museum features film and concert series, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art was established as a museum in 1961. Prior to this, LACMA was part of the Los Angeles Museum of History, Science and Art, howard F. Ahmanson, Sr. Anna Bing Arnold and Bart Lytton were the first principal patrons of the museum. Ahmanson made the donation of $2 million, convincing the museum board that sufficient funds could be raised to establish the new museum. In 1965 the museum moved to a new Wilshire Boulevard complex as an independent, art-focused institution, the largest new museum to be built in the United States after the National Gallery of Art. The museum, built in a similar to Lincoln Center. The board selected LA architect William Pereira over the recommendation of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe for the buildings. According to a 1965 Los Angeles Times story, the total cost of the three buildings was $11.5 million, at the time, the Los Angeles Music Center and LACMA were concurrent large civic projects which vied for attention and donors in Los Angeles. When the museum opened, the buildings were surrounded by reflecting pools, in the far-reaching expansion, museum-goers henceforth entered through the new partially roofed central court, nearly an acre of space bounded by the museums four buildings. The museums Pavilion for Japanese Art, designed by maverick architect Bruce Goff, opened in 1988, gerald Cantor Sculpture Garden of Rodin bronzes. In 1999, the Hancock Park Improvement Project was complete, kohlhaas edged out French architect Jean Nouvel, who would have added a major building while renovating the older facilities. The list of candidates had narrowed to five in May 2001, Koolhaas, Nouvel, Steven Holl, Daniel Libeskind. However, the project stalled after the museum failed to secure funding. In 2004 LACMAs Board of Trustees unanimously approved plans to transform the museum, the planned transformation consisted of three phases. Phase I started in 2004 and was completed in February 2008, the renovations required demolishing the parking structure on Ogden Avenue and with it LACMA-commissioned graffiti art by street artists Margaret Kilgallen and Barry McGee. The entry pavilion is a key point in architect Renzo Pianos plan to unify LACMAs sprawling, the BP Grand Entrance and the adjacent Broad Contemporary Art Museum comprise the $191 million first phase of the three-part expansion and renovation campaign
4.
Hindu iconography
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The exact significance accorded to any of the icons varies with region, period and denomination of the followers. Over time some of the symbols, for instance the Swastika has come to have wider association while others like Aum are recognized as unique representations of Hinduism. Other aspects of Hindu iconography are covered by the terms murti, for icons and mudra for gestures and positions of the hands, Hindu sacraments are physical objects or markings that are considered sacred and used as a sign of devotion by the followers of Sanathana dharma. These are often associated with a puja or religious ceremony. The tilaka is a mark worn on the forehead or other parts of the body as a sign of spiritual devotion, Hindus may wear a tilaka regularly or especially on religious occasions. The shape of the tilaka is often an indicator of devotion to a certain deity, for example, a U shape tilaka usually denotes devotion to Vishnu, while Shiva devotees often wear it in the form of three horizontal lines. It may be made of saffron, vermilion, turmeric, clay or simply ash, to denote marriage and auspiciousness, married Hindu women commonly wear a decorative vermilion dot or bindu, or bindī on the forehead. This is analogous to a ring worn in western countries. In southern India, the mark is called pottu, in east India, especially in West Bengal, traditionally larger bindis are worn as mark of devotion towards Goddess Durga. Vibhuti is the ash obtained from sacred puja rites involving fire. Also a variant called Basma used as Vibhuti is prepared from the ashes of cow dung. Ash as the product of fire is considered intrinsically pure and it is used on the forehead, normally as three horizontal lines representing Shiva. Some Hindus meld both the three horizontal lines of Shiva and the U shape thilaka of Vishnu in an amalgam marker signifying Hari-Hara. In addition, sacred ash signifies that the origin is from dust and ash and to dust. The ash is a marker of impermanence, everything in the interim is but an illusion. Rudraksha are seeds of the tree that, in Hinduism. They are often threaded into a necklace and used as a rosary to accompany prayer and it is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Vedic mantras and prayers. Aum is often said to represent God in the three aspects of Brahman, Vishnu and Shiva, as the Divine primordial vibration, it represents the one ultimate reality, underlying and encompassing all of nature and all of existence
5.
Agni
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Agni means fire, and connotes the Vedic fire god of Hinduism. Agni also refers to one of the deities of direction. In the Vedic literature, Agni is a major and oft invoked god along with Indra, Agni is considered as the mouth of the gods and goddesses, and the medium that conveys offerings to them in a homa. He is conceptualized in ancient Hindu texts to exist at three levels, on earth as fire, in atmosphere as lightning, and in the sky as sun and this triple presence connects him as the messenger between gods and human beings in the Vedic thought. Agni is a term that appears extensively in Buddhist texts, the Sanskrit word Agni means fire. In the early Vedic literature, Agni primarily connotes the fire as a god, one reflecting the primordial powers to consume, transform and convey. In the Brahmanas layer of the Vedas, such as in section 5.2.3 of Shatapatha Brahmana, Agni represents all the gods, the etymology of Agni is uncertain and contested. According to the 5th-century BCE Sanskrit text Nirukta-Nighantu in section 7, from root aj, which in Sanskrit means to drive and mirrors in Indo-European languages in the sense of nimble, agile. There are many theories about the origins of the god Agni, some tracing it to Indo-European mythologies, the origin myth found in many Indo-European cultures is one of a bird, or bird like being, that carries or brings fire from the gods to mankind. Alternatively, this brings a elixir of immortality from heaven to earth. In either case, the bird returns everyday with sacrificial offerings for the gods, Agni is molded in similar mythical themes, in some hymns with the phrase the heavenly bird that flies. Agni originated from the forehead of Prajapati, assert these texts, with the creation of Agni came light, and with that were created day and night. Agni, state these Samhitas, is the same as the Brahman, the truth, Agni is originally conceptualized as the ultimate source of the creator-maintainer-destroyer triad, then one of the trinities, as the one who ruled the earth. His twin brother Indra ruled the atmosphere as the god of storm, rain and war, while Surya ruled the sky and his position and importance evolves over time, in the creator-maintainer-destroyer aspects of existence in Hindu thought. In the Vedic pantheon, Agni occupies, after Indra, the most important position, Agni is prominent in the hymns of the Vedas and particularly the Brahmanas. In the Rig Veda there are over 200 hymns that praise Agni and his name or synonyms appear in nearly a third of 1,028 hymns in the Rigveda. The Rigveda opens with a hymn inviting Agni, who is addressed later in the hymn as the guardian of Ṛta. The Vedas describe the parents of Agni as two kindling fire sticks, whose loving action creates him, just born, he is poetically presented as a tender baby, who needs loving attention lest he vanishes
6.
Hindu texts
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Hindu texts are manuscripts and historic literature related to any of the diverse traditions within Hinduism. A few texts are shared resources across these traditions and broadly considered as Hindu scriptures and these include the Vedas and the Upanishads. There are two classifications of Hindu texts, Shruti – that which is heard, and Smriti – that which is remembered. The Śruti refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts, without any author and it includes the four Vedas including its four types of embedded texts - the Samhitas, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the early Upanishads. The Smriti texts are a body of Hindu texts attributed to an author. Many ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit, many others in regional Indian languages, in modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in Western languages. This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, the Vedas are a large body of Hindu texts originating in ancient India, before about 300 BCE. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. The Upanishads are a collection of Hindu texts which contain some of the philosophical concepts of Hinduism. The Upanishads are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to either the last chapters, parts of the Veda or the object. The concepts of Brahman and Ātman are central ideas in all the Upanishads, the Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions. Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are known. More than 200 Upanishads are known, of which the first dozen or so are the oldest and most important and are referred to as the principal or main Upanishads. The mukhya Upanishads are found mostly in the part of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas and were, for centuries, memorized by each generation. The early Upanishads all predate the Common Era, some in all likelihood pre-Buddhist, of the remainder, some 95 Upanishads are part of the Muktika canon, composed from about the start of common era through medieval Hinduism
7.
Shaivism
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Shaivism is one of the major traditions within Hinduism that reveres Shiva as the Supreme Being or its metaphysical concept of Brahman. The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Saivas, like much of Hinduism, the Shaiva have many sub-traditions, ranging from devotional dualistic theism such as Shaiva Siddhanta to yoga-oriented monistic non-theism such as Kashmiri Shaivism. It considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology, Shaivism has ancient roots, traceable in the Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE, but this is in the form of the Vedic deity Rudra. In the early centuries of the era is the first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism. Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE and it arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with Buddhism in these regions. In the contemporary era, Shaivism is one of the aspects of Hinduism. Shaivism theology ranges from Shiva being the creator, preserver, destroyer to being the same as the Atman within oneself and it is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, Shaivism is one of the largest traditions within Hinduism. Shiva literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious, as a proper name, it means The Auspicious One. The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda, as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, the term Shiva also connotes liberation, final emancipation and the auspicious one, this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics, the Sanskrit word śaiva or Shaiva means relating to the god Shiva, while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism. The reverence for Shiva is one of the traditions, found widely across India, Sri Lanka. While Shiva is revered broadly, Hinduism itself is a complex religion, Shaivism is a major tradition within Hinduism, with a theology that is predominantly related to the Hindu god Shiva. Shaivism has many different sub-traditions with regional variations and differences in philosophy, Shaivism has a vast literature with different philosophical schools, ranging from nondualism, dualism, and mixed schools. The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars, some trace the origins to the Indus Valley civilization, which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE. Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that appears like Shiva. Of these is the Pashupati seal, which scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals. This Pashupati seal has been interpreted by scholars as a prototype of Shiva
8.
Shakti
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In Hinduism, Shakti, also spelled as Sakthi, meaning power or empowerment is the primordial cosmic energy and represents the dynamic forces that are thought to move through the entire universe. Shakti is the concept or personification of divine feminine creative power, as the mother she is known as Adi Parashakti or Adishakti. On the earthly plane, Shakti most actively manifests through female embodiment and creativity/fertility, though it is present in males in its potential. Hindus believe that Shakti is both responsible for creation and the agent of all change, Shakti is cosmic existence as well as liberation, its most significant form being the Kundalini Shakti, a mysterious psychospiritual force. In Shaktism, Shakti is worshipped as the Supreme Being, Shakti embodies the active feminine energy of Shiva and is identified as Tripura Sundari or her avatar Parvati. David Kinsley mentions the shakti of Lord Indras as Sachi, meaning power, indrani is part of a group of seven or eight mother goddesses called the Matrikas, who are considered shaktis of major Hindu gods. The Shakti goddess is known as Amma in south India, especially in the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Telangana. There are many temples devoted to various incarnations of the Shakti goddess in most of the villages in South India. The rural people believe that Shakti is the protector of the village, the punisher of evil people, the curer of diseases, and they celebrate Shakti Jataras with great interest once a year. Some examples of incarnations are Ganga, Kamakshi, Kanakadurga, Mahalakshmi, Meenakshi, Manasa, Mariamman and it is believed that the cosmic grand design is theoretically a triangular structure of equal sides. The three points of the triangle or the structure of macrocosmic system are occupied by three ultimate manifestations of the trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra. This ultimate indestructible gravity known as Shakti in its three transformative form is connected to the trinity separately, Brahma, by the grace of her creative force creates. Rudra, by the strength of her destructive force destroys, Vishnu, by the unbiased intellectual force sustains. One of the oldest representations of the goddess in India is in a triangular form, the Baghor stone, found in a Paleolithic context in the Son River valley and dating to 9, 000-8,000 years BCE, is considered an early example of a yantra. Kenoyer, part of the team excavated the stone, considered that it was highly probable that the stone is associated with Shakti. Shaktism regards Devi as the Supreme Brahman itself with all forms of divinity considered to be merely Her diverse manifestations. In the details of its philosophy and practice, Shaktism resembles Shaivism, however, Shaktas, practitioners of Shaktism, focus most or all worship on Shakti, as the dynamic feminine aspect of the Supreme Divine. Shiva, the aspect of divinity, is considered solely transcendent
9.
Rudra
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Rudra is a Rigvedic deity, associated with wind or storm, and the hunt. The name has been translated as the roarer, in the Rigveda, Rudra has been praised as the mightiest of the mighty. The Shri Rudram hymn from the Yajurveda is dedicated to Rudra, usage of the epithet came to exceed the original theonym by the post-Vedic period, and the name Rudra has been taken as a synonym for the god Shiva and the two names are used interchangeably. The etymology of the theonym Rudra is somewhat uncertain and it is usually derived from the root rud- which means to cry, howl. According to this etymology, the name Rudra has been translated as the roarer. An alternative etymology suggested by Prof. Pischel derives Rudra as the red one, the brilliant one from a lost root rud-, to be red or to be ruddy or respectively, according to Grassman, to shine. Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means wild, i. e. of rudra nature, R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as the terrible in his glossary for the Shiva Sahasranama. The commentator Sāyaṇa suggests six possible derivations for rudra, however, another reference states that Sayana suggested ten derivations. The adjective shivam in the sense of propitious or kind is applied to the name Rudra in RV10.92.9, Rudra is called the archer and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra. This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages, the names Dhanvin and Bāṇahasta also refer to archery. In other contexts the word rudra can simply mean the number eleven, the word rudraksha, or eye of Rudra, is used as a name both for the berry of the Rudraksha tree, and a name for a string of the prayer beads made from those seeds. The earliest mentions of Rudra occur in the Rigveda, where three entire hymns are devoted to him, there are about seventy-five references to Rudra in the Rigveda overall. In the Rigveda Rudras role as a god is apparent in references to him as ghora. He is fierce like a wild beast. Chakravarti sums up the perception of Rudra by saying, Rudra is thus regarded with a kind of cringing fear, as a deity whose wrath is to be deprecated and whose favor curried. RV1.114 is an appeal to Rudra for mercy, where he is referred to as mighty Rudra, in RV7.46, Rudra is described as armed with a bow and fast-flying arrows. As quoted by R. G. Bhandarkar, the hymn says Rudra discharges brilliant shafts which run about the heaven and the earth, which may be a reference to lightning. Rudra was believed to cure diseases, and when people recovered from them or were free of them and he is asked not to afflict children with disease and to keep villages free of illness
10.
Dakshinamurthy
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Dakshinamurthy Sanskrit, दक्षिणामूर्ति is an aspect of the Hindu god Shiva as a guru of all types of knowledge. This aspect of Shiva is his personification as the supreme or the ultimate awareness, understanding and this form represents Shiva as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom, and giving exposition on the shastras. He is worshipped as the god of wisdom, complete and rewarding meditation, as per scriptures, if a person doesnt have a Guru, then they can consider and worship Lord Dakshinamurthy as their Guru. Eventually they will be blessed with a human Self-Realised Guru, if they are worthy, Dakshinamurti literally means one who is facing south in Sanskrit. South is the direction of Death, hence change, in every Siva temple the stone image of Dakshinamurthy is installed, facing south, on the southern circumambulatory path around the sanctum sanctorum. Perhaps, of all Hindu Gods, he is the one sitting facing south. The great seer Ramana Maharshi, has said in letter 89, one meaning of Dakshina is efficient, another meaning is ‘in the heart on the side of the body’. Dakshinamurthy Stotra in Sanskrit, means the Shapelessness situated on the right side and this iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly south Indian in character. In his aspect as Jnana Dakshinamurti, Shiva is generally shown with four arms and he is depicted seated under a banyan tree, facing the south. Shiva is seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction and he is shown as seated with his right foot on mythical apasmara and his left foot lies folded on his lap. Sometimes even the animals, are depicted to surround Shiva. The index finger of His right hand is bent and touching the tip of his thumb, the other three fingers are stretched apart. This symbolic hand gesture or Mudra is the Gnana Mudra, a symbol of knowledge, sometimes, this hand is in the Abhaya Mudra, a posture of assurance and blessing. In Melakadambur the Dakshinamurthy looks seated on a bull under a banyan tree, Dakshinamurthy is portrayed as being in the yogic state of abstract meditation - and as a powerful form brimming with ever flowing bliss and supreme joy. Variations of this representation include Veenadhara Dakshinamurthy, Rishabharooda Dakshinamurthy etc. Maharshi Kardamshankara Jnanadeva, a mystic seer says that Dakshinamurthy means the abstract or hidden power of the absolute which expressed in all enlightened masters, Indian tradition accords a special reverence to the Guru or the teacher. Dakshinamurthy, in the Hindu system of beliefs is regarded as the ultimate Guru - the embodiment of knowledge, the Jnana Mudra is interpreted in this way, - The thumb denotes the God and the index finger denotes the man. The other three fingers stand for the three congenital impurities of man viz. arrogance, illusion and bad deeds of the past births, when man detaches himself from these impurities, he reaches God
11.
Ardhanarishvara
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Ardhanarishvara is a composite androgynous form of the Hindu God Shiva and His consort Parvati. Ardhanarishvara is depicted as male and half female, split down the middle. The right half is usually the male Shiva, illustrating His traditional attributes, the earliest Ardhanarishvara images are dated to the Kushan period, starting from the first century CE. Its iconography evolved and was perfected in the Gupta era, the Puranas and various iconographic treatises write about the mythology and iconography of Ardhanarishvara. While Ardhanarishvara remains a popular form found in most Shiva temples throughout India. The union of these principles is exalted as the root and womb of all creation, another view is that Ardhanarishvara is a symbol of Shivas all-pervasive nature. The name Ardhanarishvara means the Lord Who is half woman, Ardhanarishvara is also known by other names like Ardhanaranari, Ardhanarisha, Ardhanarinateshvara, Parangada, Naranari, Ammiappan, and Ardhayuvatishvara. The Gupta-era writer Pushpadanta in his Mahimnastava refers to form as dehardhaghatana. Utpala, commenting on the Brihat Samhita, calls this form Ardha-gaurishvara, the Vishnudharmottara Purana simply calls this form Gaurishvara. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad says that Purusha splits himself into two parts, male and female, and the two halves copulate, producing all life – a theme concurrent in Ardhanarishvaras tales, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad sows the seed of the Puranic Ardhanarishvara. It declares Rudra – the antecedent of the Puranic Shiva – the maker of all and it hints at his androgynous nature, describing him both as male and female. The concept of Ardhanarishvara originated in Kushan and Greek cultures simultaneously, the iconography evolved in the Kushan era, a mid-first century Kushan era stela in the Mathura Museum has a half-male, half-female image, along with three other figures identified with Vishnu, Gaja Lakshmi and Kubera. The male half is ithyphallic or with an urdhvalinga and makes an abhaya mudra gesture and this is the earliest representation of Ardhanarishvara, universally recognized. An early Kushan Ardhanarishvara head discovered at Rajghat is displayed at the Mathura Museum, the right male half has matted hair with a skull and crescent moon, the left female half has well-combed hair decorated with flowers and wears a patra-kundala. The face has a third eye. A terracotta seal discovered in Vaishali has half-man, half-woman features, early Kushan images show Ardhanarishvara in a simple two-armed form, but later texts and sculptures depict a more complex iconography. Ardhanarishvara is referred to by the Greek author Stobaeus while quoting Bardasanes, a terracotta androgynous bust, excavated at Taxila and dated to the Saka-Parthian era, pictures a bearded man with female breasts. Ardhanarishvara is interpreted as an attempt to syncretise the two principal Hindu sects, Shaivism and Shaktism, dedicated to Shiva and the Great Goddess, a similar syncretic image is Harihara, a composite form of Shiva and Vishnu, the Supreme deity of the Vaishnava sect
12.
Bhairava
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Bhairava is a Hindu deity, a fierce manifestation of Shiva associated with annihilation. Bhairava originated in Hindu legends and is sacred to Hindus and Jains alike and he is worshiped throughout India and Nepal. Bhairava is the form of Lord Shiva and they guard the cardinal points. These 64 Bhairavas are grouped under 8 categories and each category is headed by one major Bhairava, the major eight Bhairavas are called Aṣṭāṅga Bhairavas. The Ashta Bhairavas control the 8 directions of this universe, each Bhairava has eight sub Bhairavas under them, totaling 64 Bhairavas. All of the Bhairavas are ruled and controlled by Maha Swarna Kala Bhairava otherwise known as Kala Bhairava, Bhairavi is the consort of Kala Bhairava Bhairava is also called as protector, as he guards the eight directions of the universe. In all Hindu temples, there will be a Bhairava idol and this Bhairava is the protector of the temple. In Shiva temples, when the temple is closed, the keys are placed before Bhairava, Bhairava is also described as the protector of women. He is described as the protector of the timid and in women who are timid in nature. Bhairava originates from the word bhīru, which means fearful and its also known as one who destroys fear or one who is beyond fear. The right interpretation is he protects his devotees from dreadful enemies, greed, lust, Bhairava protects his devotees from these enemies. These enemies are dangerous as they never allow us to seek God within, bha means creation, ra means sustenance and va means destruction. Therefore, Bhairava is the one who creates, sustains and dissolves the three stages of life, therefore, he becomes the ultimate or the supreme. The origin of Bhairava can be traced to a conversation between Brahma and Vishnu which is recounted in the Shiva Mahapuranam, in it, Vishnu inquired of Brahma, Who is the supreme creator of the Universe. Arrogantly, Brahma told Vishnu to worship him as Supreme Creator, one day, Brahma thought I have five heads. I can do everything that Shiva does and therefore I am Shiva, Brahma became a little egotistical as a result of this. Additionally, he began to forge the work of Shiva and also started interfering in what Shiva was supposed to be doing, consequently, Mahadeva threw a small nail from his finger which assumed the form of Kala Bhairava and casually went to cut off one of Brahmas heads. The skull of Brahma is held in the hands of Kala Bhairava, Brahma Kapala in the hands of Kala Bhairava and Brahma’s ego was destroyed, from then on, he became useful to himself, to the world and deeply grateful to Shiva
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Parvati
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Parvati, also known as Urvi/Renu, is the Hindu goddess of fertility, love and devotion, as well as of divine strength and power. She is the gentle and nurturing aspect of the Hindu goddess Shakti and she is the mother goddess in Hinduism, and has many attributes and aspects. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 100 names in regional Hindu stories of India, along with Lakshmi and Saraswati, she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses. Parvati is the wife of the Hindu god Shiva - the protector and regenerator of universe and she is the daughter of the mountain king Himavan and mother Mena. Parvati is the mother of Hindu deities Ganesha and Kartikeya, some communities also believe her to be the sister of the god Vishnu and the river-goddess Ganga. With Shiva, Parvati is a deity in the Shaiva sect. In Hindu belief, she is the energy and power of Shiva, and she is the cause of a bond that connects all beings. In Hindu temples dedicated to her and Shiva, she is represented as the argha or yoni. She is found extensively in ancient Indian literature, and her statues and iconography grace Hindu temples all over South Asia, parvata is one of the Sanskrit words for mountain, Parvati derives her name from being the daughter of king Himavan and mother Mena. King Parvat is considered lord of the mountains and the personification of the Himalayas, Parvati is known by many names in Hindu literature. Other names which associate her with mountains are Shailaja, Adrija or Nagajaa or Shailaputri, Haimavathi, the Lalita sahasranama contains a listing of 1,000 names of Parvati. Two of Parvatis most famous epithets are Uma and Aparna, the name Uma is used for Sati in earlier texts, but in the Ramayana, it is used as a synonym for Parvati. In the Harivamsa, Parvati is referred to as Aparna and then addressed as Uma and she is also Ambika, Shakti, Mataji, Maheshwari, Durga, Bhairavi, Bhavani, Shivaradni, and many hundreds of others. Parvati is also the goddess of love and devotion, or Kamakshi, regional stories of Gauri suggest an alternate origin for Gauris name and complexion. In parts of India, Gauris skin color is golden or yellow in honor of her being the goddess of ripened corn/harvest, some scholars hold that Parvati does not explicitly appear in Vedic literature, though the Kena Upanishad contains a goddess called Uma-Haimavati. She appears as the shakti, or essential power, of the Supreme Brahman. Her primary role is as a mediator who reveals the knowledge of Brahman to the Vedic trinity of Agni, Vayu, and Indra, Sati-Parvati appears in the epic period, as both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata present Parvati as Shivas wife. However, it is not until the plays of Kalidasa and the Puranas that the stories of Sati-Parvati, Kinsley adds that Parvati may have emerged from legends of non-aryan goddesses that lived in mountains
14.
Durga
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Durga, also known as Devi, Shakti and by numerous other names, is a principal and popular form of Hindu goddess. She is the goddess, whose mythology centers around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity. She is the form of the protective mother goddess, willing to unleash her anger against wrong. Durga is depicted in the Hindu pantheon as a woman riding a lion or tiger, with many arms each carrying a weapon. She appears in Indian texts as the wife of god Shiva and she is a central deity in Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, where she is equated with the concept of ultimate reality called Brahman. Estimated to have been composed between 400-600 CE, this text is considered by Shakta Hindus to be as important scripture as the Bhagavad Gita. She has a significant following all over India and in Nepal, particularly in its states such as West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand, Assam. Durga is revered after spring and autumn harvests, specially during the festival of Navaratri, the word Durga literally means impassable, inaccessible, invincible, unassailable. It is related to the word Durg which means fortress, something difficult to access, according to Monier Monier-Williams, Durga is derived from the roots dur and gam. According to Alain Daniélou, Durga means beyond reach. The word Durga, and related terms appear in the Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28,5.34,8.27,8.47,8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda. A deity named Durgi appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka, while the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks the legendary details about her that is found in later Hindu literature. The word is found in ancient post-Vedic Sanskrit texts such as in section 2.451 of the Mahabharata. These usages are in different contexts, for example, Durg is the name of an Asura who had become invincible to gods, and Durga is the goddess who intervenes and slays him. Durga and its derivatives are found in sections 4.1.99 and 6.3.63 of the Ashtadhyayi by Pāṇini, the ancient Sanskrit grammarian, and in the commentary of Nirukta by Yaska. Durga as a goddess was likely well established by the time the classic Hindu text called Devi Mahatmya was composed. There are many epithets for Durga in Shaktism and nine appellations, Skandamata, Kushmanda, Shailaputri, Kaalratri, Brahmacharini, Kaliputri, Chandraghanta and Siddhidatri. A list of 108 names that are used to describe her is very popularly in use by eastern Hindus and is called Ashtottara Shatanamavali of Goddess Durga
15.
Kali
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Kālī, also known as Kālikā, is a Hindu goddess. Kali is one of the ten Mahavidyas, a list which combines Sakta, Kalis earliest appearance is that of a destroyer principally of evil forces. She is the goddess of one of the four subcategories of the Kulamārga, over time, she has been worshipped by devotional movements and tantric sects variously as the Divine Mother, Mother of the Universe, Adi Shakti, or Adi Parashakti. Shakta Hindu and Tantric sects additionally worship her as the reality or Brahman. She is also seen as protector and the one who bestows moksha. Kali is often portrayed standing or dancing on her consort, the Hindu god Shiva, Kali is worshipped by Hindus throughout India. Kālī is the form of kālam. Kālī also shares the meaning of time or the fullness of time with the masculine noun kāla—and by extension, other names include Kālarātri, and Kālikā. The homonymous kāla, appointed time, which depending on context can mean death, is distinct from kāla black, the association is seen in a passage from the Mahābhārata, depicting a female figure who carries away the spirits of slain warriors and animals. She is called kālarātri and also kālī, Kālī is also the feminine form of Kāla, an epithet of Shiva, and thus the consort of Shiva. Hugh Urban notes that although the word Kālī appears as early as the Atharva Veda, Kali appears in the Mundaka Upanishad not explicitly as a goddess, but as the black tongue of the seven flickering tongues of Agni, the Hindu god of fire. According to David Kinsley, Kāli is first mentioned in Hindu tradition as a distinct goddess around 600 CE, and she is often regarded as the Shakti of Shiva, and is closely associated with him in various Puranas. Her most well known appearance on the battlefield is in the sixth century Devi Mahatmyam, when Vishnu woke up he started a war against the two demons. After a long battle with lord Vishnu when the two demons were undefeated Mahakali took the form of Mahamaya to enchant the two asuras, when Madhu and Kaitabha were enchanted by Mahakali, Vishnu killed them. In the later chapters the story of two demons can be found who were destroyed by Kali, Chanda and Munda attack the goddess Durga. Durga responds with anger that her face turns dark and Kali appears out of her forehead. Kalis appearance is black, gaunt with sunken eyes, and wearing a tiger skin and she immediately defeats the two demons. Later in the battle, the demon Raktabija is undefeated because of his ability to reproduce himself from every drop of his blood that reaches the ground
16.
Ganesha
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Ganesha, also known as Ganapati and Vinayaka, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon. His image is found throughout India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Hindu sects worship him regardless of affiliations. Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists, although he is known by many attributes, Ganeshas elephant head makes him easy to identify. Ganesha is widely revered as the remover of obstacles, the patron of arts and sciences, as the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rituals and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as patron of letters and learning during writing sessions, several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits and explain his distinct iconography. Ganesha emerged as a deity in the 4th and 5th centuries AD, during the Gupta period. He was formally included among the five deities of Smartism in the 9th century. A sect of devotees called the Ganapatya arose, who identified Ganesha as the supreme deity, the principal scriptures dedicated to Ganesha are the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana, and the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Brahma Purana and Brahmanda Purana are other two Puranic genre encyclopedic texts that deal with Ganesha, Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati and Vighneshvara. The Hindu title of respect Shri is often added before his name, the name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana, meaning a group, multitude, or categorical system and isha, meaning lord or master. The word gaņa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaņas, the term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation. Some commentators interpret the name Lord of the Gaņas to mean Lord of Hosts or Lord of created categories, Ganapati, a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning group, and pati, meaning ruler or lord. Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati is found in hymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE Rigveda, it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha. The Amarakosha, an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha, Vinayaka, Vighnarāja, Dvaimātura, Gaṇādhipa, Ekadanta, Heramba, Lambodara, Vinayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras. This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak, the names Vighnesha and Vighneshvara refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles. A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai or Pillaiyar, a. K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a child while pillaiyar means a noble child. He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify tooth or tusk, also elephant tooth or tusk. Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have meant the young of the elephant
17.
Kartikeya
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Karthikeya is the Hindu god of war. He is the Commander-in-Chief of the army of the devas and he is also the primary deity of the Kaumaram sect of Hinduism. Murugan is worshiped primarily in areas of Tamil speaking populations, including Tamil Nadu in India, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Réunion. It is one of the few sites in Sri Lanka that is venerated by, Hindu Sri Lankan Tamils, Sinhalese people. In northern India, he is known as Kartikeya. He is known as Subrahmanya, Muruga or Palani Andava in Tamil Nadu and he was also known as Mahasena and the Kadamba dynasty worshiped him by this name. The Shatapatha Brahmana refers to him as the son of Rudra, the Taittiriya Aranyaka contains the Gayatri Mantra for Shanmukha. The Chandogya Upanishad refers to Skanda as the way leads to wisdom. Baudhāyanas Dharmasūtra calls Skanda Mahāsena Having a Great Army and Subrahmaṇya beloved of Brahmins, the āraṇyaparvan of the Mahabharata relates the legend of Kartikeya Skanda in considerable detail. The Skanda Purana is devoted to the narrative of Kartikeya, the Upanishads also constantly make a reference to a Supreme Being called Guha, the indweller. The Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai is a devotional poem included in the Pattuppāṭṭu ten idylls of the age of the third Sangam. In the Tirumurukāṟtruuppaṭai, he is described as a god of youth, His face shines a myriad rays light. Other Sangam period works in Tamil that refer to Murugan in detail include the Paripāṭal, the Akananūru, the first elaborate account of Kartikeyas origin occurs in the Mahabharata. In a complicated story, he is said to have been born from Agni and Svaha, the actual wives then become the Pleiades. The Lord asked him what kind of boon he required, in reply to which he asked that no power in the universe should destroy him except the Lords power itself. Lord Shiva granted the boon to him, after succeeding in his penance, Suraabaathman began to torture humans as well as the devas. He then conquered the Indraloka and made Indra captive, one day, upon losing her husband as a prisoner, Indraani prayed to Lord Shiva in earth to help her. Meanwhile, Ajaamukhi was in search of Indraani to produce her as a prize for her brother Suraabaathman as a result of victory of their war against the devas, Ajaamughi along with her servant finally found Indraani praying to Lord Shiva
18.
Vedas
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The Vedas are a large body of knowledge texts originating in the ancient Indian subcontinent. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature, Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means not of a man, superhuman and impersonal, authorless. Vedas are also called śruti literature, distinguishing them from religious texts. The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, in the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were created by Rishis, after inspired creativity. There are four Vedas, the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas, the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads. Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas, the various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their authority are classified as orthodox. Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, despite their differences, just like the texts of the śramaṇa traditions, the layers of texts in the Vedas discuss similar ideas and concepts. The Sanskrit word véda knowledge, wisdom is derived from the root vid- to know and this is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning see or know. The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek εἶδος aspect, not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek οἶδα oida I know. Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, etc, the Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means knowledge. The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the Rigveda, means obtaining or finding wealth, property, a related word Vedena appears in hymn 8.19.5 of the Rigveda. It was translated by Ralph T. H. Griffith as ritual lore, as studying the Veda by the 14th century Indian scholar Sayana, as bundle of grass by Max Müller, Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means hidden, a secret, mystery, in some south Indian communities such as Iyengars, the word Veda includes the Tamil writings of the Alvar saints, such as Divya Prabandham, for example Tiruvaymoli. The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts, the Samhitas date to roughly 1700–1100 BC, and the circum-Vedic texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000-500 BC, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BC, or the Late Bronze Age, Michael Witzel gives a time span of c.1500 to c. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BC the only record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period
19.
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
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The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is an ancient Sanskrit text embedded in the Yajurveda. It is listed as number 14 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads, the Upanishad contains 113 mantras or verses in six chapters. The Upanishad is one of the 33 Upanishads from Taittiriyas, the chronology of Maitrayaniya Upanishad is contested, but generally accepted to be a late period Upanishadic composition. The text includes a credit to sage Shvetashvatara, considered the author of the Upanishad. The text is notable for its discussion of the concept of personal god – Ishvara, the text is also notable for its multiple mentions of both Rudra and Shiva, along with other Vedic deities, and of crystallization of Shiva as a central theme. The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is a Principal Upanishad of Hinduism, commented by many of its ancient and it is a foundational text of the philosophy of Shaivism, as well as the Yoga and Vedanta schools of Hinduism. Some 19th century scholars suggested that Shvetashvatara Upanishad is sectarian or possibly influenced by Christianity, hypotheses that were disputed. The name Shvetashvatara has the compound Sanskrit root Shvetashva, which means white horse. Shvetashvatara is a compound of, where tara means crossing, carrying beyond. The word Shvetashvatara translates to the one carrying beyond on white horse or simply white mule that carries, the text is sometimes spelled as Svetasvatara Upanishad. It is also known as Shvetashvataropanishad or Svetasvataropanishad, and as Shvetashvataranam Mantropanishad, in ancient and medieval literature, the text is frequently referred to in the plural, that is as Svetasvataropanishadah. Some metric poetic verses, such as Vakaspatyam simply refer to the text as Shvetashva, flood as well as Gorski state that the Svetasvatara Upanishad was probably composed in the 5th to 4th century BCE. Paul Muller-Ortega dates the text between 6th to 5th century BCE, the chronology of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, like other Upanishads, is uncertain and contested. Phillips chronologically lists Shvetashvatara Upanishad after Mandukya Upanishad, but before and about the time the Maitri Upanishad, ranade places Shvetashvatara Upanishads chronological composition in the fourth group of ancient Upanishads, after Katha and Mundaka Upanishads. Deussen states that Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to and incorporates phrases from the Katha Upanishad, some sections of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad are found, almost in its entirety, in chronologically more ancient Sanskrit texts. Similarly, many verses in chapters 3 through 6 are also found, in identical form in the Samhitas of Rig Veda, Atharva Veda. The text has six Adhyaya, each with varying number of verses, the first chapter includes 16 verses, the second has 17, the third chapter contains 21 verses, the fourth is composed of 22, the fifth has 14, while the sixth chapter has 23 verses. The last three verses of the chapter are considered as epilogue
20.
Tirumurai
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Thirumurai is a twelve volume compendium of songs or hymns in praise of Shiva in the Tamil language from the 6th to the 11th century by various poets in South India. Nambi Andar Nambi compiled the first seven volumes by Appar, Sampandhar and Sundarar as Tevaram during the 12th century, during the course of time, a strong necessity was felt by scholars to compile Saiva literature to accommodate other works. The eleventh is compiled by Karaikal Ammaiyar, Cheraman Perumal and others, the contemporary Chola king was impressed by the work of Nampi and included Nampis work in the eleventh Tirumurai. Sekkizhars Periya Puranam, composed a century later, contains the life depiction of all the 63 Nayanmars, the response for the work was so tremendous among Saiva scholars and Kulothunga Chola I that it was included as the 12th Tirumurai. Tirumurai along with Vedas and Saiva agamas form the basis of Saiva Siddantha philosophy in Tamil Nadu, the Pallava period in the history of the Tamil land is a period of religious revival of by the Shaivite Nayanars who by their Bhakti hymns captured the hearts of the people. They made an impression on the people by singing the praise of Shiva in soul-stirring devotional hymns. Tirumurai in anthology supersedes Sangam literature, which is predominantly secular in nature, the entire Tirumurai is in viruttam meter or lines of four. The principal characteristics of the head-rhyming is influenced both by syllabic and moric prosody, the Shaiva Tirumurais are twelve in number. The first seven Tirumurais are the hymns of the three great Shaivite saints, Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar and these hymns were the best musical compositions of their age. The first three Tirumurais of Tevaram are composed by Sambanthar, the three by Appar and the seventh one is composed by Sundarar. There is a saying about the Saiva trio that Appar sang for me, Sambanthar sang for himself. Appar and Sambanthar lived around the 7th century, while Sundarar lived in the 8th century, Sambanthar was a 7th-century poet born in Sirkali in Brahmin community and was believed to be suckled by the goddess Parvathi, whereupon he sang the first hymn. On the request of the queen of Pandya Nadu, Sambandar went on a pilgrimage to the south, the Jains provoked Sambandar by burning his house and challenging him to debate, but Sambandar eventually had victory over them. He was a contemporary of Appar, another Saiva saint, a Sanskrit hagiography called Brahmapureesa Charitam is now lost. The first volumes of the Tirumurai contain three hundred and eighty-four poems of Campantar, all that out of a reputed more than 10,000 hymns. Sambanthar is believed to have died at the age of 16 in 655 CE on the day of his marriage and his verses were set to tune by Nilakantaperumalanar who is set to have accompanied the poet on his yal or lute. Appar was born in the middle of the 7th century in Tiruvamur, Tamil Nadu and his sister, Thilagavathiar was betrothed to a military commander who died in action. When his sister was about to end her life, he pleaded with her not to him alone in the world
21.
Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta
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Shiva Sutras are a collection of seventy seven aphorisms that form the foundation of the tradition of spiritual mysticism known as Kashmir Shaivism. One myth is that he received the aphorisms in a visitation of a Siddha or semi-divine being. Another is that Lord Shiva came to him in a dream and this rock called Shankaropala is still visited by devotees. The other theory is that Lord Shiva taught the Siva-Sutras to Vasugupta in a dream, whatever the truth is these myths point to the traditions belief that the Shiva sutras are of divine origin or revelation and are not considered the product of the human mind. Historically the Shiva Sutras and the school of Kashmir Shaivism are a Tantric or Agamic tradition. The Tantrics saw themselves as independent of the Vedic mainstream schools of thought and practice, a number of commentaries were written by Vasugupta’s contemporaries or successors. Most famous of them is Kshemaraja’s Vimarshini which has translated into English by Jaideva Singh. Another is a called the Varttika by Bhaskara which has been translated into English by Mark Dyczkowski. There are many translations of the Shiva Sutras into English, a painstaking Italian translation of the Sutras and the Kshemarajas Vimarshini by Raffaele Torella is also available. Kriya yogi Shri Shailendra Sharma translated Shiva Sutras from Sanskrit to Hindi with commentary, in 2014 new translation of Shiva Sutras into English has been made available along with innovative commentary organized into chapters called cascades Shiva Sutras Kshemaraja. The Shiva Sutra Vimarshini, Being the Sutras of Vasu Gupta with the Commentary Called Vimarshini, siva Sutras in UTF-8 The Commentary on Shiva Sutras by Shailendra Sharma Shiva Sutras with Cascading Commentary
22.
Vachana sahitya
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Vachana sahitya is a form of rhythmic writing in Kannada that evolved in the 11th century C. E. and flourished in the 12th century, as a part of the Sharna movement. The word vachanas literally means said and these are readily intelligible prose texts. Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who lived in the reign of Western Chalukyas, is the first attested poet of this tradition, later poets, such as Basava, prime minister of Southern Kalachuri King Bijjala II, considered Chennaiah to be his literary father. Basavaadi Sharanas Vachanas are their experiences in the process of God realization through oneness with the consciousness in the prana. About 800 sharanas practiced the technique and wrote their experiences in terms of Guru, Linga, Jangama, Padodaka and this fact has been attributed to the popularity of the movement. More than 200 Vachana writers have recorded, more than thirty of whom were women. Vachanas are brief paragraphs, and they end with one or the local names under which Shiva is invoked or offered Pooja. In style, they are epigrammatical, parallelistic and allusive and they dwell on the vanity of riches, the valuelessness of mere rites or book learning, the uncertainty of life and the spiritual privileges of Shiva Bhakta. The Vachanas call men to give up the desire for wealth and ease, to live lives of sobriety and detachment from the world. Authors of a particular Vachana can be identified by the style of invocation of God in the vachana, the existing readings of the vachanas are mostly set by the European understanding of the Indian traditions. About 20,000 vachanas have been published, the government of Karnataka has published Samagra Vachana Samputa in 15 volumes. Karnataka University Dharwad has published collections of individual vachana poets, jedara Dasimaiah is called the Adya Vachanakara. Palkuriki Somanatha Kannada literature Southern Kalachuris of Kalyani Kingdom Narasimhacharya, R, a history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi, Indian Branch, Oxford University Press, new Delhi, Asian Educational Services, Oxford university press. Lingayata Dharmada Modalaneya Pustaka Kannada,1982, PM Giriraju, jatigala Huttu Kannada,1982, PM Giriraju. Speaking of Siva, by A. K. Ramanujan
23.
Pashupati
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Pashupati is an incarnation of the Hindu god Shiva as lord of the animals. He is revered throughout the Hindu world, but especially in Nepal, paśupati Lord of all animals was originally an epithet of Rudra in the Vedic period and now is an epithet of Shiva. The Rigveda has the related term paśupa cattle-keeping as an epithet for Pushan, Pashupatinath is an avatar of Shiva, one of the Hindu Trinity. He is the counterpart of Shakti. The five faces of Pashupatinath represent various incarnations of Shiva, Sadyojata, Vamdeva, Tatpurusha and they face West, North, East, South and Zenith respectively, and represent Hinduisms five primary elements namely earth, water, air, light and ether. Puranas describe these faces of Shiva as Though Nepal is a secular state, its population is predominantly Hindu. The Pashupatinath Temple, located at the bank of the river Bagmati, is considered the most sacred place in Nepal, the mythology hold that Lord Pashupatinath started living in Nepal in the form of a deer, when he saw the Kathmandu Valley and was overwhelmed by its beauty. A Pashupatinath temple is sited on the banks of the Shivana river in Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh and it is one of the most prominent shrines in Mandsaur, and Lord Shiva in the form of Lord Pashupatinath is its primary deity. Its main attraction is a unique Shiva Linga displaying eight faces of Lord Shiva, the shrine has four doors, representing the cardinal directions. Potnia Theron Pashupata Shaivism Pashupati seal Flood, Gavin, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, the Indus Civilization, A Contemporary Perspective. Śivasahasranāmāṣṭakam, Eight Collections of Hymns Containing One Thousand and Eight Names of Śiva, - This work compares eight versions of the Śivasahasranāmāstotra. The Preface and Introduction by Ram Karan Sharma provide an analysis of how the eight versions compare with one another, the text of the eight versions is given in Sanskrit. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press
24.
Karma
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Karma means action, work or deed, it also refers to the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual influence the future of that individual. Good intent and good deed contribute to good karma and future happiness, while bad intent and bad deed contribute to bad karma, Karma is closely associated with the idea of rebirth in many schools of Asian religions. In these schools, karma in the present affects ones future in the current life, as well as the nature, with origins in ancient India, karma is a key concept in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and Taoism. Karma is the deed, work, action, or act, and it is also the object. Halbfass explains karma by contrasting it with another Sanskrit word kriya, a good action creates good karma, as does good intent. A bad action creates bad karma, as does bad intent, Karma, also refers to a conceptual principle that originated in India, often descriptively called the principle of karma, sometimes as the karma theory or the law of karma. In the context of theory, karma is complex and difficult to define, other Indologists include in the definition of karma theory that which explains the present circumstances of an individual with reference to his or her actions in past. The law of karma operates independent of any deity or any process of divine judgment, Buddhism and Jainism have their own karma precepts. Thus karma has not one, but multiple definitions and different meanings and it is a concept whose meaning, importance and scope varies between Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and other traditions that originated in India, and various schools in each of these traditions. OFlaherty claims that, furthermore, there is a debate regarding whether karma is a theory, a model, a paradigm. Karma theory as a concept, across different Indian religious traditions, shares common themes, causality, ethicization. A common theme to theories of karma is its principle of causality, one of the earliest association of karma to causality occurs in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad of Hinduism. For example, at 4.4. 5-6, it states, The relationship of karma to causality is a motif in all schools of Hindu, Jain. Disinterested actions, or unintentional actions do not have the positive or negative karmic effect, as interested. Another causality characteristic, shared by Karmic theories, is that like deeds lead to like effects, thus good karma produces good effect on the actor, while bad karma produces bad effect. This effect may be material, moral or emotional — that is, the effect of karma need not be immediate, the effect of karma can be later in ones current life, and in some schools it extends to future lives. The consequence or effects of karma can be described in two forms, phalas and samskaras. A phala is the visible or invisible effect that is typically immediate or within the current life, the theory of karma is often presented in the context of samskaras
25.
Maya (illusion)
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Maya, literally illusion or magic, has multiple meanings in Indian philosophies depending on the context. In ancient Vedic literature, Māyā literally implies extraordinary power and wisdom, in later Vedic texts and modern literature dedicated to Indian traditions, Māyā connotes a magic show, an illusion where things appear to be present but are not what they seem. In Buddhism, Maya is the name of Gautama Buddhas mother, in Hinduism, Maya is also an epithet for goddess, and the name of a manifestation of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, prosperity and love. Maya is also a name for girls, Māyā is a word with unclear etymology, probably comes from the root mā which means to measure. According to William Mahony, the root of the word may be man- or to think, in early Vedic usage, the term implies, states Mahony, the wondrous and mysterious power to turn an idea into a physical reality. Franklin Southworth states the origin is uncertain, and other possible roots of māyā include may- meaning mystify, confuse, intoxicate, delude, as well as māy- which means disappear. Jan Gonda considers the word related to mā, which means mother, as do Tracy Pintchman and Adrian Snodgrass, serving as an epithet for goddesses such as Lakshmi. Maya here implies art, is the power, writes Zimmer. A similar word is found in the Avestan māyā with the meaning of magic power. Words related to and containing Māyā, such as Mayava, occur many times in the Vedas and these words have various meanings, with interpretations that are contested, and some are names of deities that do not appear in texts of 1st millennium BCE and later. The use of word Māyā in Rig veda, in the later era context of magic, illusion, power, the hymn is a call to discern ones enemies, perceive artifice, and distinguish, using ones mind, between that which is perceived and that which is unperceived. Rig veda does not connote the word Māyā as always good or always bad, it is simply a form of technique, mental power and means. Rig veda uses the word in two contexts, implying there are two kinds of Māyā, divine Māyā and undivine Māyā, the former being the foundation of truth. Elsewhere in Vedic mythology, Indra uses Maya to conquer Vritra, varunas supernatural power is called Maya. Māyā, in such examples, connotes powerful magic, which both devas and asuras use against each other, in the Yajurveda, māyā is an unfathomable plan. In the Aitareya Brahmana Maya is also referred to as Dirghajihvi, hostile to gods and sacrifices. In hymns of 8.10.22, Virāj is used by Asuras who call her as Māyā, as follows, The contextual meaning of Maya in Atharvaveda is power of creation, not illusion. Gonda suggests the meaning of Maya in Vedic literature is, wisdom and power enabling its possessor, or being able itself, to create, devise, contrive, effect
26.
Yoga
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Yoga is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India. There is a variety of Yoga schools, practices, and goals in Hinduism, Buddhism. Among the most well-known types of yoga are Hatha yoga and Rāja yoga, the chronology of earliest texts describing yoga-practices is unclear, varyingly credited to Hindu Upanishads. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali date from the first half of the 1st millennium CE, Hatha yoga texts emerged around the 11th century with origins in tantra. Yoga gurus from India later introduced yoga to the west, following the success of Swami Vivekananda in the late 19th, in the 1980s, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western world. Yoga in Indian traditions, however, is more physical exercise, it has a meditative. One of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism is also called Yoga, which has its own epistemology and metaphysics. Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as an intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma. On December 1,2016, Yoga was listed as UNESCO’s Intangible cultural heritage, in Sanskrit, the word yoga comes from the root yuj which means to add, to join, to unite, or to attach in its most common senses. By figurative extension from the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses, all further developments of the sense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moods such as exertion, endeavour, zeal, there are very many compound words containing yoga in Sanskrit. Yoga can take on such as connection, contact, union, method, application, addition. In simpler words, Yoga also means combined, thus, bhaktiyoga means devoted attachment in the monotheistic Bhakti movement. The term kriyāyoga has a sense, meaning connection with a verb. But the same compound is given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutras, designating the practical aspects of the philosophy. In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the root yuj samādhau is considered by commentators as the correct etymology. In accordance with Pāṇini, Vyasa who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras, according to Dasgupta, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga or yuj samādhau. Someone who practices yoga or follows the philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a yogi or yogini
27.
Vibhuti
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Vibhuti, also called Bhasma, Thiruneeru and Vibhooti, is a word that has several meanings in Hinduism. Generally, it is used to denote the sacred ash which is made of burnt dried wood in Āgamic rituals, Hindu devotees apply vibhuti traditionally as three horizontal lines across the forehead and other parts of the body to honor Shiva. Vibhuti smeared across the forehead to the end of both eyebrows is called Tripundra, another meaning of vibhuti is a glorious form, in contrast with Avatar, a reincarnation of Brahman. Bhagavata Theology describes a vibhuti as incarnation of power, which is only a temporary occasional manifestation such as holy men are infused with divine virtues and qualities are infused. Aurobindo mentions a vibhuti as the hero of a struggle towards divine achievement, the hero in the Carlylean sense of heroism. Tilak Bindi Kumkum Rudraksha Shivaratri Pradosha Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend by Anna Dallapiccola Vibhuti in Lingayat Religion Greatness of Vibhuti Importance of Vibhuti in Shaivism
28.
Rudraksha
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Rudraksha, also rudraksh, Sanskrit, rudrākṣa, is a seed traditionally used for prayer beads in Hinduism. The seed is produced by species of large evergreen broad-leaved tree in the genus Elaeocarpus. Rudrakshas are primarily used in India as beads for organic jewellery, as such, they are also the source of superstitious claims similar to beliefs related to magnetic or crystal bracelets, faith healing and other medical pseudoscience. Usually the beads of Rudraksha are strung together as a mālā, traditionally, it is believed that the number of beads used should be 108 plus one. The extra bead is the meru, bindu or guru bead, if the mālā lacks a bindu, the energy is said to become cyclical and wearers who are sensitive may become dizzy. When the beads are strung, it is advisable to do so either a silk or a cotton thread. It is then advised to change the thread every six months to prevent it from snapping, the Rudraksha mālā may also be strung with either copper, silver or gold, typically by a jeweler. A common issue with mālās wired with such metals is the mālā being tied too tightly and this may result in the insides of the Rudraksha seeds cracking and crumbling from excessive pressure. Thus, it is necessary to ensure that the mālā is tied loosely, the mālā can be worn all the time, including when showering. Wearers may believe that it is beneficial to allow water to flow over the beads on on the body when bathing in cold water without chemical soaps. Wearing the mālā while in contact with chemical soaps and warm water is best avoided, however, as it can result in the Rudrakshas becoming brittle and eventually cracking. Rudraksha beads are believed to provide support for those who are constantly on the move. This is because they are claimed to create a cocoon made of the own energy. It is said if the situation around one is not conducive to ones kind of energy. This was noted as being difficult for sadhus and sannyasis, as they were constantly moving. Likewise, the Rudraksha may be helpful for travellers and professionals who eat, sadhus or sannyasis living in the forest would have to resort to naturally available water sources. A common belief was that, if a Rudraksha were held above the water on a string, it would turn clockwise if the water was good, if it was unfit for consumption, it would go counter-clockwise. This test was also believed to be valid for other edibles, when worn on a mālā, Rudrakshas were also said to ward off and shield against negative energies
29.
Om Namah Shivaya
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Oṁ namaḥ śivāya is one of the most popular Hindu mantras and the most important mantra in Shaivism. Its translation is salutations to Shiva, preceded by the mystical syllable Om, the syllable ya at the end of the mantra denotes an offering. Thus the mantra Om Namah Sivaya actually means I offer to Siva a respectful invocation of His Name, Om Namah Shivaya mantra is sung by devotees in prayers and recited by yogis in meditation. It is associated with qualities of prayer, divine-love, grace, truth, traditionally, it is accepted to be a powerful healing mantra beneficial for all physical and mental ailments. Soulful recitation of this mantra brings peace to the heart and joy to the or Soul, sages consider that the recitation of these syllables is sound therapy for the body and nectar for the soul. The nature of the mantra is the calling upon the self, it is the calling upon Shiva. This goes generally for mantras and chants to different gods, which are different aspects of the higher self and it is called Siva Panchakshara, or Siva Panchakshari, the five-syllable mantra dedicated to Siva. The Siva Panchakshari mantra is the most holy salutation to Śiva, the Panchakshara can be recited by Shiva devotees during pooja, Japa, Dhyana, homa and while smearing Vibhuti. The Tamil Saivaite hymn Tiruvacakam begins with the five letters na ma ci vaa ya. Gilbert wrote that this meant I honor the divinity within me, Om Namah Shivay was also a TV serial telecasted on an Indian TV Channel, DD National. These words were chanted by a prisoner as his heart was ripped out by Mola Ram in the 1984 George Lucas and Steven Spielberg film Indiana Jones, Om Namah Shivaya is also featured in the Mahadeva tune by Astral Projection, a popular psychedelic trance band. Om Namah Shivaya is also featured in the Serpente song in the SETEVIDAS album by the Brazilian singer Pitty, guitarist Steve Hillage also recorded a psychedelic rock version of the song on his 1976 album L, produced by Todd Rundgren. Om Namah Shivay is the album by Nina Hagen, released in 1999. Om Namah Shiva is found in Jah Wobbles Heaven and Earth album, Om Namah Shivaya is found in MC Yogis Elephant Power album. Om Namaha Shiva is found on Shiela Chandras Weaving My Ancestors Voices album. is found on Apache Indians best of Apache Indian 2000 album
30.
Aegle marmelos
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Aegle marmelos, commonly known as bael, also Bengal quince, golden apple, Japanese bitter orange, stone apple, or wood apple, is a species of tree native to Bangladesh and India. It is present throughout Southeast Asia as a naturalized species, the tree is considered to be sacred by Hindus. Its fruits are used in medicine and as a food throughout its range. The fruits are known as ಬೇಲದ ಹಣ್ಣು, ಬಿಲ್ವ in Kannada, bela in Odia and it is called Sivadruma by the Hindus and is considered as a sacred herb. Bael is the member of the monotypic genus Aegle. It is a shrub or small to medium sized tree, up to 13m tall with slender drooping branches. The bark is brown or grayish, smooth or finely fissured and flaking, armed with long straight spines,1. 2-2.5 cm singly or in pairs. The gum is also described as a clear, gummy sap, resembling gum arabic and it is sweet at first taste and then irritating to the throat. The leaf is trifoliate, alternate, each leaflet 5-14 x 2–6 cm, ovate with tapering or pointed tip and rounded base, young leaves are pale green or pinkish, finely hairy while mature leaves are dark green and completely smooth. Each leaf has 4-12 pairs of veins which are joined at margin. The end leaflet features a long stalk,0. 5–3 cm while side stalks are shorter than 0.2 cm. The flowers are 1.5 to 2 cm, pale green or yellowish, sweetly scented, bisexual, in short drooping unbranched clusters at the end of twigs and they usually appear with young leaves. The calyx is flat with 4 small teeth, the four or five petals of 6–8 mm overlap in the bud. Many stamens have short filaments and pale brown, short style anthers, the ovary is bright green with inconspicuous disc. The bael fruit typically has a diameter of between 5 and 12 cm and it is globose or slightly pear-shaped with a thick, hard rind and is not splitting upon ripening. The woody shell is smooth and green, gray until it is ripe when it turns yellow. The exact number of seeds varies in different publications and it takes about 11 months to ripen on the tree and can reach the size of a large grapefruit or pomelo, and some are even larger. The shell is so hard it must be cracked with a hammer or machete, the fibrous yellow pulp is very aromatic
31.
Maha Shivaratri
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Maha Shivaratri is a Hindu festival celebrated annually in honour of the god Shiva. It is a festival in Hinduism, but one that is solemn and marks a remembrance of overcoming darkness and ignorance in life. The ardent devotees keep awake all night, others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to Jyotirlingams. This is an ancient Hindu festival whose origin date is unknown, in Kashmir Shaivism, the festival is called Har-ratri or phonetically simpler Haerath or Herath by Shiva faithfuls of the Kashmir region. Maha Shivaratri is a festival dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. Unlike most Hindu festivals which are celebrated during the day, the Maha Shivaratri is celebrated at night, the celebration includes maintaining a jaagaran, an all-night vigil and prayers, because Shaiva Hindus mark this night as overcoming darkness and ignorance in ones life and the world through Shiva. Offerings of fruits, leaves, sweets and milk to Shiva are made, some perform all-day fasting with vedic or tantrik worship of Shiva, in Shiva temples, Om Namah Shivaya, the sacred mantra of Shiva, is chanted through the day. Maha Shivaratri is celebrated over three or ten days based on the Hindu luni-solar calendar, every lunar month, there is a Shivaratri. The main festival is called Maha Shivaratri, or great Shivaratri, according to the Gregorian calendar, the day falls in either February or March. According to Jones and Ryan, the festival may have originated around the 5th century CE, the Maha Shivaratri is mentioned in several Puranas, particularly the Skanda Purana, Linga Purana and Padma Purana. These medieval era Shaiva texts present different mythologies associated with this festival, different legends describe the significance of Maha Shivaratri. According to one legend in the Shaivism tradition, this is the night when Shiva performs the dance of creation, preservation and destruction. The chanting of hymns, the reading of Shiva scriptures and the chorus of devotees joins this cosmic dance, according to another legend, this is the night when Shiva and Parvati got married. The significance of dance tradition to this festival has historical roots, the Maha Shivaratri has served as a historic confluence of artists for annual dance festivals at major Hindu temples such as at Konark, Khajuraho, Pattadakal, Modhera and Chidambaram. The major Jyotirlinga Shiva temples of India, such as in Varanasi and they serve also as sites for fairs and special events. The Mandi fair is famous as a venue for Maha Shivaratri celebrations. It is believed that all gods and goddesses of the area, said to more than 200. Maha Shivaratri is the most important festival in Kashmir Shaivism, found in north Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent and it is celebrated as the anniversary of the marriage of Shiva and Parvati
32.
Guru
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Guru is a Sanskrit term that connotes someone who is a teacher, guide, expert, or master of certain knowledge or field. The term also refers to someone who primarily is ones spiritual guide, the oldest references to the concept of guru are found in the earliest Vedic texts of Hinduism. These gurus led broad ranges of studies including Hindu scriptures, Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music, the tradition of guru is also found in Jainism, referring to a spiritual preceptor, a role typically served by a Jain ascetic. In Sikhism, the tradition has played a key role since its founding in the 15th century, its founder is referred to as Guru Nanak. The guru concept has thrived in Vajrayāna Buddhism, where the guru is considered a figure to worship. The word guru, a noun, connotes teacher in Sanskrit, but in Indian traditions it has contextual meanings with significance beyond what teacher means in English. The word has the meaning in other languages derived from or borrowing words from Sanskrit, such as Hindi, Marathi, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Bengali, Gujarati. The Malayalam term Acharyan or Asan are derived from the Sanskrit word Acharya, as a noun the word means the imparter of knowledge. The word has its roots in the Sanskrit gri, and may have a connection to the word gur, meaning to raise, lift up, Sanskrit guru is cognate with Latin gravis heavy, grave, weighty, serious and Greek βαρύς barus heavy. All three derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *gʷerə-, specifically from the zero-grade form *gʷr̥ə-, another etymological theory considers the term guru to be based on the syllables gu and ru, which it claims stands for darkness and light that dispels it, respectively. The guru is seen as the one who dispels the darkness of ignorance, reender Kranenborg disagrees, stating that darkness and light have nothing to do with the word guru. He describes this as a folk etymology, karen Pechelis states that, in the popular parlance, the dispeller of darkness, one who points the way definition for guru is common in the Indian tradition. The Guru is an ancient and central figure in the traditions of Hinduism, at a social and religious level, the Guru helps continue the religion and Hindu way of life. Guru thus has a historic, reverential and an important role in the Hindu culture, the word Guru is mentioned in the earliest layer of Vedic texts. The hymn 4.5.6 of Rigveda, for example, states Joel Mlecko, describes the guru as, the source and inspirer of the knowledge of the Self, the Upanishads, that is the later layers of the Vedic text, mention guru. Chandogya Upanishad, in chapter 4.4 for example, declares that it is only through guru that one attains the knowledge that matters, the Katha Upanisad, in verse 1.2.8 declares the guru as indispensable to the acquisition of knowledge. In the Taittiriya Upanishad, the guru then urges a student, states Mlecko, to struggle, discover and experience the Truth, the 8th century Hindu text Upadesasahasri of the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara discusses the role of the guru in assessing and guiding students. In Chapter 1, he states that teacher is the pilot as the student walks in the journey of knowledge and he should also thoroughly impress upon the student qualities like humility, which are the means to knowledge
33.
Lingam
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The lingam is an abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu deity, Shiva, used for worship in temples, smaller shrines, or as self-manifested natural objects. In traditional Indian society, the linga is seen as a symbol of the energy, the lingam is often represented alongside the yoni, a symbol of the goddess or of Shakti, female creative energy. The union of linga and yoni represents the indivisible two-in-oneness of male and female, the lingam is a column-like or oval symbol of Shiva, the Formless All-pervasive Reality, made of stone, metal, or clay. The Shiva Linga is a symbol of Lord Shiva – a mark that reminds of the Omnipotent Lord, in Shaivite Hindu temples, the linga is a smooth cylindrical mass symbolising Shiva. It is found at the centre of the temple, often resting in the middle of a rimmed, disc-shaped structure, anthropologist Christopher John Fuller wrote that although most sculpted images are anthropomorphic, the aniconic Shiva Linga is an important exception. Some believe that linga-worship was a feature of indigenous Indian religion, there is a hymn in the Atharvaveda that praises a pillar, and this is one possible origin of linga worship. Some associate Shiva-Linga with this Yupa-Stambha, the sacrificial post, in the hymn, a description is found of the beginning-less and endless Stambha or Skambha, and it is shown that the said Skambha is put in place of the eternal Brahman. The Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga, in the Linga Purana the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the supreme nature of Mahâdeva. The Hindu scripture Shiva Purana describes the origin of the lingam, known as Shiva-linga, as the beginning-less and endless cosmic pillar of fire, Lord Shiva is pictured as emerging from the Lingam – the cosmic pillar of fire – proving his superiority over the gods Brahma and Vishnu. The Linga Purana also supports this interpretation of lingam as a cosmic pillar, a similar interpretation is also found in the Skanda Purana, The endless sky is the Linga, the Earth is its base. At the end of time the universe and all the Gods finally merge in the Linga itself. In yogic lore, the linga is considered the first form to arise when creation occurs, seek him within the self and you will soon find him, meditate on His omnipresence and gain His boons. The oldest example of a lingam that is used for worship is in Gudimallam. It dates to the 2nd century BC, a figure of Shiva is carved into the front of the lingam. There is a set of proportions for the height, width. Some types of Shiva linga are mukhalinga, lingodbhavamurti, a linga with a cobra on top, svayambhuva directly made from light, Sphatika-linga, around 70 lingas are worshipped throughout the world and have become places of pilgrimage. The Rasa linga or Parad Shiva linga is made of mercury and it is of great importance for Hindu devotees and is worshipped with complete process, belief, and devotion. It is worshipped to be physically, mentally, spiritually, and psychologically as well as to obtain protection from the natural calamities, evil power, disaster
34.
Pashupata Shaivism
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Pashupata Shaivism is the oldest of the major Shaivite Hindu schools. The philosophy of the Pashupata sect was systematized by Lakulish in the 2nd century A. D, the main texts of the school are Gaṇakārikā, Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā and Rāśikara-bhāshya. The date of foundation of the school is uncertain, however, the Pashupatas may have existed from the 1st century CE. Gavin Flood dates them to around the 2nd century CE and they are also referred to in the epic Mahabharata which is thought to have reached a final form by 4th century CE. The Pashupata movement was influential in South India in the period between the 7th and 14th century, but it no longer exists, Pashupata Shaivism was a devotional and ascetic movement. Pashu in Pashupati refers to the effect, the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior, whereas, Pati means the cause, the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the pati, or the ruler. To free themselves from worldy fetters Pashupatas are instructed to do a pashupata vrata, haradattacharya, in Gaṇakārikā, explains that a spiritual teacher is one who knows the eight pentads and the three functions. They recognize that those depending upon another and longing for independence not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pashupatas, spirits possess the attributes of the Supreme Deity when they become liberated from the germ of every pain, in this system the cessation of pain is of two kinds, impersonal and personal. Impersonal consists of the cessation of all pains, whereas the personal consists of development of visual and active powers like swiftness of thought. The Lord is held to be the possessor of infinite, visual, Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā divides the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient is unconscious and thus dependent on the conscious, the insentient is further divided into effects and causes. The effects are of ten kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, the causes are of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes are responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. The sentient spirit, which is subject to transmigration is of two kinds, the appetent and nonappetent, the appetent is the spirit associated with an organism and sense organs, whereas the non-appetent is the spirit without them. Union in the Pashupata system is a conjunction of the soul with God through the intellect and it is achieved in two ways, action and cessation of action. Union through action consists of pious muttering, meditation etc. cessation of suffering in other systems like Sankhya occurs through the mere termination of miseries, but in Pashupata school it is the attainment of supremacy or of divine perfections. In other philosophies, the world is that which has come into existence
35.
Kalamukha
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The Kalamukha were a medieval Shaivite sect of the Deccan Plateau who were among the first professional monks of India. Their earliest monasteries were built in Mysore, information regarding the Kalamukha sect takes the form of inscriptions relating to temple grants and texts usually written by their opponents. They appear to have been an offshoot of the Pashupata sect and their name was derived from kālāmukha, meaning black-faced, which refers to their painting of a black streak as a symbolic caste mark on their face. Theirs was not, however, a school based purely on the agamas as they also took heed of the orthodox Śruti and were well-versed in the Vaisheshika, the Kalamukhas were themselves subdivided, with at least two divisions, called the Saktiparisad and the Simhaparisad. The former of these were found over an area and the latter were mostly concentrated around the districts of Dharwar. Among the references are a Kalamukha temple recorded in Srinivaspur in 870, another with a college at Chitradurga in 947, and their major centre was at Balligavi and other temple sites included one at Vijayawada. There is a gap in the evidence of them for around two centuries, after which they are well documented until the Vijayanagara era. Ramanuja, a Vaishnavite acharya, may have confused the Kalamukha with the Kapalikas in his Sri Bhasya work, in which he noted them as eating from a skull, such practices were common for the Kapalikas but are atypical for the Kalamukhas. His writings may have been coloured by his experienced of being a member of a different school and being forced by the Kalamukhas, there was also possibly a desire to discredit because of an element of fear or jealousy driven by the then rising popularity of the Kalamukhas. Nonetheless, for many scholars such as R. G. Bhandarkar believed the Kalamukhas to be a more extreme sect than the Kapalikas
36.
Kapalika
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The Kāpālika tradition was a non-Puranic form of Shaivism in India. The word Kāpālikas is derived from kapāla meaning skull, and Kāpālikas means the skull-men, the Kāpālikas traditionally carried a skull-topped trident and an empty skull as a begging bowl. According to David Lorenzen, there is a paucity of sources on Kapalikas. Various Indian texts claim that the Kāpālika drank liquor freely, both for ritual and as a matter of habit, scholars have interpreted these ascetics variously as Digambara Jains, Pashupatas and Kapalikas. The Kāpālikas were more of an order, states Lorenzen. The Kāpālika tradition gave rise to the Kulamārga, a category of tantric Shaivism which preserves some of the features of the Kāpālika tradition. Some of Kāpālika Shaiva practices are found in Vajrayana Buddhism, varāhamihira refer more than once to the Kāpālikas thus clearly establishing their existence in the sixth century. Indeed, from this time onwards references to Kāpālika ascetics become fairly commonplace in Sanskrit, kashmir Shaivism Kaula Mahasiddha Mattavilasa Prahasana Pashupata Shaivism Vajrayana Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend by Anna L. Dallapiccola. Kapalikas and Kalamukhas, Two Lost Saivite Sects by David N. Lorenzen, mattavilasaprahasana by Māni Mādhava Chākyār Ankalaparamecuvari, a goddess of Tamilnadu, her myths and cult by Eveline Meyer The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism
37.
Shaiva Siddhanta
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Saiva siddhānta, provides the normative rites, cosmology and theological categories of Agamic and Vedic Shaivam combined. Being a dualistic philosophy, the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become a soul through Lord Sivas Grace. This tradition was once practiced all over India, however the Muslim subjugation of North India restricted Shaiva Siddhanta to the south, where it merged with the Tamil Saiva movement expressed in the bhakti poetry of the Nayanars. It is in historical context that Shaiva Siddhanta is commonly considered a southern tradition. The Tamil compendium of songs known as Tirumurai, the Shaiva Agamas and Meykanda or Siddhanta Shastras. Shaiva Siddhanta encompasses tens of millions of adherents, predominantly in Tamil Nadu, the name of the school could be translated as the settled view of Shaiva doctrine or perfected Shaivism. Saiva Siddhantas original form is uncertain, some hold that it originated as a monistic doctrine, espoused by Tirumular. Such a notion of liberatory initiation appears to have borrowed from a Pashupata tradition. At the time of the development of the theology of the school, the question of monism or dualism. From the fifth to the eighth CE Buddhism and Jainism had spread in Tamil Nadu before a forceful Shaiva bhakti movement arose, between the seventh and ninth centuries, pilgrim saints such as Sambandar, Appar and Sundarar used songs of Shiva’s greatness to refute concepts of Buddhism and Jainism. Manikkavacakars heart-melting verses, called Tiruvacakam, are full of visionary experience, divine love, the Bhakti movement should not be exaggerated as an articulation of a class struggle, there is nevertheless a strong sense against rigis structures in the society. In the twelfth century Aghorasiva, the head of a monastery of the Amardaka order in Chidambaram, took up the task of amalgamating Sanskrit. Aghorasiva was successful in preserving the Sanskrit rituals of the ancient Āgamic tradition, to this day, Aghorasiva’s Siddhanta philosophy is followed by almost all of the hereditary temple priests, and his texts on the Āgamas have become the standard puja manuals. His Kriyakramadyotika is a vast work covering all aspects of Shaiva Siddhanta ritual, including the daily worship of Siva, occasional rituals, initiation rites, funerary rites. In Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta, the thirteenth century Meykandar, Arulnandi Sivacharya, Siva is an efficient but not material cause. They view the soul’s merging in Siva as salt in water, Saiva Siddhanta today is practiced widely among the Hindus of southern India and Sri Lanka, especially by members of the Vellalar community. It is also prevalent among Hindus of the Tamil diaspora around the world, prominent Siddhanta societies, temples and monasteries also exist in a number of other countries. The United States island of Kauai, a part of Hawaii, is home to the Saiva Siddhanta Church and this was founded by Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, which is currently under the auspices of Subramuniyaswamis designated successor, Satguru Bodhinatha Veylanswami
Shiva Nataraja, mid-10th Century AD, British Museum[50]
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